WEEK 10
            Staff – pertains to effective recruitment and selection,
MACRO PERSPECTIVE
What is Security?
The term safety is broadly used to refer to the protection of
individuals, organizations, and assets against external threats
and criminal activities that can be directed to such entities
hence rendering them inactive.  It is important to note that
security is highly focused on the deliberate actions that are
geared towards inflicting harm to an individual, organization, or
even assets.
What is Safety?
The term safety is used to refer to the condition of being
protected from the aspects that are likely to cause harm.  In
addition, the term safety can be used to refer to the state at
which one has the control of the risk causing aspects hence
protecting himself or herself against risk that is fully
unintended.
SAFETY AND SECURITY OF GUEST, EMPLOYEES AND
ASSETS
Importance of a safety and security system
1.  Guest:  Protection from crimes such as murder, abduction
and health hazards from outsiders, hotel staff, pests, food
poisoning, etc.
2.  Staff:  Providing staff lockers, insurances, health schemes,
provident funds, etc.   use of biometric readers like hand key reader or face
3.  Guest luggage:  Secure luggage store rooms and proper
equipment such as luggage trolley and bell hop trolley should
be provided.
4.  Hotel Equipment:  Lifts, Boilers, Kitchen equipment,
furniture fitting and building, etc. must be protected.   area of any alarm condition.
5.  Protection of raw materials, goods, provisions and
groceries, etc. For this safety and security system should cover
proper storage and pest control systems, apart from the
application of total management system.
6.  Protection of Funds:  The hotels should have a policy that
states where employees should place cash during a
transaction.
 
Types of Security:
1.  Physical aspect is divided into two parts: internal and
external.
a.            Internal Security – includes against theft, fire safety,
proper lighting, safeguarding assets, track
unwanted guests
b.            External Security – includes proper lighting outside
the building, proper fencing of the building, fencing of pool area
to avoid accidents in the night, manning of service gates to
restrict entry and fixing of closed circuit TV cameras
 
2.  Security aspects of persons
a.
identification of staff, key control, red tag system, training and
locker inspection
b.            Guests – it pertains to check scanty baggage guests,
guests suspected of taking away hotel
property should be charged according to hotel policy, guest
room security.   
 
3.  Security aspects of systems
The term system implies the operations of the hotel. Systems
procedures and policies if followed properly shall safeguard the
assets and increase life span of equipment as well as avoid
any breakdown maintenance.  
 
10 Important Safety and Security Measures Necessary in
Hotels:
1.  Key Card Locks:  Guest room locking systems these days
include punch and magnetic key cards which have locks with
flash memory and other functions.  The system can directly link
with PMS.
2.  Security Guards:  Trained security guards working 24-hours
every day to provide the best in safety and security for the
guests.
3.  Security Cameras:  Security cameras with digital
technology, intelligent access central system, software
interface with CCTV for matching undesirable visitors and
criminals, along with metal detectors, and spy cameras and
recognition system etc.
4.  Fire Alarms:  Smoke detectors and fire alarms in each guest
room and throughout the entire complex that is monitored 24
hours a day, 7 days per week that pinpoints the exact point of
the alarm allowing security staff to respond immediately to the
5.  Emergency Power:  Provision for emergency power in case
of power cut to provide uninterrupted guest service.
6.  Emergency Manual:  Hotel maintains an emergency
manual, detailing exits and help in the event of a variety of
emergencies.
7.  Employee Photo ID:  For added security, some hotels have
employees wearing a photo ID nametag allowing quick
identification.
8.  In-Room Safes:  In addition to the safety deposit boxes
offered by most hotels at the front desks.  Some hotels provide
in-room guest safes capable of holding a lap-top computer that
use the guest’s own credit card as the key.
9.  Guest elevators.
10.         Defibrillation Units:  A life saving device in case of
heart attacks, defibrillation units are starting to be deployed
among police and emergency personnel across the nation.
 
Bomb threat security:
The following are the precautions and measures that may be
taken in case of a bomb threat.
•      Security nets and body searches for guests not known to
the staff.
•      Banqueting suites and other non-public areas should be
security checked and locked after use.
•      Goods received and bags should be checked and kept
tidy.
•      If a bomb threat is received via telephone, the telephone
operator should note carefully what exactly is said, the time of
the call had been received, the accent of the caller and
background noise if any.  After the alert, the GM should stay
put in the lobby where he can be reached easily.
 
Safety issues
It is the management’s duty to ensure the “safety and security”
in several areas, such as:
•      The structure itself
•      Installations and fixtures (check electrical, plumbing, air-
conditioning and other installations)
FIRE in hotel:
Main causes of fire are:
1.  Smoking
2.  Defective wiring, faulty appliances and motor and worn out
insulation.  
3.  Laundry areas:  Care should be taken to see that none of
the electrical equipment is left on after use.
4.  Gas Leaks:  Precautions should be taken against this
especially in kitchen areas.
5.  Combustible waste:  Combustible material should never be
left near the boiler room.
6.  Kitchen:  All equipment such as chimneys, exhaust,
ventilators, grills, hoods, etc., which collect a lot of fume vapor
and catch fire easily should be cleaned regularly.
7.  Elevator shafts:  These require constant check and
inspection.   The guest room is locked and sealed.  After obtaining
 
Types of Fire and fire extinguishers:
Fire has been classified in 5 categories depending on how they
can be extinguished –
Class A Fire – It is the fire of wood, paper, linen and similar dry
materials.  They are extinguished by cooling and quenching
effect of water.  
•      Class B Fire – These include fires of oil, gasoline, grease
and other petroleum product.  These fires are extinguished by
blanketing the source of burning substances and eliminating
the supply of O Petroleum products is lighter than water and
will float on water and continue to burn and spread by means
of flowing water to other section of the building, hence water is
never used for this category.
•      Class C Fire – These are the fires of pressurized gases. 
Water is not to be used for this class of fire.
•      Class D Fire – These are fire of metals having low burning
temperature for example, Na, Mg, etc.  This class of fire does
not exist in the hotel.
•      Class E Fire – These are electrical fire.  The fire
extinguishing agent must not conduct electrical energy which
could spread the fire.  Water is good cooling agent but it also
conducts electricity, so it is not used to control or extinguish
this class of fire.  
 
Stationary firefighting system
Automatic sprinkler – It is generally mounted just below the
ceiling height with a temperature detector or smoke detector,
attached with each sprinkler.  
Fire Hose System – It is a semi portable system. In this system
the fire hose box is permanently
located but the flexible hose can be moved to various
distances throughout the building.  
HANDLING EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
Death of a guest in the hotel:
Once the information comes to the front desk it should directly
be reported to the front office manager. The front office
manager will then report it to the GM or resident manager. The
security manager should also be informed immediately. The
police also need to be informed and the hotel doctor is
summoned who will check and confirm the death.  Meanwhile,
the hotel will locate the residential address of the deceased
and will inform the relatives.  Once the police complete all
formalities and activities and give the permission, the dead
body is fully covered and then removed from the room on a
stretcher.  For this purpose, the service elevator and not the
guest elevator is used.  A death certificate is obtained from the
doctor.  A report should be prepared as to who informed of the
death, time, room number and date of death.  In case there is
any luggage of the deceased in the room a list should be
prepared and the luggage should be kept in the luggage room
and the person performing this activity should sign this report. 
clearance from the police the room is opened and thoroughly
disinfected and spring cleaned and only after permission of the
police and subsequent permission of the GM or resident
manager the room should be sold.
Handling accident cases:
•      Knowledge of first aid would come very handy in such
situations.  In general, the following points should be taken
care of.
Remove the person who has met with accident from the site of
accident (as early as possible) and take him to a more
comfortable area, use a stretcher in case the need be.
•      Call the doctor and if possible give him the details of
accident and gravity of the accident.
•      Prepare a full report of the whole accident giving details of
the date and time who reported the incident, room no., site of
the accident, etc.  Also make your comments as to the reason
of the accident and how could it have been prevented and what
action is to be taken to avoid the same in the future.
The accident book:
•      An accident book is usually maintained all organizations
and the receptionist should record all details of accident which
have occurred to employees whilst carrying out their daily
activities.
•      The book must be kept in a place easily accessible by any
injured person or a bona fide person.
 
Theft of hotel property by the guest:
Can be avoided by taking the following steps:
•      Installing automatic locks on the guest room doors.
•      Appointing a security officer who would walk and take
rounds at regular intervals.
•      Inform guests to use the safe vault of the hotel and not to
keep valuables in the guest room.
•      Avoid giving room numbers of resident guests to visitors or
over the telephone callers.
 
Theft by outside visitors can be avoided by:
•      Being aware of suspicious persons
•      Regular and irregular schedule of vigil and security
rounds.
•      Stagger lunch and rest periods of employees so as to
keep one person on duty on each floor at all times.
•      Instruct the telephone operator not to connect calls to the
guest room in case the request is made by the caller by room
number.  The receptionist should insist on knowing the name of
the guest who the caller wishes to speak to.
 
Situation of illness, epidemics / pandemics:
•      The receptionist may be called for assistance during
sickness of a guest.
•      Patient should be advised to consult the house physician
but in case the guest has his own physician the same should
be called.
•      During epidemic / pandemic, all precautionary measures
especially in food and beverage service area should be
followed.
Handling drunk guest:
•      The guest should be removed from the lobby as early as
possible but being careful not to irritate / offend him.
•      Preferably taken to the back office or to his room.
If he behaves unruly, the hotel security must be called.
Safe deposit facility in the hotel
for security of guests’ valuables: It is the responsibility of
management to develop and maintain proper safe deposit
procedures for its property.
•      If this facility is available for guests, notices regarding it
should be put up in various conspicuous / noticeable places in
the hotel and also should be mentioned to the guest.
•      Safe deposit boxes should be located in an area, in vicinity
of the front desk and which has limited access. 
•      Unauthorized guests or personnel should not be permitted
inside the area.
 
Best Practices for Data Security in Tourism and Hospitality
Sector
Best practices for companies in the tourism and hospitality
sector to protect data include:
•      Always encrypt payment card information.
•      Operate a continuous training program in cybersecurity to
maintain a well-trained workforce.
•      Always adhere to relevant regulations, such as PCI DSS.
•      Use cybersecurity measures such as firewalls, network
monitoring, anti-malware, and traffic filtering to protect against
common threats.
FOOD SAFETY IN THE TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY
INDUSTRY
One way to make sure the food that the hospitality industry
serves is safe, is to enforce HACCP.  HACCP stands for
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points and is a systematic
approach to locate, analyze, and regulate any hazards that
may occur with food.  It is a way to try and prevent mishaps
such as food poisoning and food contamination in the
hospitality industry.
HACCP is a systematic approach to identifying, evaluating, and
controlling food safety hazards.  A food safety hazard is
anything that could make food dangerous to eat and can be:
•        Microbiological:  bacteria, viruses, tapeworms, fungi from
contamination from hands, pests or poor storage conditions
allowing growth of microorganisms.
•        Chemical:  any non-food chemical, such as cleaning
products, pesticides, non-food-safe colorings and non-food
safe preservatives.
•        Physical:  objects such as broken glass, pieces of stone
or concrete, machinery parts, plastic sand, hair, finger nails,
jewelry, buttons.
 
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
Crisis management is the process by which an organization
deals with a disruptive and unexpected event that threatens to
harm the organization or its stakeholders.  The study of crisis
management originated with large-scale industrial and
environmental disasters in the 1980s.  It is considered to be the
most important process in public relations.  Three elements are
common to a crisis: Threat to the organization, The element of
surprise and A short decision time.
In contrast to risk management, which involves assessing
potential threats and finding the best ways to avoid those
threats, crisis management involves dealing with threats
before, during, and after they have occurred.  It is a discipline
within the broader context of management consisting of skills
and techniques required to identify, assess, understand, and
cope with a serious situation, especially from the moment it first
occurs to the point that recovery procedures start.
The aim of crisis management is to be well prepared for crisis,
ensure a rapid and adequate response to the crisis,
maintaining clear lines of reporting and communication in the
event of crisis and agreeing rules for crisis termination.  Crisis of management misconduct refers to some crises
Crisis-management methods of a business or an organization
are called crisis-management plan.  A British Standard
BS11200:2014 provides a useful foundation for understanding
terminology and framework relating to crisis, in this document
the focus is on the corporate exposure to risks in particular to
the black swan events that results in significant strategic
threats to organizations.  A crises mindset requires the ability
to think of the worst-case scenario while simultaneously
suggesting numerous solutions.  Trial and error is an accepted
discipline, as the first line of defense might not work.  It is
necessary to maintain a list of contingency plans and to be
always on alert. 
Types of Crisis
•        Natural disaster - Natural disaster related crises,
typically natural disasters, are such environmental phenomena
as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and hurricane,
floods, landslides, tsunamis, storms, and droughts that
threaten life, property, and the environment itself.
•        Technological crisis - Technological crises are caused
by human application of science and technology. 
Technological accidents inevitably occur when technology
becomes complex and coupled and something goes wrong in
the systems as a whole (technological breakdown).  Some
technological crises occur when human error causes
disruptions (human breakdowns).    below:
•        Confrontation crisis - Confrontation crisis occur when
discontented individuals and/or groups fight businesses,
government, and various interest groups to win acceptance of
their demands and expectations.  The common type of
confrontation crisis is boycotts, and other types are picketing,
sitins, ultimatums to those in authority, blockade or occupation
of buildings, and resisting or disobeying police.
•        Crisis of malevolence - An organization faces a crisis of
malevolence when opponents or miscreant individuals use
criminal means or other extreme tactics for the purpose of
expressing hostility or anger toward, or seeking gain from, a
company, country, or economic system, perhaps with the aim
of destabilizing or destroying it.  Sample crisis include product
tampering, kidnapping, malicious rumors, terrorism, cybercrime
and espionage.
•        Crisis of organizational misdeeds - Crises occur when
management takes actions it knows will harm or place
stakeholders at risk for harm without adequate precautions. 
Lerbinger specified three different types of crises of
organizational misdeeds: Crises of skewed management
values, Crises of deception and Crises of management
misconduct
 
Crises of skewed management values are caused when
managers favor short term economic gain and neglect broader
social values and stakeholders other than investors.  This state
of lopsided values is rooted in the classical business creed that
focuses on the interests of stockholders and tends to disregard
the interests of its other stakeholders such as customers,
employees, and the community.
Crises of deception occur when management conceals or
misinterprets information about itself and its products in its
dealing with consumers and others.
which are caused not only by skewed values and deception but
deliberate amorality and illegality.
 
•        Workplace violence - Crises occur when an employee
or former employee commits violence against other employees
on organizational grounds. 
•        Rumors - False information about an organization or its
products creates crises hurting the organization’s reputation. 
Sample is linking the organization to radical groups or stories
that their products are contaminated.
Models and Theories Associated with Crisis Management
Crisis management strategy (CMS) is corporate development
strategy designed primarily to prevent crisis for follow-up
company advancement.  Thus, CMS is synthesis of strategic
management.  It includes projection of the future based on
ongoing monitoring of business internal and external
environment, as well as selection and implementation of crisis
prevention strategy and operating management.
 
Crisis Management Model
There are 3 phases in any Crisis Management as shown
1.  The diagnosis of the impeding trouble or the danger signals.
2.  Choosing appropriate Turnaround Strategy.
3.  Implementation of the change process and its monitoring.
  goal expectations of the employees in the solution team are
handled well.
Crisis Management Planning deals with providing the best
response to a crisis.  
Contingency Planning is the first step to ensuring an Four Stages of Crisis Management
organization is appropriately prepared for a crisis.
•      Prodromal Stage – the critical situation is known only
Business Continuity Planning helps minimize the disruption inside the organization and is not yet visible to the general
and must be conducted in the earliest stages. public.
  •      Acute Stage – The crisis becomes visible outside the
organization.  The managers have no choice but to address the
Structural-Functional Systems Theory - The structural- crisis in public.
functional theory identifies information flow in organizations as
“networks” made up of members.  Information in organizations •      Chronic Stage – Usually the longest stage; it is where
flow in patterns called networks. litigation occurs, media exposes are aired, internal
investigations are launched, government oversight
  investigations commence and so on.
Diffusion of Innovation Theory •      Resolution Stage – When things begin to return to
normal.  Effective solutions for the situations are put into
Another theory that can be applied to the sharing of information
practice, and if they go as planned, the incident begins to fade
is Diffusion of Innovation Theory.  Developed by Everett
from the spotlight.
Rogers, the theory describes how innovation is disseminated
and communicated through certain channels over a period of  
time.  Diffusion of innovation in communication occurs when an
individual communicates a new idea to one or several others.   Crisis Communication:  Four Phases to Managing a Crisis
on Social Media
 
•      Readiness – Recognize and anticipate potential threats.
Crises Management Strategies – 12 Steps Approach
•      Response – Quick, swift, and accurate response to crisis.
1.  Create a Solutions Team – Get the most effective team Don’t delay.
members to manage the situation.
•      Reassurance – Apologies not enough.  Re-assure people
2.  Facts are our friends – Search for the truth with compassion that you are still worthy of their support and their trust.  Words
and empathy. BUT, do not let the emotions drive you away are great but you know what is better?  Action.
from the root cause of the problem.
Recovery – There is a short-term recovery which includes the
3.  Clear the table – if the Crisis is big enough, management immediate response and action following a crisis, and there is
needs to clear other responsibilities from the Solutions Team long term-recovery, which is how your brand plans to change
so they can get the root cause.
and adapt to be better based on this experience.  
4.  Resolve ASAP – It is critical that your organization’s
solution team gets information that will all the leadership team
to take the next step in resolving the issue.
5.  Be Poised and Positive – Show courage and to stay positive
while the crises events occur.
6.  Over-communicate – Communicate, communicate,
communicate.  Rinse and repeat.
7.  Ownership – Do not point finger.  Take absolute ownership
for what went wrong.
8.  Be Present – if the crisis is very big, postpone your
business trips and other activities.  It is most important for you
as a leader to be present when big challenges arise.
9.  Stay Focused – While the solutions team is identifying the
root causes of the crisis and recommending solutions,
everyone else needs to stay focused.  
10.         Evaluate Solutions Team – Evaluate how the team did
managing the crisis and implementing the crisis management
strategy.
11.         Real Crisis - Be careful to create an environment
where everything feels like a Crisis and everyone wants to be a
firefighter.
12.         Refresh Your Goals – The solution team needs to get
back into their routine after the resolution.  It is critical that the
 Illustrative Example 
Let us use the results of the Jobstreet.com survey which says
that Filipinos are the happiest employees in the Southeast
MATH Asia.

Determining the Sample Size

Before we discuss the different methods of data gathering, let
us first talk about  what sample size is and how to determine it.

Let us assume that the researcher used a 5% margin of error,

thus, the results are interpreted in the following manner.

In doing a research, if the population is too big to handle, a

substantial number of samples is acceptable. Determining
sample size is a very important issue because samples that
are too small may lead to inaccurate results while samples that
are too large may waste resources.
The Misuse of Slovin’s Formula
There are various approaches to determine the sample size.
This includes: (1) using a census for small populations, (2) The use of Slovin's Formula is quite popular in determining the
using the sample size of similar studies, (3) using published sample size of a survey research, especially in undergraduate
tables by well-established authors, say, the sample size table thesis in many areas because of its simplicity. The computation
using Cochran’s formulas which is available online, (4) using is solely based on the size of the population and the margin of
sample size calculator, and (5) applying other formulas. There error. The Slovin's Formula is given as follows:
is no recommended standard sample size since it can vary in
different types of research and settings. However, all else
being equal, a large sample size leads to a more increased
precision of the various attributes of the population. Thus, in where “n” is the sample size, “N” is the
research, the bigger the sample size, the more accurate you population size, and “e” is the margin of error which is decided
can be that the results truly reflect that of the entire population. by the researcher. 
Let us explore the two relevant terms which are usually taken
for granted by researchers. However, according to Punzalan and Tejada (2012), Slovin’s
formula is applicable only when estimating a population
1. Confidence Interval or the Margin of Error (e) proportion and when the confidence level is 95%. Moreover, it
is optimal only when the population proportion is suspected to
It is the plus/minus number usually reported in the newspaper be close to 50%. Hence, it only advisable to use Slovin’s
or television when reporting the result of an opinion poll. It tells formula if all the abovementioned assumptions are met,
us how much ± percentage points the results deviate from the otherwise it is not.
real population value.
2. Confidence Level (in %)
It tells the researcher how sure s/he can be that the responses
of the sample represent that of the population. This answers
the question of how confident we are in the given margin of
error.
For example: A 95% confidence interval with a 3 percent
margin of error (e = ± 3%) means that our statistic will be within
± 3 percentage points of the real population most (95%) of the
time. 
The methods of selecting samples from a given population photographs, and any other suitable and available means. In
addition, for both type of research, the data collection methods
1. Simple Random Sampling must also observe the ethical principles of research.

It is the most basic sampling technique where samples are
selected from a population entirely by chance, and each
member of the population has an equal or known chance of
being included in the sample.
Example: Lottery sampling, or the use of random numbers.
Other Supplementary Readings: Cariño et al. (2018).
Mathematics in the Modern World. Problem Solving and
Reasoning (pp. 71-75).

2. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a sampling method that
subdivides the population into smaller groups known as strata.
The strata are formed based on members' common attributes
or characteristics. A sample from each stratum proportional to
its size when compared to the population is pooled to form a
random sample. 
Example: A government official questions the veracity of a
survey: A government official on Tuesday (April 26) said the
public should not merely rely on presidential surveys despite
the latest results showing one candidate leading the
presidential race at 33 percent. The Presidential spokesperson
said on his Facebook page that “based on the estimates, the
weights did not seem to tally with the actual percentage of
voters.” (continue answering on Activity C)
Data Gathering Techniques

1. Qualitative Research
This technique of data gathering seeks to give an in-depth
picture of why and how people behave, or why a phenomenon
occurred in words. By collecting data from interviews,
observations, focus group discussions, open-ended questions,
etc., researchers draw conclusions and make inferences.

2. Quantitative Research
This technique seeks to describe a phenomenon or behavior
by collecting numerical data or data in words, which are
translated into numbers in order to describe, generalize, and
infer.
For easier reference:
Qualitative = Quality (Attributes/Characteristics/In words)
Quantitative = Quantity (Numbers/Ranks/Words translated
to numerical values)
The type of research you choose will depend on your research
questions, your underlying philosophy of research, and your
preferences and skills.

Regardless of the types of data involved, gathering of data in a

qualitative study takes a great deal of time. The researcher
needs to comprehensively record any possible useful data
truthfully and methodically using notes, graphs, audiotapes,
 KEY CONCEPTS THAT CAN BE HELPFUL 
Risk 

 The probability that a disaster will occur 

NSTP Hazard 

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and  The specific nature if a threat
management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with
all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular  Vulnerability
preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the
impact of disasters. 
The first people to respond to a disaster are those living in the
local community. They are the first to start rescue and relief  The inability to withstand, protect oneself or recover
operations. The Red Cross and Red Crescent National rapidly from a potentially damaging event 
Societies therefore focus on community-based disaster
preparedness, which assists communities to reduce their
vulnerability to disasters and strengthen their capacities to Prevention 
resist them. 
When the capacity of a community or country to respond and  Measures designed to avert a potential hazard
recover from a disaster is overwhelmed, and upon request
from the National Society, the International Federation uses its Preparedness 
regional and international networks, assets and resources to
bring assistance to the communities and National Red Cross
Red Crescent Society which is assisting them. At an  Measures that ensure an effective disaster response 
international level the International Federation advocates with
Governments, international organizations and humanitarian Mitigation 
donors for better practice and accountability in disaster
management and greater respect of the dignity of the
vulnerable people.  Measure that reduce the harmful effects of a disaster 

FIVE REASONS OF DISASTER 

Response 
1. Rapid Population Growth; 
2. Concentration of population in high-risk areas like  Actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to assist
floodplains, landslide prone slopes and seismic zones;  victims and to rehabilitate society
3. Capital development; destruction of marshes by real estate
developers;  SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 
4. Man-made destruction for example deforestation, has There are contributing factors that make disaster happens and
lessened ecosystem resilience to disaster; and  cause severe damages to lives and properties. These are as
follows: 
5. Growing poverty means live in increasing substandard
housing (i.e. not-typhoon resistant)
 Poverty and Marginalization 
o Malnutrition 
o Poor health 
o Inadequate basic services; water, sanitation,
drainage, light, education
o Unemployment, low wages 
 Resource Depletion 

TYPES OF DISASTERCATEGORIES OF SEVERITY 

o Forest denudation 
Accident – Individual 
o Genetic erosion 
Disaster – Widespread  o Agrochemicals 
Emergency – Limited  o Soil erosion 
Catastrophe – Collapse o Marine pollution 
o Air and water pollution 
Due to these factors, it can lead to the following:   Structural mitigation measure must be built
 Non-structural mitigation measures required must be
 Man-made Disaster 
instituted
o Flooding 
o Civil war  d. Preparedness system must be in readiness
 Natural Forces 
o Typhoons (more than 20 per year)   All parties should be in state of readiness 
o Drought (rainfall dependent on monsoonal winds)  A focal point for preparedness must exist 
o Torrential rains with flooding   A management system foe emergency response must
o Earthquakes  be in place 
o Volcanic terrain  Plans must exist and planning occurs regularly 
 Training and practice must be routine 
 Effective warning system must be on alert 

ASSESSMENT/ REPORTING IN PREPAREDNESS   Authorities and the public must be fully informed

As a response to the occurrence of natural and man-made 2. Effective Warning Message 

disaster, there is a need to learn how to assess and report the
disaster situation. The need for preparedness in damage
assessment and reporting involves;   Clear, simple language 
1. Knowledge of pre-disaster situation   Consistent content 
 Convincing 
2. Capability to assess; 
 Community (or site) specific – includes clearly stated
a. Medical/nutritional situation 
precautions and actions 
b. Agricultural situation   Information on technical consequences 
c. Infrastructure situation   Repetitive 
d. Structural situation 
3. Land use planning (Risk Zone) 
e. Relief operation capabilities 
While there are maps that show paths of typhoons through the
3. Established lines of communication  year, earthquake faults and areas hit by tidal waves, there is a
dearth of information regarding risk areas in the barangay and
4. Established data collection points  even in the municipal level. Communities need: 
5. Established format of reporting 
6. Established authority for releasing reports   Surveys of mountainsides, riverbank, coastal areas
for their suitability as housing sites, farming, mining
7. Established confirmation/verification procedures
and other productive activities 
 Rational plans for urban centers, showing industrial
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS  site 
1. Principles   Identification of areas for reforestation, forest

a. The risk must be known  preservation and other nature conservation

measures 
 Potential hazards must be identified   Building codes regulating height, type of materials and
 Incidence of hazard occurrence must be calculated  other specifications for structures particularly in risk
 Secondary risk must be identified  areas.

b. Vulnerability must be known 

 Who and what is at risk must be determined 

 Likely damage and disruption must be assessed 
 Human needs must be anticipated 

c. Mitigation measures must be in place 

P.E

CHAPTER 10: GYMNASTICS

Introduction to Gymnastics 
Brief History of Gymnastics 
1. Johann Basedow (1723-1790) 
Equipment’s for Gymnastics 
Costumes for Gymnastics
 He was the first to conduct Gymnastics as part of
INTRODUCTION TO GYMNASTICS 
Education in School Curriculum. 
 He was the first Modern writer and teacher of organized
 Gymnastics is a sport of future, which nonetheless, enjoy
gymnastics for whom records survive. 
a long heritage and preserve an ancient tradition of
 He founded the philanthropinum, a German gymnasium in
demonstrating exactly what a person is capable of. 
Dessau, Saxony in 1774. Basedow advocated the use of
 Gymnastics involves the performance of exercises, on or
realistic teaching methods and the introduction of nature
with an apparatus, or a partner, requiring physical
study, physical education. And manual training into the
strength, flexibility, coordination, power, agility, grace,
schools.
balance and control. 
 Gymnastics is one of the oldest Olympic sports and one of
the World’s most popular sports. 
 It all started on 23rd July 1881, when the foundation of
what would become the Federation of International
Gymnastics (FIG). 
 The primary objectives were to utilize gymnastics’ in the
promotion and pursuit of peace, to ensure that all
experiences and ideas within the sport could be freely
exchanged in order to further its development.  2. Johann Guts Muths (1759-1839)

 To promote the experiences of professional gymnasts to

 He knows as “THE GREAT GRANDFATHER OF
the wider sports world with the aim of serving, through its
GYMNASTICS” 
ethical standards, as a moral barometer for society. 
 It helps develop strong, healthy and shapely bodies. It
 Reduced body fat improved weight control 
 Improved glucose tolerance and reduced insulin
helps an individual gain confidence, determination and
resistance
discipline. Gymnastics activities also improve poise,
 He wrote many influential books including Carefully
posture and coordination of movement of an individual.
Chosen Gymnastics Exercises for girls in 1818. 
BRIEF HISTORY OF GYMNASTICS   He wrote GYMNASTICS FOR YOUTH. The first book on
GYMNASTICS as a sport activity has been around for over modern Gymnastics in 1793. 
2000 years. It is one of the oldest Olympics sports, and has  He describes the use of sloping beans, climbing pole,
always been part of the ancient, as well as the modern
Olympics games. The term “gymnastics” is derived from the ladders and ropes along with balancing and the swimming
Greek word “gymnos”, meaning naked.  beam.
Gymnasium, originally an area for physical training, has been
a school for training both the mind and the body.
The following were considered great contributors in the
development of gymnastics.
 appointed the First Director of Denmark’s influential
military gymnastic institute.

3. Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852) 

 He was known as “THE FATHER OF GYMNASTICS” 

 He was a German educator known to have started
gymnastics clubs and gymnastics movements for
competitive purpose. 
 He designed exercises to be performed on stationary
pieces of equipment and even invented much of the
apparatus used in his training.

6. Adolfo Spiess (1810-1858) 

 He was known as “THE FATHER OF SCHOOL

GYMNASTICS” 
 He taught gymnastics to his class in Switzerland and
added marching and introduced the free hand exercise
with the music.
4. Peter “Per” Henrik Ling (1776-1839) 
Other Contributors 
 He was known as the “FATHER OF SWEDISH
GYMNASTICS”  1. Gerhard Vieth 
 He invented the stall bars and vaulting box. 2. Johann Pestalow 
3. Dr. Dudley Sargent 
4. Director Candido Bartolome 
5. Francisca Reyes Aquino

EQUIPMENTS FOR GYMNASTICS

5. Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) 

 He formed a gymnastics club, opened a private

gymnasium and through his success encourages the
government to incorporate training into its curriculum. 
 His gymnastics program in Denmark emphasized mass
calisthenics, mass vaulting and drills using dumbbells and 1. Steel Rings – 2 parallel ring 50 cm apart, suspended from a
cable and straps and held, one in each hand, for a series of
balls. 
exercise in men’s artistic gymnastics particularly requiring
 Founded the Danish System of Gymnastics, which was stillness of the body: also called “rings"
considered useful for military training, and in 1804 he was

2. Uneven bars - An apparatus in women’s artistic gymnastics
with a top bar 2.4m above the floor and a lower bar 1.6m high,
used for a continuous series of grip changes releases, new
grasp and other complex move.
3. High bar - A bar standing 2.75 meters high, used in men’s
artistic gymnastics; also called the “horizontal bar”.
4. Parallel bars (artistic) – An apparatus consisting of 2
wooden rails on uprights, adjustable in height and used for
swinging, vaulting and balancing exercises in men’s artistic
gymnastics.
5. Pommel horse – A solid apparatus 115 cm high with 2
handles, or pommels, on top that men in artistic gymnastics
use for series of manoeuvres defined by coplex hand
placements and body positions while holding themselves
above the apparatus.
6. Safety Plaform – A large thick mat that sits on the floor at
each end of the trampoline to cushion the impacht if anyone
falls from the apparatus.
7. Vault – A solid apparatus similar to the pommel horse, but
lacking handles, and used in men’s and women’s artistic
gymnastics for a variety of handsprings from a running
approach.
8. Beat board – the springboard used in the vault.
9. Ball – it is made of either rubber or synthetic material
provided it possesses the same elasticity as rubber. It is from
18 to 20 cm in diameter and must have a minimum weight of
400g. The ball can be any color and should rest in the
gymnast’s hand, not the wrist.
10. Hoop - is an apparatus in rhythmic gymnastics and may be
made of plastic or wood, provided that it retains its shape
during the routine. The interior diameter is from 51 to 30 cm,
and the hoop must weigh a minimum of 300g. 
11. Ribbon – it is made of satin or another similar material
cloth of any color and may be multicolored as well as have
design on it. The ribbon itself must be at least 35g (1 oz.), 4-6
cm (1.6-2.4”) in width and for senior category a minimum
length of 6cm (20’) (5m (16.25’) for juniors).
1. A leotard is a unisex skin-tight one-piece garment that
covers the body from the crotch to the shoulder. The garment
was first made famous by the French acrobatic performer Jules
Léotard (1838– 1870). Leotards are worn by acrobats,
gymnasts, dancers, figure skaters, athletes, actors, wrestlers,
and circus performers both as practice garments and
performance costumes. They are often worn together with
ballet skirts on top and tights or sometimes bike shorts as
underwear. There are sleeveless, short sleeved and long
sleeved leotards. A variation is the unitard, which also covers
the legs. As a casual garment, a leotard can be worn with a
belt, it can also more commonly worn under overalls or short
skirts.

12. Clubs - is built along an internal rod, providing a base on

which a handle made of polyolefin plastic is wrapped, providing
an airspace between it and the internal rod. This airspace
provides flex, cushioning impact, making the club softer on the
hands. Foam ends and knobs further cushion the club.

2. Acro shoes – They are typically laceless, slip- on shoes,

with tight-fitting leather uppers that are designed to prevent the
dancer’s feet from shifting inside the shoes. Because of their
thin, pliable leather uppers and split soles, arco shoes have
excellent flexibility, thus enabling dancers to attain both good
dance form and acrobat control. The sole is made of soft,
composite rubber so as to provide both high traction and
cushioning, and it provides excellent protection from skin
abrasion as it covers the entire bottom of the foot.
13. Rope - may be made of hemp or a synthetic material which
retains the qualities of lightness and suppleness. Its length is in
proportion to the size of the gymnast. The rope should, when
held down by the feet, reach both of the gymnasts' armpits.
One or two knots at each end are for keeping hold of the rope
while doing the routine. At the ends (to the exclusion of all
other parts of the rope) an antislip material, either colored or
neutral may cover a maximum of 10 cm (3.94 in). The rope
must be colored, either all or partially. It may be either of a
uniform diameter or be progressively thicker in the center
provided that this thickening is of the same material as the
rope.
COSTUMES FOR GYMNASTICS
3. Foot thongs – which are slip- on. Partial foot covers that
protect only the ball of the foot are sometimes preferred over
acro shoes for aesthetic reasons. Flesh colored foot thongs
endow the wearer with the appearance of having bare feet,
while retaining some degree of the traction, cushioning, and
abrasion protection provided by acro shoes.
 •      Expression: facial and vocal expression almost always
ETHICS
accompanies an emotional state to communicate reaction and
intention of actions.  Feelings: the subjective experience of
Emotion emotional state once it has occurred.
   
Emotions are biological states     associated     with     the      Differentiation
nervous system brought on by neurophysiological changes
variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar
responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is constructs within the field of affective neuroscience:
currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotions are
often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, •       Feeling; not all feelings include emotion, such as
disposition, creativity and motivation. the feeling of knowing. In the context of emotion, feelings are
best understood as a subjective representation of emotions,
private to the individual experiencing them.
•       Moods are diffuse affective states that generally last for
much longer durations than emotions, are also usually less
intense than emotions and often appear to lack a contextual
stimulus.
•       Affect is used to describe the underlying affective
experience of an emotion or a mood.
 
 Motivation 
 
Motivation is the experience of desire or aversion (you want
Etymology and history something, or want to avoid or escape something). As such,
motivation has both an objective aspect (a goal or thing you
aspire to) and an internal or subjective aspect (it is you that
The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted wants the thing or wants it to go away).
from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The
term emotion was introduced into academic discussion as a
catch-all term to passions, sentiments and affections. The word
emotion was coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and
it is around the 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first
emerged for English Language. "No one felt emotions before
about 1830. Instead they felt other things - "passions",
"accidents of the soul", "moral sentiments" - and explained
them very differently from how we understand emotions
today."  Some crosscultural studies indicate that the
categorization of "emotion" and classification of basic emotions
such as "anger" and "sadness" are not universal and that the Psychological theories
boundaries and domains of these concepts are categorized
differently by all cultures. However, others argue that there are
some universal bases of emotions In psychiatry and
psychology, an inability to express or perceive emotion is Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts
sometimes referred to as alexithymia. influence behaviors, drive performance affects thoughts, and
the cycle begins again. 
 
 
Components
Content theories

According to Scherer's Component Process Model (CPM) of

emotion, there are five crucial elements of emotion. From the
component process perspective, emotional experience
requires that all of these processes become coordinated and
synchronized for a short period of time, driven by appraisal
processes. 
Theories articulating the content of motivation: what kinds of
thing people find motivating are among the earliest theories in
the history of motivation research.
 

•      Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of events and

objects.
•      Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of
emotional experience.
•      Action tendencies: a motivational component for the
preparation and direction of motor responses.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow
(1954)  developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five
hierarchic classes.  people, Reiss proposed that 16 basic desires guide nearly all
According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied
needs.  The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most
complex  (highest-latest) are as follows:
•       Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)
•       Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
•       Social/Love/Friendship
•       Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
•       Self-actualization/achievement of full potential
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain
factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction (motivators),
while others (hygiene factors), if absent, lead to dissatisfaction
but are not related to satisfaction. The name “hygiene factors”
is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not improve
health, but absence can cause health deterioration.  
Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer, building on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, posited that
needs identified by Maslow exist in three groups of core needs
— existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG
theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our
basic material existence requirements.
Self-determination theory
Since the early 1970s Deci and Ryan have developed and
tested their self-determination theory (SDT). SDT identifies
three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and
growth: competence, relatedness, and autonomy.  
 
Within Self-Determination Theory, Deci & Ryan distinguish
between four different types of extrinsic motivation, differing in
their levels of perceived autonomy:
•       External regulation: This is the least autonomous of the
four and is determined by external punishment or reward.
•       Introjected regulation: This form of external motivation
arises when the individual has somewhat internalized
regulations but does not fully accept them as their own. They
may comply for self-esteem reasons or social acceptability -
essentially internal reasons but externally driven.
•       Identified regulation: This more autonomously driven -
when the individual consciously perceives the actions as
valuable.
•       Integrated regulation: This is the most autonomous form
of motivation and the action has been internalized and is
aligned with the individual's values, beliefs and is perceived as
necessary for their wellbeing. 
"16 basic desires" theory
Starting from studies involving more than 6,000
human behavior.  In this model the basic desires that motivate
our actions and define our personalities are:
•       Acceptance, the need for approval
•       Curiosity, the need to learn
•       Eating, the need for food
•       Family, the need to raise children
•       Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of
one's clan/ethnic group
•       Idealism, the need for social justice
•       Independence, the need for individuality
•       Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable
environments
•       Physical activity, the need for exercise
•       Power, the need for influence of will
•       Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
•       Saving, the need to collect
•       Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
•       Social status, the need for social standing/importance
•       Tranquility, the need to be safe
•       Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete
Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
•      Intrinsic motivation - Intrinsic motivation has been
studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic motivation is a behavior
that is driven by satisfying internal rewards.  
•      Extrinsic motivation - Extrinsic motivation comes from
influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the
harder question to answer is where do people get the
motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence.
Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money
or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of
punishment following misbehavior.  
Flow theory
Flow theory refers to desirable subjective state a person
experiences when completely involved in some challenging
activity that matches the individual skill.   Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi described Flow theory as "A state in which
people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to
matter; the experience is so enjoyable that people will continue
to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it."
 
Behaviorist theories
While many theories on motivation have a mentalistic
perspective, behaviorists focus only on observable behavior
and theories founded on experimental evidence. In the view of
behaviorism, motivation is understood as a question about
what factors cause, prevent, or withhold various behaviors,
while the question of, for instance, conscious motives would be
ignored.  views on the world around them, and their own personal
Classical and operant conditioning
In classical (or respondent) conditioning, behavior is
understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or
physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born
reflexes, or learned through the pairing of an unconditioned
stimulus with a different stimulus, which then becomes a
conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical
conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an
individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain
situations.  In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of
behavior is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain
behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a
desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behavior will
increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the
stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one).  goals are:
 
Incentive motivation
Incentive theory is a specific theory of motivation, derived
partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which
concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most
common incentive would be a compensation.  Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964.
 
Socio-cultural theory
Sociocultural theory (also known as Social Motivation)
emphasizes impact of activity and actions mediated through
social interaction, and within social contexts.  
 
Push and pull 
Push motivations are those where people push themselves
towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire
for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness,
adventure, and social interaction.   Pull motivation is the
opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much
stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a
result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by
those with the propensity to travel. Pull motivation can be seen
as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the
goal is pulling us toward it. 
Drives
A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that
activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive.  and how these beliefs affect their emotions and motivations.
These drives are thought to originate within the individual and
may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior.
The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human
beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the
blood to the brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. 
The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual desire is
called Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).  
Cognitive dissonance theory
Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs
when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort
resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their
feelings and actions.  
Cognitive theories
Cognitive theories define motivation in terms of how people
think about situations. Cognitive theories of motivation include
goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.
 
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the idea that individuals have a
drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state
is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three
features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. One common goal
setting methodology incorporates the SMART criteria, in which
specific, measurable, attainable/achievable, relevant, and time-
bound. 
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory explains the behavior process in which an
individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how
this decision is made in relation to their goal.
Procrastination
Procrastination is the act to voluntarily postpone or delay an
intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be
worse off because of that delay.  While procrastination was
once seen as a harmless habit, recent studies indicate
otherwise. 
Models of behavior change
John W. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues developed
the theory of "Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model
change in behavior as a consequence of the interaction of
motivation and associated tendencies toward specific actions.   
Attribution theory
Attribution theory describes individual's motivation to formulate
explanatory attributions ("reasons") for events they experience,
  
  something or act a certain way because of factors external to
him or her (like money or good grades).
Approach versus avoidance
 
Approach motivation (i.e., incentive salience) can be defined as
when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment Stress management
is rewarded or results in a positive or desirable outcome. In
contrast, avoidance motivation (i.e., aversive salience) can be
defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a
situation/environment is punished or results in a negative or
undesirable outcome.  
 
Priming

Priming is a phenomenon, often used as an experimental

technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to  
later presentation of a similar stimulus.  “Priming refers to an
increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques
exposure to related visual or audio messages.  and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's level
of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of
  and for the motive of improving everyday functioning. In this
Mental Fatigue context, the term 'stress' refers only to a stress with significant
negative consequences, or distress in the terminology
Mental fatigue is being tired, exhausted, or not functioning advocated by Hans
effectively. Not wanting to proceed further with the current
Selye, rather than what he calls eustress, a stress whose
mental course of action, this in contrast with physical fatigue,
consequences are helpful or otherwise.
because in most cases no physical activity is done. 
 
 
Models
Learned Industriousness

Learned industriousness theory is the theory about an acquired

ability to sustain the physical or mental effort. It can also be
described as being persistent despite the building up subjective
fatigue.  This is the ability to push through to the end for a
greater or bigger reward. 
 
Job characteristics model
The Job characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by
Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve
employee motivation. They suggest that any job can be
described in terms of five key job characteristics:
1.    Skill variety – the degree to which the job requires the use
of different skills and talents
2.    Task identity – the degree to which the job has contributed
to a clearly identifiable larger project
Transactional model
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested in 1981 that
stress can be thought of as resulting from an "imbalance
between demands and resources" or as occurring when
"pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope". Stress
management was developed and premised on the idea that
stress is not a direct response to a stressor but rather one's
resources and ability to cope mediate the stress response and
are amenable to change, thus allowing stress to be
controllable.
Among the many stressors mentioned by employees, these are
the most common:
•       Conflicts in company

3.    Task significance – the degree to which the job affects the •       The way employees are treated by their
lives or work of other people bosses/supervisors or company

4.    Autonomy – the degree to which the worker has •       Lack of job security
independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job
•       Company policies
5.    Task feedback – the degree to which the worker is
•       Co-workers who don't do their fair share
provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information
about the effectiveness of his or her job performance •       Unclear expectations
  •       Poor communication
Generally, motivation is conceptualized as •       Not enough control over assignments
either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation occurs when
people are internally motivated to do something because it •       Inadequate pay or benefits
either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they
feel that what they are learning is significant. Extrinsic •       Urgent deadlines
motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do
•       Too much work
•       Long hours Accept the things you can’t change
•       Uncomfortable physical conditions Tip 3: Get moving
•       Relationship conflicts Tip 4: Connect to others
•       Co-workers making careless mistakes Tip 5: Make time for fun and relaxation
•       Dealing with rude customers Tip 6: Manage your time better
•       Lack of co-operation Tip 7: Maintain balance with a healthy lifestyle
•       How the company treats co-workers
Tip 8: Learn to relieve stress in the moment
Effectiveness

Stress management has physiological and immune benefits.

Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-
drug interventions:
•       treatment of anger or hostility,
•       autogenic training
•       talking therapy (around relationship or existential issues)
•       biofeedback
•       cognitive therapy for anxiety or clinical depression
 
Types of stress

Acute stress - Acute stress is the most common form of stress

among humans worldwide.  Acute stress deals with the
pressures of the near future or dealing with the very recent
past. This type of stress is often misinterpreted for being a
negative connotation. 

 
Chronic stress - Chronic stress is unlike acute stress. It has a
wearing effect on people that can become a very serious
health risk if it continues over a long period of time. Chronic
stress can lead to memory loss , damage spatial recognition
and produce a decreased drive of eating. 
 
Why is it so important to manage stress?
Effective stress management helps you break the hold stress
has on your life, so you can be happier, healthier, and more
productive. The ultimate goal is a balanced life, with time for
work, relationships, relaxation, and fun—and the resilience to
hold up under pressure and meet challenges head on. But
stress management is not one-size-fits-all. That’s why it’s
important to experiment and find out what works best for you.
The following stress management tips can help you do that.
Tip 1: Identify the sources of stress in your life
Tip 2: Practice the 4 A’s of stress management – Avoid, alter,
adapt or accept.
Avoid people who stress you out. 
Alter the situation
Adapt to the stressor
HISTORY

Excerpt from “Notes on the “Cry” of August 1896” 

By: Jim Richardson
Pasya, Pagpupunit, at Unang Labanan
        The debate has long been clouded by a lack of consensus
on precisely what is meant by the “Cry.” The term has been
applied to three related but distinct events —

 the “pasya” – the decision to revolt; 

 the “pagpupunit” – the tearing of cedulas; and
 the “unang labanan” – the first encounter with Spanish
forces.   “Cry” had become popularly known as the “Cry of Balintawak”
        To state the obvious, these three events did not all
happen at the same time and place. When and where the “Cry”
should be commemorated thus depends on how it is defined.
        Many of the older sources on the “Cry” do not precisely
say which event they mean, and often we can only guess. This
problem is so embedded in the literature that it is impossible to
eradicate. Still, wherever practicable, these notes will avoid the
fluid, contested “Cry” word and seek instead to specify which
particular event is being discussed – the pasya, the pagpupunit
or the unang labanan.
       Among the historians who have studied the “Cry” in
greatest detail, there is a sharp divergence of opinion as to
how the term should be defined.   sources confirm August 26 to be correct.
         Unveiled before a huge cheering crowd in September
1911, the statue was erected in Balintawak, the largest and
best-known barrio in the general area where the Katipuneros
had congregated in August 1896. The name Balintawak was
often used as shorthand to denote that general area and the
even before the monument was erected. 
         Nobody professed in 1911, though, that the statue
marked the “exact spot” where the first battle had been fought.
It was simply in Balintawak, on a plot donated by a local
landowner, Tomas Arguelles.
         The documentary evidence on the unang labanan is
reasonably clear. The first battle, an encounter with a
detachment of the Guardia Civil, was fought on the date
inscribed on the Balintawak monument - August 26 – at a
place about five kilometers north-east of Balintawak, between
the settlements of Banlat and Pasong Tamo. A few sources
give the date as August 25 but, as both Borromeo-Buehler and
Encarnacion have shown, the most solid, contemporary
  

 Teodoro A. Agoncillo equates the term with the          The Balintawak monument continued to be the focus of
the yearly “Cry” celebrations, held on August 26, for decades.
pagpupunit, which he says happened immediately after In the 1960s, however, the official definition of the “Cry”
the pasya.  changed. Officially, the “Cry” ceased to mean the unang
labanan and was defined instead as “that part of the
 Isagani R. Medina also takes the “Cry” to mean the Revolution when the Katipunan decided to launch a revolution
against Spain. This event culminated with the tearing of the
pagpupunit, but says it happened before the decision to cedula”. This definition, which is more or less in line with
revolt had been taken.   Agoncillo’s, thus embraces both the pasya and pagpupunit, but
excludes the unang labanan.    
 Soledad Borromeo-Buehler takes the view – the         At first sight, the official definition looks clear and
traditional view that KKK veterans took, she says - that the straightforward. A number of sources, however, indicate that
cedulas were torn on more than one occasion, in different
“Cry” should mean the unang labanan.  places, presumably because Katipuneros were arriving to join
        It was the unang labanan, as Borromeo-Buehler points their embryonic army over the course of a number of days, and
out, that was commemorated by the first monument of the many wanted to proclaim their rebellion, their commitment to
events of August 1896. The main inscription on the plinth read fight Spanish rule, in the same way. It is even possible (as
“Homenaje del Pueblo Filipino a los Heroes de ’96 /Ala-alang Medina believes) that the main pagpupunit preceded the
sa Bayang Pilipino sa mga Bayani ng ‘96”, and a smaller pasya. But then it would have been premature, because the
plaque bore the date “26 Agosto 1896”.  revolt might have been deferred. It seems more likely, as the
official definition of the “Cry” assumes, that the largest, best
remembered act of defiant cedula-tearing happened soon after
the pasya had been taken, and in the same vicinity.

Excerpt from “In Focus: Balintawak: The Cry for a

Nationwide Revolution”
By: Milagros C. Guerrero, Emmanuel N. Encarnacion, and
Ramon N. Villegas
Conflicting Accounts
        Pio Valenzuela had several versions of the Cry. Only
after they are compared and reconciled with the other
accounts will it be possible to determine what really happened.
Was there a meeting at Pugad Lawin on 23 August 1896, after
the meeting at Apolonio Samson’s residence in Hong Kong?
Where were the cedulas torn, at Kangkong or Pugad Lawin?
         In September 1896, Valenzuela stated before the Olive
Court, which was charged with investigating persons involved
in the rebellion, only that Katipunan meetings took place from
Sunday to Tuesday or 23 to 25 August at Balintawak.
         In 1911, Valenzuela averred that the Katipunan began
meeting on 22 August while the Cry took place on 23 August at
Apolonio Samson’s house in Balintawak.
         From 1928 to 1940, Valenzuela maintained that the Cry
happened on 24 August at the house of Tandang Sora
(Melchora Aquino) in Pugad Lawin, which he now situated
near Pasong Tamo Road. A photograph of Bonifacio’s widow
Gregoria de Jesus and Katipunan members Valenzuela,
Briccio Brigido Pantas, Alfonso and Cipriano Pacheco,
published in La Opinion in 1928 and 1930, was captioned both
times as having been taken at the site of the Cry on 24 August
1896 at the house of Tandang Sora at Pasong Tamo Road.
         In 1935 Valenzuela, Pantas and Pacheco proclaimed
“hindi sa Balintawak nangyari ang unang sigaw ng
paghihimagsik na kinalalagian ngayon ng bantayog, kung di sa
pook na kilala sa tawag na Pugad Lawin.” (The first Cry of the
revolution did not happen in Balintawak where the monument
is, but in a place called Pugad Lawin.)
         In 1940, a research team of the Philippines Historical
Committee (a forerunner of the National Historical Institute or
NHI), which included Pio Valenzuela, identified the precise
spot of Pugad Lawin as part of Sitio Gulod, Banlat, Kalookan
City. In 1964, the NHI’s Minutes of the Katipunan referred to
the place of the Cry as Tandang Sora’s and not as Juan
Ramos’ house, and the date as 23 August.
         The NHI was obviously influenced by Valenzuela’s
memoirs. In 1963, upon the NHI endorsement, President
Diosdado Macapagal ordered that the Cry be celebrated on 23
August and that Pugad Lawin be recognized as its site.
         Pio Valenzuela backtracked on yet another point. In
1896, he testified that when the Katipunan consulted Jose
Rizal on whether the time had come to revolt, Rizal was
vehemently against the revolution. Later, in Agoncillo’s Revolt
of the masses, he then retracted and claimed that Rizal was
actually for the uprising, if certain prerequisites were met.
Agoncillo reasoned that Valenzuela had lied to save Rizal.
The Pugad Lawin Marker
         The 1911 monument in Balintawak was later removed to
a highway. Student groups moved to save the discarded
monument, and it was installed in front of Vinzons Hall in the
Diliman campus of the University of the Philippines on 29
November 1968.
         In 1962, Teodoro Agoncillo, together with the UP
Student Council, placed a marker at the Pugad Lawin site.
According to Agoncillo, the house of Juan Ramos stood there
in 1896, while the house of Tandang Sora was located at
Pasong Tamo.
         On 30 June 1983, Quezon City Mayor Adelina S.
Rodriguez created the Pugad Lawin Historical Committee to
determine the location of Juan Ramos’s 1896 residence at
Pugad Lawin. The NHI files on the committee’s findings show
the following:
 In August 1983, Pugad Lawin in barangay Bahay Toro
was inhabited by squatter colonies.
 The NHI believed that it was correct in looking for the
house of Juan Ramos and not of Tandang Sora.
However, the former residence of Juan Ramos was
clearly defined.
 There was an old dap-dap tree at the site when the NHI
conducted its survey in 1983. Teodoro Agoncillo, Gregorio
Zaide and Pio Valenzuela do not mention a dap-dap tree
in their books.
 Pio Valenzuela, the main proponent of the “Pugad Lawin”
version, was dead by the time the committee conducted
its research.
 Teodoro Agoncillo tried to locate the marker installed in
August 1962 by the UP Student Council. However, was no
longer extant in 1983.
         In spite of the above findings and in the absence of any
clear evidence, the NHI disregarded its own 1964 report that
the Philippine Historical Committee had determined in 1940
that the Pugad Lawin residence was Tandang Sora’s and not
Juan Ramos’s and that the specific site of Pugad Lawin was
Gulod in Banlat.
         The presence of the dap-dap tree in the Pugad Lawin
site determined by Agoncillo and the NHI is irrelevant, since
none of the principals like Pio Valenzuela, Santiago Alvarez,
and others, nor historians like Zaide- and even Agoncillo
himself before that instance- mentioned such a tree.
        On the basis of the 1983 committee’s findings, the NHI
placed a marker on 23 August 1984 on Seminary Road in
barangay Bahay Toro behind Toro Hills High School, the
Quezon City General Hospital and the San Jose Seminary. It
reads:
Ang Sigaw ng Pugad Lawin (1896)
         Sa paligid ng pook na ito, si Andres Bonifacio at mga
isang libong Katipunero at nagpulong noong umaga ng ika-23
Agosto 1896, at ipinasyang maghimagsik laban sa Kastila sa
Pilipinas. Bilang patunay ay pinag-pupunit ang kanilang mga
sedula na nagging tandang pagkaalipin ng mga Pilpino. Ito ang
kaunaunahang sigaw ng Bayang Api laban sa bansang
Espanya na pinatibayan sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng
sandata.
         (On this site Andres Bonifacio and one thousand
Katipuneros met in the morning of 23 August 1896 and
decided to revolt against the Spanish colonial government in
the Philippines. As an affirmation of their resolve, they tore up
their tax receipts which were symbols of oppression of the
Filipinos. This was the very first Cry of the Oppressed Nation
against Spain which was enforced with the use of arms.)
         The place and name “Pugad Lawin,“  however, is
problematic. In History of the Katipunan (1939), Zaide records
Valenzuela’s mention of the site in a footnote and not in the
body of text, suggesting that the historian regarded the matter
as unresolved.
Cartographic changes
         Was there a Pugad Lawin in maps or literature of the
period?
         A rough sketch or croquis de las operaciones
practicadas in El Español showed the movements of Lt. Ros
against the Katipunan on 25, 26, and 27 August 1896. The
map defined each place name as sitio “Baclac” (sic: Banlat). In
1897, the Spanish historian Sastron mentioned Kalookan,
Balintawak, Banlat and Pasong Tamo. The names mentioned
in some revolutionary sources and interpretations- Daang
Malalim, Kangkong and Pugad Lawin- were not identified as
barrios. Even detailed Spanish and American maps mark only
Kalookan and Balintawak.
         In 1943 map of Manila marks Balintawak separately from
Kalookan and Diliman. The sites where revolutionary events
took place are within the ambit of Balintawak. Government
maps issued in 1956, 1987, and 1990, confirm the existence of
barangays Bahay Toro, but do not define their boundaries.
Pugad Lawin is not on any of these maps.
         According to the government, Balintawak is no longer of
Quezon City but has been replaced by several barangays.
Barrio Banlat is now divided into barangays Tandang Sora and
Pasong Tamo. Only Bahay Toro remains intact.
         Writer and linguist Sofronio Calderon, conducting
research in the late 1920s on the toponym “Pugad Lawin,”
went through the municipal records and the Census of 1903
and 1918, but could not find the name. He concluded that
“Isang…pagkakamali… ang sabihing mayroong Pugad Lawin
sa Kalookan.” (It would be a mistake to say that there is such
as Pugad Lawin in Kalookan.)
What can we conclude from all this, then?
        First, that “Pugad Lawin” was never officially recognized
as a place name on any Philippine map before Second World
War. Second, “Pugad Lawin” appeared in historiography only
from 1928, or some 32 years after the events took place. And
third, the revolution was always traditionally held to have
occurred in the area of Balintawak, which was a distinct from
Kalookan and Diliman.
         Therefore, while the toponym “Pugad Lawin” is more
romantic, it is more accurate to stick to the original “Cry of
Balintawak” (Guerrero, Encarnacion, & Villegas, 2003).
“Balintawak or Pugad Lawin?”
By: Ambeth Ocampo
         Over two decades ago, the late National Artist Nick
Joaquin, in his Inquirer column “Small Beer,” argued
repeatedly for a return to the traditional “Cry of Balintawak.” All
our textbooks, following a resolution from the National
Historical Commission, state that the spark of the Revolution
started with a cry, followed by the tearing of cedulas led by
Andres Bonifacio in Pugad Lawin, Quezon City. The issue is
not just historiographical but political. If the National Historical
Commission, upon review of the facts, reverses its earlier
resolution and moves the site of the “Cry” back to Balintawak
then history will be moved from Quezon City to Caloocan.
Mayor Herbert Bautista’s loss will be Mayor Recom Echiverri’s
gain.
         Re-opening the issue might look simple since people
think it’s just like tossing a coin to decide between Balintawak
or Pugad Lawin. If you bring two to three historians together,
you would not get a consensus.
         To the above options, you must add other contenders to
the historical site: Kangkong, Bahay Toro, Pasong Tamo,
Banlat and God know where else, depending on the primary
source being cited.
         If you think location is the only issue, look again. The
date declared by the National Historical Commission as the
start of the Philippine Revolution—Aug. 23, 1896—is but one
date proposed, the others being Aug. 20, 24, 25 and 26, 1896.
And, if I remember from a historical forum in UP, one scholar
even insisted on a wildcard date of Sept. 5, 1896! All these
debates on dates and places, which may seem trivial to the
general public, is the lifeblood of historians.
         Teodoro A. Agoncillo said that Bonifacio scheduled a
general assembly of the Katipunan for Aug. 24, 1896, the
Feast of San Bartolome, in Malabon. This date was chosen to
enable Katipuneros to pass security checkpoints carrying their
bolos because Malabon is famous for manufacturing a long-
bladed weapon called “sangbartolome.” Bonifacio and his men
were in Balintawak on August 19. They left Balintawak for
Kangkong on August 21, and on the afternoon of August 22
they proceeded to Pugad Lawin. The next day, August 23, in
the yard of Juan Ramos — who apparently is the son of
Melchora Aquino, the Katipuneros listened to the rousing
speech of Bonifacio, tore their cedulas, and vowed to fight.
         Teodoro Agoncillo convinced the National Historical
Commission to move the traditional Aug. 26 date to Aug. 23
and transfer the historical site from Balintawak to Pugad Lawin.
If Agoncillo’s personality wasn’t enough for the Commission,
he cited as his principal source Dr. Pio Valenzuela, a close
associate of Bonifacio.
         I wonder if other members of the commission bothered
to remind Agoncillo that Valenzuela may have been in
Bonifacio’s inner circle, but may be unreliable as a primary
source. In Wenceslao Emilio’s five-volume compilation of
historical documents, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino,
Valenzuela’s signed testimony before Spanish interrogators
dated September 1896, stated that the Cry of Balintawak was
held in Balintawak on Aug. 26, 1896. Years later, in his
memoirs published in English after World War II, Valenzuela
stated that the Cry was actually held in Pugad Lawin on Aug.
23, 1896. Agoncillo explained that the September 1896
account was extracted from Valenzuela under duress and
couldn’t be trusted.
         Balintawak was the place determined by tradition and
many eyewitness accounts, including Guillermo Masangkay
who, in an interview in the Sunday Tribune in 1932, declared
the place as Balintawak and the date Aug. 26, 1896. Spanish
Lt. Olegario Diaz in 1896 pinpointed the place as Balintawak
but placed the date on Aug. 24, 1896.
         Depending on your source, the dates and places do not
seem to match. In 1928, Gregoria “Oryang” de Jesus Nakpil,
widow of Andres Bonifacio, wrote a short autobiography,
entitled “Mga tala ng aking buhay,” where she stated that the
Cry of Balintawak took place on Aug. 25, 1896 in Pasong
Tamo! This place isn’t in Makati but in Caloocan. How more
authoritative can you get than the Supremo’s widow? Oryang
was revered as the muse, the Lakambini of the Katipunan.
         To complicate things further, another Bonifacio associate
and composer of the Katipunan, Julio Nakpil, second husband
of Gregoria de Jesus, deposited his handwritten notes on the
Philippine Revolution in the National Library under Teodoro M.
Kalaw in 1925. Here he wrote, “Swearing before God and
before history that everything in these notes is the truth”: “The
revolution started in Balintawak in the last days of August
1896.” On another page he wrote, “Bonifacio uttered the first
cry of war against tyranny on Aug. 24, 1896.” Finally, he
remembered that “the first cry of Balintawak was in Aug. 26,
1896 in the place called Kangkong, adjacent to Pasong Tamo,
within the jurisdiction of Balintawak, Caloocan, then within the
province of Manila.”
         Now, which of these three declarations do we choose?
Last but not least, we have Santiago Alvarez whose memoirs
identified the place as Bahay Toro and the date as Aug. 25,
1896. There are more conflicting sources available, so to keep
the peace, and until more conclusive evidence can be
presented, let’s just stick to Pugad Lawin and Aug. 23, 1896
(Ocampo, 2010).
 gets increasing recognition. Here, religion presents a direct
challenge to globalization.

CONTEMP

WHAT IS RELIGION?
Religion and globalization constitute each other. Religion, to a
large extent, enables globalization. In the same manner, it is
diffused through various corners of the world. It propelled Direc
globalization beyond territorial and ethnolinguistic boundaries. t Quote:
Religion is an essential facet of social existence. Modern-day Globalization—due to the advent of communication and
laws, scientific pursuits, and political practices emerged from transportation technology and the media's roles—has
early religious practices. This is actually one of the earliest contributed to the deterritorialization and the blurring of
sources of social truths ranging from arguments explaining the geographical spaces and boundaries. It has made the world a
world’s existence to the codes of conduct governing individual small village, where people, cultures, and identities come in
existence. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined religion as a daily face-to-face contact. Undoubtedly, religion is not immune
system of symbols that “establish powerful, pervasive, and to these changes and the burgeoning effects brought about by
long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating globalization. However, religions still have their respective
conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and homes in specific territorial spaces where they originally
motivations seem uniquely realistic” (Geertz, 1965). Therefore, appeared and where their shrines exist. The inner nature of
religion is a set of practices, beliefs (e.g., moral codes), rituals, religions and the purpose to be embraced and practiced by
and explanations of the universe’s cause, purpose, and nature people worldwide prompts it to spread throughout all the
and symbols.  world’s geographical spaces. Therefore, to emerge and
spread, religions make fair use of the technologies of
GLOBALIZATION AND RELIGION 
globalization. Having geographical boundaries and frontiers
The relationship between globalization and religion has new that are blurred and dissolved, religions can easily spread and
possibilities and further challenges. While religion takes reach every part of the world.
advantage of communication and transportation technologies,
Given that globalization aims at the hybridization of the world
it also serves as a refuge for individuals who oppose
cultures around the pattern of the Western culture, and it
globalization's dominance. Meanwhile, as a result of daily
entails liberal values and norms, religion (particularly Islam)
contact enabled by globalization, religion enters a circle of
constitutes a challenge because Islam’s norms and values are
struggle in which they become more self-aware of their status
incompatible with the liberal values of globalization.
as world religions (Golebiewski, 2014). Furthermore, these two
Globalization provides a context for the current considerable
are inextricably linked to conflict and strife. Economic and
revival and religion's resurgence. Today, most religions are not
political interconnectedness have long been associated with
relegated to the few countries where they began. Religions
globalization, which has brought people closer, and the effect
have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Thanks
of no event is isolated but felt in far-off places. It has shifted the
to globalization, religions have found a fertile milieu to spread
cultural build-up of the world and led to the formation of a
and thrive. 
“global culture,” which is a minimum accepted by all (Impacts
of Globalization on Religion, n.d.).  Thanks to globalization, religion or faith have gained
considerable significance and importance as a nonterritorial
Globalization stands for increased and daily contact while
touchstone of identity. As a source of identity and pride, its
religions become more self-conscious about themselves as the
practitioners are always promoted to reach the global level and
world religions. The basic tenets of globalization stand against
be embraced by as many people as possible. Religions have
religious parochialism. By breaking down barriers across
distinct internal structures. The connections of religions, such
cultures, globalization puts religion in a tangle of conflicts that
as Islam and Christianity, to different cultures and their
reinforce social identities. Several people do not accept the
inclusion of various ways of worshiping and practices
new realities and turn to religion to rediscover their own
contradict each other. Religions cannot become hybridized or
identity. Religion gives people a sense of belonging to a
homogenized, as it is claimed, although they always come in
community. At the same time, it has stood the complexities and
contact.
onslaught of the modern world and further intensified under
current development conditions (Impacts of Globalization on Although it is strengthened and fortified by globalization,
Religion, n.d.). religion represents a challenge to its hybridizing effects. It
seeks to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a
Although several groups have made religion a weapon to
result, different religious identities come to the fore and assert
integrate and terrorize masses, people have generally become
themselves. Globalization is associated, as an American or a
tolerant of other religious beliefs and practices and come to
Western project, with westernization and Americanization. The
associate all acts of terror as antireligious. In Third World
dominance and hegemony exerted by these two processes,
countries, where the vulnerable sections find themselves
particularly in third world countries, make religion-related
increasingly marginalized by globalization forces, religion takes
cultures and identities take defensive measures to protect
a prime welfare role and acts as a cultural protector for these
themselves. In this respect, Islam takes caution and resists
sections. Thus, religion helps in social causes and successfully
globalization forces’ encroachment on its cultures and
livelihoods in many ways (Azzouzi, 2013).
Globalizing Effect of Early Islam
The emergence of the Muslim world predated the Holy Roman
Empire. After the death of Prophet Muhammad, Islam spread
across the Arabian Peninsula, reaching parts of Persia. During
this time, lands under Muslim dynasties held power under the
religious mandate of the caliph, which is a leader that wields
religious and political power and implements and enforces the
law of Islam throughout Muslim lands. In the 14th century,
Muslim merchants traversed the Indian Ocean to trade with
societies on the other side of West Asia. According to Harvard
Divinity School, Islam arrived in the Philippines in the early
14th century with Arab and Malay merchants following
Southeast Asian trade networks. These Arabian traders
passed through Malaysia, Borneo, and Sulu onward to the
Visayas and eventually Luzon. The expansion of Islam in the
Philippines also introduced to Mindanao a sophisticated culture
and system of government known as a sultanate.
In Mindanao, supra-baranganic political subdivisions or political
structures are composed of several barangays known as
sultanates, and the undisputed leader is addressed as the
Sultan. A Datu/Sultan is a leader designated by Allah and is
said to possess religious and political powers. His authority is
considered sacred, and his administration is based on the laws
of Islam or Sharia. These barangays or sultanates studied
original Arabic texts of the Qur’an through madrassas or
schools. The design of mosques or places of worship mimicked
the architectural design of their Middle Eastern counterparts.
However, local cultures and practices continued to permeate,
creating a globalized culture representing the union of two
entirely different cultures and belief systems.
Christianity, the Globalizer of the New World
The Islamization of the Southern Philippines was followed
centuries later by Christianization in the 1500s. The age of
exploration not only brought Christianity to the New World.
Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the native populations’
spiritual lives were guided by Babaylans (priestesses that wield
spiritual power and social influence). After the military and
spiritual conquest by the Spaniards, the native population was
converted to Christianity, thereby marginalizing their traditional
religious beliefs. The native population’s modes of dressing,
marital practices, writing systems, and moral codes
dramatically changed under the supervision of the Catholic
clergy. Similar to the sociopolitical effects of Islam, the most
evident effect was that they were subjected to a different
political structure and made to pay tribute and reverence to a
King who was based thousands of miles away. Indigenous
peoples were also subjected to an economic system that
served only the colonizing country. It was an economic system
that left the colonized territories completely dependent and
beholden upon the economic system of the colonizing state.
Colonies were treated as satellite economies, from which raw
materials and natural resources were siphoned toward the
central economy of the colonizing state.
RELIGION AND BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
Culturally, Philippine society is a manifestation of globalization.
The role religion played in the transformation of Philippine
society is manifested at present. The influence of Islam and
Christianity is prominent in almost every aspect of Filipino
religious practices. At present, 85% of the population is Roman
Catholics. Its followers faithfully observe festivities, rituals, and
religious holidays affiliated with Catholicism. This religious
belief has significantly influenced Philippine economic and
political activities. The observance of the Christmas season
and its accompanying celebratory atmosphere and spirit of
giving spurs capitalist consumption among Filipinos. The
Western influence on Philippine Christmas celebrations is
evident. Media such as films, television shows, advertisements,
and music jingles prominently display symbols that physically
represent trendy items in the West that Filipinos should buy
during Christmas. 
In general, Catholicism has direct and indirect influences that
have altered Filipinos' culture and ways of life. Religion has
figured its way into the economic activities of Filipinos by
exerting influence over laws regulating it. For example,
Filipinos' choices regarding their reproductive health are limited
because of the Catholic Church’s pressure to block the
implementation of the reproductive law. It has also attempted
to block the same law from being passed in both houses of the
Philippine Congress.
RELIGION AND GLOBAL CONFLICT
No major religion has been exempted from complicity in violent
conflict. However, we need to be cautious of an almost
universal propensity to oversimplify the role religion plays in
international affairs. Religion is not the sole or even primary
cause of conflict.
Direct Quote:
With the considerable emphasis on religion as a source of
conflict, religion's role as a force in peacemaking is generally
overlooked. Religious affiliation and conviction often motivate
religious communities to advocate particular peace-related
government policies. Religious communities also directly
oppose repression and promote peace and reconciliation.
Religious leaders and institutions can mediate in conflict
situations, serve as a communication link between opposing
sides, and provide training in peacemaking methodologies.
This form of religious peacemaking garners less public
attention but is growing in importance. Interfaith dialogue is
another form of religious peacemaking. Instead of resolving a
particular conflict, it aims to defuse interfaith tensions that may
cause future conflict or derive from the previous conflict.
Interfaith dialogue is expanding even in places where
interreligious tensions are highest. Generally, most contentious
interfaith relationships can provide the context for the most
meaningful and productive exchanges (Smock, 2008).
Given religion’s importance as a source of international conflict
and a resource for peacemaking, the US government is ill-
equipped to handle religious issues and relate to religious
actors. Suppose that the US government is to insert itself into
international conflicts or build deep and productive
relationships with countries worldwide. In that case, the
government needs to devise a better strategy to effectively and
respectfully engage with the religious realm.
GLOBAL PEACE
Peace is a state of nonsuffering and a celebration of life. Many
spiritual teachers taught us that we choose to live in peace
within our hearts, and we can choose not to suffer and instead
live in gratitude and love. “We are also learning that finding and
claiming that peace within us is essential to creating a world at
peace” (Carman, 2010). Given that “all of life is interconnected,
our fear, hatred, and anger decrease the peace in the world,
whereas our love, joy, and gratitude increase it” (Buratai,
2019).
Global peace is a concept of global conflict resolution that
depends on nonviolent processes to eradicate war. It employs
a multifaceted approach to conflict resolution that includes
broad social and political answers. Since the 1940s, the
concept of a global peace system has evolved in contemporary
peace and conflict studies around the theory that there is a
global infrastructure for peacebuilding and that there is a need
for systems thinking in peacebuilding (Global peace system,
n.d.). The term “global peace system” was coined by Robert
Johansen, who explored the concept in 1978's Toward a
Dependable Place.
Direct Quote:
Why is peace important? Without it, the destructive tendencies
of our species will continue to inch us closer to catastrophe.
The gulf oil spill is an example. However, humans, in our true
essence, are capable of the most glorious and uplifting actions.
We have the potential to create a world at peace and become
“Homo Ahimsa,” that is, the nonviolent human. As Albert
Schweitzer said, “Until man extends his circle of compassion to
include all living things, man will not himself find peace.” We
are connected not only to each other but to all of life. The
animals and the natural world have much to teach us about
peace, silence, and being and celebrating life. We are
immensely capable of creating a new, beautiful, and nonviolent
world for all who live here. 
            Peace is the desire of every beating heart. Peace is the
hope of every nation, the promise of every politician, the pulse
of every religious tradition, and the goal of every prayer. Peace
is the bold, courageous, and ultimate response to the notion
that violence provides any viable solution for the conflicts of our
world. Where war destroys and tears apart, peace builds,
strengthens, and restores. At the same time, peace is
personal, for each of us longs for security and tranquility in the
face of the troubles, anxiety, and chaos that often touch our
lives. Taoist author Deng Ming Dao wrote that “The peace of
one individual is small. The peace of many people together is
big. When we see ourselves as separate from our community
and nature, then violence and strife arise.” Peace is only
possible on a large scale when we understand our part in
overall unity (Carman, 2010).

UTS
TO BUY OR NOT TO BUY? THAT IS THE QUESTION!
William James – a psychologist and philosopher who had a
significant influence on the development of psychology in the
United States  and legs. David Beckham also used 70 million USD to
                               – the father of American psychology
                               – the first to teach a psychology course in
the U.S.
THREE COMPONENTS OF THE EMPIRICAL SELF  biology. He argued that if the physical world is governed by
         William James used the term “the empirical self” to refer
to how people answer the question “Who am I”? His analysis is
broad. James grouped various components of the empirical
self into three subcategories, that is, (a) the material self, (b)
the social self, and (c) the spiritual self. (University of
Washington, n.d.)
1. “Material Self refers to tangible objects, people, or
places that carry the designation “my” or “mine.” Two
subclasses of the material self can be distinguished”
(University of Washington, n.d.), that is, the bodily self
and extracorporeal (beyond the body) self. Rosenberg
(1979) referred to the extracorporeal self as the
extended self.
         “People’s emotional responses to their possessions also
attest to their importance to the self. A person who loses a
wallet often feels greater anguish over a lost photograph than
over any money that is missing. Similarly, many car owners
react with extreme anger when their cars are damaged, even
when the damage is only slight in physical terms. Finally, many
people who lose possessions in a natural disaster go through a
grieving process similar to the process people go through
when they lose a person they love.” (McLeod, 1984 cited in
Belk, 1988).
Body. For James, it is the core of the material self. It is the
innermost part of our material self. We are directly
attached to this commodity that we cannot live without.
We strive hard to make sure that these body functions are
well and good. Intentionally, we are investing in our
bodies. Any ailment and disorder directly affect us. Some
people get certain body parts insured. For example,
Mariah Carey used 1 billion USD to insure her vocal cords
insure his legs.
         Rudolf Hermann Lotze – a German philosopher and
logician. He had a medical degree and was well versed in
mechanical laws, then relations and developments in the
universe can be explained as the functioning of a world mind.
 Clothes – William James believed that clothing is an
essential part of the material self. He believed a person’s
clothes are one way they express who they feel they are.
Clothes are a way to show status, thereby forming and
maintaining one’s self-image. In his book, Microcosmus,
Lotze stipulated that “anytime we bring into the surface of
our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of
our existence taking in its contours to be our own and
making it part of the self.”
The fabric and style of the clothes we wear bring sensations to
the body, directly affecting our attitudes and behavior. Thus,
clothes are placed in the second hierarchy of material self.
Clothing is a form of self-expression. We choose and wear
clothes that are a reflection of our self. 
 Immediate family – It includes our parents, siblings, and
other family members. We view them as parts of
ourselves. According to the Business Dictionary, your
immediate family includes spouse, parents, grandparents,
children (adopted, half, and stepchildren are generally
included in the definition), grandchildren, siblings, and in-
laws (mother, father, brother, sister, daughter, and son).
(What Is Considered Immediate Family?, n.d.)

Immediate and other family members can be determined
using the following two ways:  useful when we want to improve on a particular skill. Most
 Relation by blood – This means they share the same
lineage or parent, such as siblings, children,
grandchildren.
 Relation by marriage – This means they share a common
bond through the marriage of one member of each family,
such as with in-laws or stepchildren. (What Is Considered
Immediate Family?, n.d.)
 Home – Home is where our heart is. It is the earliest nest
of our selfhood. The home is an extension of self because,
in it, we can directly connect ourselves.
1.  Social self refers to how we are regarded and
recognized by others. James’s analysis of the social
self was broad. “James went on to make an additional
point about these social selves. He posited an
instinctive drive to be noticed and recognized by
others.” (University of Washington, n.d.) James argued
that we affiliate not because we like company, but
because we crave recognition and status. Building on
James’s analysis, modern researchers proposed that
we also possess a relational self, which is self-defined
in terms of specific interpersonal relationships. The
relational self includes all “individuals we regard as
“ours,” such as our parents, siblings, romantic partners,
close friends, and colleagues.” (Andersen & Chen,
2002; Chen, Boucher, & Tapias, 2006)
Social Comparison Theory  forth are based on our behavior.
“Social comparison theory proposes that we use social
comparisons to construct our self-concept, especially when we
have no other objective standard available to us (Festinger,
1954). How do you know if you are shy, competitive, rich,
anxious, or anything else? These subjective ideas only
become meaningful in comparison to others. For example, if
you are walking alone on the beach, then you may not even be
thinking about your physical appearance. However, when
someone much more attractive than you walks by, the
unflattering social comparison can deliver a small shock to
your previously contented self-concept (Bachman & O’Malley,
1986; Marsh, Köller, & Baumert, 2001).“  (The Social Self)
Two Types of Social Comparison:
 Upward Social Comparisons – “we compare ourselves to
someone better than us. This type of comparison can be
people who like to watch cooking shows with celebrity
chefs enjoy getting tips on how to make their food taste or
or
look better. The same is true for people who get ideas
about home decorating from Martha Stewart or by reading
magazines with ideas, or when athletes learn from
coaches. However, constantly comparing ourselves to
people who have excelled can lead to frustration or even
depression.” (The Social Self) Why cannot my cupcakes
look as good as the ones on Pinterest?
 Downward Social Comparisons – when we compare
ourselves to someone worse than we are. This might not
help us improve, but it makes us feels better. For
example, my cupcakes may not win any cupcake reality
show contest, but it is better than the cupcake my
daughter tried to make. My tennis skills may not be on a
professional level, but I am better than the guy in the next
court who cannot hit a single ball over the net. (The Social
Self)
How do we know the self is social? 
1. “Self-perception theory notes that when we form
impressions of others, we do so by observing their
behavior and then making guesses about those
people’s values, opinions, and so on. The theory
suggests that we form our self-concept in the same
way; we observe our behavior and form our self-
concept by inferring what our values, opinions, and so
2. Self-discrepancy theory is the idea that instead of one
single self-concept, we have three self-concepts. Our
actual self is our perception of who we are right now,
while our ideal self is the person we would like to be.
Finally, our ought self is the self-concept we have that
reflects what we think other people in our social world
expect of us. The self-discrepancy theory hypothesizes
that when our actual self and ideal self do not match,
we will feel dejection-related emotions, such as
disappointment and shame. Meanwhile, when our
actual self and ought self do not match, we feel
agitation-related emotions, such as guilt or anxiety.
 3. Self-expansion theory suggests that we all want to grow
and improve over time, reaching the best possible self-
concept. One way to “expand” our self-concept is to
include other people into our cognitive view of self,
which provides us access to other people’s skills,
memories, perspectives, and so on. A measure of the
degree to which we have included someone else into
our self-concept is called the Inclusion of the Other in
the Self scale, which asks people to choose one pair of
overlapping circles out of seven choices. The choices
show the progressive degrees of overlap with one circle
labeled “self” and the second circle labeled ‘other.’”
(The Social Self)

2. Spiritual Self – “is our inner self or our psychological self. It

is comprised of our self-perceived abilities, attitudes, emotions,
interests, values, motives, opinions, traits, and wishes. Many
aspects of the spiritual self are evaluative. People think of
themselves as attractive or unattractive, intelligent or
unintelligent, and honest or dishonest.” (University of
Washington, n.d.)

         James claimed that the spiritual self is the most intimate

version of self because of the satisfaction experienced when
one thinks of one’s “ability to argue and discriminate, of our
[one’s] moral sensibility, and conscience, of our indomitable
will” (James 1890, 164) is purer than other sentiments of
satisfaction. Then, James described several bodily processes
in which becoming introspective can make the acts entirely
mindful, conscious processes, thereby providing further insight
into an intimate, spiritual self.
        “James concluded that our possessions, which are
aspects of the material self, and our emotions, attitudes, and
beliefs, which are components of the spiritual self, are closely
related. As Abelson (1986) observed, this similarity is captured
in our language. A person is said to have a belief from the time
the belief is first acquired to the time it is discarded or lost. We
also say things like “I inherited a view” or “I cannot buy that!”
Finally, we speak of people who have abandoned their
convictions or disowned an earlier position. These terms imply
that possessions and attitudes share an underlying conceptual
property: they are both owned by the self (see Gilovich, 1991;
Heider, 1958 for an elaboration of this view).
         Our tendency to treat our opinions as possessions can
create interpersonal difficulties. When people find themselves
in a disagreement, they often react as if they are being
personally attacked, instead of simply acknowledging that
different people have varying perspectives (De Dreu & van
Knippenberg, 2005). In turn, this perception leads them to
become belligerent and uncompromising. Mediators are often
needed to broker solutions, in part, because they are not
invested in holding one view or the other.” (University of
Washington, n.d.)