• 
           Formerly known as International Union of Official
WEEK 9
MACRO PERSPECTIVE
GLOBAL TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS
Since tourism is a diverse industry made up of many different
segments, there is a need to interrelate and share information. 
This has led to the establishment of several public and private
organizations at the international, regional and national and
even local levels.  Aside from the suppliers of services and
facilities to tourists, there are also several tourism
organizations that play significant roles in the tourism industry. 
These organizations influence and contribute to the smooth
running of the tourism industry. There are different types of
tourism organizations which may be categorized into the
following
criteria:
•      Geographical Scope
•      Ownership
•      Function or type of activity
•      Industry
•      Motive
 
CLASSIFICATION OF TOURISM ORGANIZATION
•      International
•      Regional
•      National
 
INTERNATIONAL TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS
 
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
•            Founded in 1978
Travel Organization.  Since 2006 the WTO renamed as
United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).
•            Has 157 member countries and headquarters is
located in Madrid, Spain  The Secretariat is led by Secretary-
General Zurab Pololikashvili.
•            Intergovernmental technical body which deals with all
aspects of tourism.
•            It also serves as a global forum for tourism policy
issues and plays a central role in promoting responsible,
sustainable, and universally accessible tourism, paying
particular attention to the needs of developing countries.
•            It conducts market research and statistics is its most
significant contribution.
•            Provides an international forum where tourism officials
can discuss problems and exchange their ideas.
•            Only organization whose activities cover all sectors of
tourism on a worldwide basis.
•            Ministers of Tourism call for intra-governmental
coordination to address visas and air connectivity held on
November 8, 2012.
•            UNWTO calls for support to the Philippines held on
November 12, 2013.
•            This organization has also implemented a global code
of ethics for tourism to help minimize its possible negative
effects and maximize its potential benefits such as economic
ones.  
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
As a fundamental frame of reference for responsible and
sustainable tourism, the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
(GCET) is a comprehensive set of principles designed to guide
key-players in tourism development.  Addressed to
government, the travel agency, communities and tourists alike,
it aims to help maximize the sector’s benefits while minimizing
its potentially negative impact on the environment, cultural
heritage and societies across the globe.  The Code features
a voluntary implementation mechanism through its
recognition of the role of the World Committee on Tourism
Ethics (WCTE), to which stakeholders may refer matters
concerning the application and interpretation of the document.
The Code’s 10 principles amply cover the economic, social,
cultural and environmental components of travel and tourism.
Article 1:  Tourism’s contribution to mutual understanding and
respect                   between peoples and societies.
Article 2:  Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective
fulfillment.
Article 3:  Tourism, a factor of sustainable development.
Article 4:  Tourism, a user of the cultural heritage of mankind
and                   contributor to its enhancement.
Article 5:  Tourism, a beneficial activity for host countries and
communities.
Article 6:  Obligations of stakeholders in tourism development.
Article 7:  Right to tourism.
Article 8:  Liberty of tourist movements.
Article 9:  Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the
tourism industry. Article 10:  Implementation of the principles of
the Global Code of Ethics                   for Tourism.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
•      Adapts international standards and to recommend
practices for regulating air navigations and encourage the
improvement of the art of aircraft design and operation for
peaceful purposes.
•      Aims to promote safe, regular and economical air
transport, faster air commerce and study problems connected
with the industry.
•      Involves standardizing of tickets, prices, airline air way
bills, baggage checks and other documents.
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
•               World’s first international scheduled services (IATA)
started, it formerly known as International Air Traffic
Association.
•               IATA founded in Havana, Cuba.
•               In 1945 it has changed its name to the International
Air Transport Association.
•               IATA is closely associated with International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO).
•               It helps in global planning of international timetables
and has formulated a single formula for tickets and airway bills
as well as it simplifies the travel and shipping processes, while
keeping costs down. It allows them to operate safely, securely,
efficiently, and economically under clearly defined rules.
 
World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC)
•      The only global forum whose members are the top
decision makers in the travel and tourism industry. The 150
members are the CEO, President or Chairman of – airlines,
airports, hotels, cruise lines, travel agencies, tour operators
and travel technology suppliers.
•      The only body representing the private sector in all parts
of the industry worldwide.
Development Organizations (D.O.)
•      The World Bank (US)
•      OPEC Fund for International Development (Austria)
•      Asian Development Bank (Philippines)
•      Islamic Development Bank (Saudi Arabia)
United Federation of Travel Agents Association (UFTAA)
•      Universal Federation of Travel Agent Association (UFTAA)
is an association of travel agents and tour operators.  It is one
of the largest organizations in the field of travel and tourism
industry.
•      In 1919, International Federation of Travel Agencies
(IFTAA) was established in Brussels.  However, in 1996 IFTAA
merged with the Universal Organization of Travel Agents
(UOTA) with the objective to ensure better coordination,
cooperation among travel agents and to spread the
professionalism at the globe.
•      The new organization established was known as Universal
Agent Association (UFTAA) and its main objective of the
association is the promotion, development, and expansion of
the travel and tourism industry worldwide, founded on 1996 in
Rome.
•      It offers its members all the necessary material,
professional and technical advice, and assistance to enable
them to take their proper place in the economy of world
tourism.
•      It unites and consolidates the federation of travel agent’s
National Association to enhance and promote the interest of
the members.
American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA)
•      The American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA)
established in New York in 1931.
•      It is the world’s largest professional travel trade
association and earlier it was known as American Steamship
and Tourist Agent’s Association (ASTAA).
•      Aim is the promotion and advancement of the interest of
travel industry and safeguarding of the traveler.as well as it
promotes the ethical practice in tourism industry.
 
REGIONAL TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS 
 
Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
•      Designed to achieve the highest sustainable economic
growth and employment and raise standards of living of
member countries.
•      Country Assistance Program Evaluation 26194, June 2008
Philippine Country Assistance Program Evaluation: Increasing
Strategic Focus for Better Results
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)
The Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)
was founded in 1951.
•        PATA is a non-profit travel industry association.
•        PATA focuses its attention on travel opportunities in the
member countries and develops awareness among the travel
trade.
•        Headquarters of PATA is in Bangkok.
•        The main aim of PATA is to develop, promote and
facilitate travel to and within the Pacific areas and South-East
Asian region.
•        Early leader in recognizing the need for environmental
ethics.
•        Initiated the PATA Code for Environmental Tourism
Caribbean Tourism Association/Organization (CTA)
•        Encourages and Assists in the development of tourism
throughout the Caribbean Area.
             
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
•      Aims to establish coordination of national economies for
the benefit of countries in the Asia-Pacific region
•      Permanent Secretariat is located in Singapore, which
serves as the coordinating body and central repository for all
APEC documents.
 
Organization of American States (OAS)
•      Strengthen relations between American States by
providing advisory services and training programs in many
fields including tourism.
•      Philippines is one of the observers to the Organization of
American States.
 
Asia-Pacific Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional
Education (APacCHRIE)
•      The Hospitality & Tourism Educators
•      Asia Pacific CHRIE or better known as APacCHRIE is a
Federation of the I-CHRIE.  Members of APacCHRIE constitute
all countries at the Pacific Rim who must also be a registered
member of ICHRIE.  The Geographical boundary of
APacCHRIE can be segmentized to four areas as following:
Area I:  East Asia (PRC, Taiwan, Korea & Japan)
Area II:  Southeast Asia (ASEAN membership countries &
Indo-China)
Area III:  Oceania (Australia, New Zealand & the Pacific
Islands)
Area IV:  Indian Sub-continent (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh &
Sri Lanka)
•      APacCHRIE chapter was formed in 2002 to promote
academic and research exchanges among hospitality,
foodservice and tourism educators and industry practitioners in
Asia Pacific.
NATIONAL TOURISM ORGANIZATIONS - Philippines
 
Department of Tourism (DOT)
•      Primary government agency charged with the
responsibility to formulate tourism policies, plans and projects
for the development of tourism as an engine of socioeconomic
and cultural growth.
•      Spread the benefits of tourism to wider segments of the
population.
•      Ensure the safe, convenient and enjoyable stay and travel
of the foreign and local tourists in the country.
•      Tourism Slogans
Visit Philippines
WOW Philippines
Pilipinas Kay Ganda
It’s More Fun in the Philippines (2012 – present)
•      Current Secretary of DOT:  Bernadette Romulo-Puyat,
assumed office on May 11, 2018.
 
Tourism Promotions Board (TPB)
•      Formerly known as PCVC or Philippine Convention and
Visitor’s Corporation.
•      It is an attached agency of DOT which is primarily
responsible for implementing an integrated domestic and
international promotions and marketing program for the
Philippines as a tourism destination as well as for tourism
investments.
 
Intramuros Administration (IA)
•      Sponsors, conducts and supports festivals and cultural
activities in Intramuros.
•      Give grants, contributions and donations for the
restoration, repair and maintenance of historic structure of
Intramuros.
 
National Parks Development Committee (NPDC) 
Undertake development of new parks.
•      Upgrade and maintain park facilities.
•      Facilitate private sector participation in appropriate
aspects of parks development and maintenance.
•      Parks under NPDC:  Rizal Park, Paco Park, etc.
Tourism Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone Authority
(TIEZA)  Formerly known as PTA or Philippine Tourism
Authority.
•      Develop, manage and supervise tourism infrastructure
projects in the country; the primary objective of encouraging
investments in TEZ’s (Tourism Enterprise Zone).
•      Principal agency responsible for the timely collection of
travel taxes:
(50%) of the proceeds from the travel tax collections shall
accrue to the TIEZA.
(50%) goes to CHED provided that they shall give priority to
tourism – related educational programs and courses.
(10%) share for the National Commission for Culture and the
Arts.
Nayong Pilipino Foundation (NPF)
•      The Ang Nayong Pilipino Foundation Inc., simply known
as the Nayong Pilipino Foundation or Nayong Pilipino is a non-
profit organization based in Manila, Philippines.
•      It is an autonomous government corporation under the
Department of Tourism.
•      Ang Nayong Pilipino Foundation Inc. was created primarily
to promote research development project on social sciences
and humanities and related fields.
•      Founded:  November 6, 1972
Duty Free Philippines (DFP)
•      Duty and tax free merchandizing system established and
operated by DOT.
Philippine Travel Agencies Association (PTAA)
•      Aims to foster unity in the travel industry and to promote
the welfare of its members and the traveling public.
•      Uphold dignity and the ethics of the travel and tour
business.
•      To cultivate friendly relations between the Philippines and
other countries.
 
Hotel and Restaurant Association of the Philippines
(HRAP)
•      A non-stock profit organization, the Hotel and Restaurant
Association of the Philippines (HRAP) is the umbrella
organization that speaks for the hospitality industry.
•      Created in 1951, HRAP membership includes luxury,
deluxe, and standard hotels, leading restaurants and food
groups, schools and universities offering hotel and restaurant
management resources, as well as allied industry partners.  
•      These are represented by hotel managers, restaurant
owners, university deans and CEO.
•      Mission:
•      To undertake programs and projects that will upgrade and
professionalize the industry such as, but not limited to the
setting up and operation of a Hotel and Tourism Institute of the
Philippines.  To promote and foster high ethical standards in
business resulting in fair and honest competition.
•      To provide industry representation in matters of
government regulatory policies/laws/rules affecting the
industry.
•      To exercise dynamic leadership in promoting goodwill,
understanding, fellowship within the hospitality industry both
national and international.
Tourism Educators of Schools Colleges and Universities
(TESCU) 
•      In 1988, a group of educators from Metro Manila schools
offering tourism courses formed what was then known as the
“Association of Tourism Schools of the Philippines (ATSP).
•      The founding member-schools were Polytechnic
University of the Philippines, San Sebastian College, De
Ocampo College, La Consolacion College, Centro Escolar
University, and the University of Santo Thomas.  
•      Its founding president is Dr. Zenaida Cruz of PUP.
•      In 1992, the constitution of the ATSP was amended and
its name was changed to “Tourism Educators of Schools
Colleges and Universities” (TESCU).
•      Mission:
•      To promote closer working relationship between educators
and industry.
•      To unite all schools, colleges, and universities with tourism
programs with the end in view of training and developing
students for a productive and meaningful career in tourism.
•      To sponsor lectures, seminars, workshops and
conferences in various fields of tourism.
•      To increase professional knowledge through interaction
with all levels of travel and tourism educators.
•      To work with colleagues to advance the image and
understanding of travel and tourism educators within the
industry and the academic world.
 
The Council of Hotel and Restaurant Educators of the
Philippines (COHREP)
•      COHREP is the leading academic professional
organization promoting quality Hospitality and Tourism
Education in the Philippines.
•      Established in 1989 by a group of Hotel and Restaurant
Administration faculty members with Dr. Ignacio Pablo elected
as founding President.
•      The group felt that with the growing needs of the HRA •    The board was subsequently registered with Securities and
program, there was need to form a professional organization Exchange Commission (SEC) on January 5, 1981 as a non-
that would ensure the quality of program offerings by stock, non-profit technical foundation.
addressing needs of educators and helping each other meet
quality standards.   •    It is a tripartite body composed of representatives from the
government, private and labor sectors which aims to provide
•      In 1991, the COHREP filed its SEC registration and was manpower development in various tourism enterprises.
formally recognized in 1992.
•    In 1991, the Board of Trustees under HRIBFI Resolution
Mission:  To promote teaching excellence in hospitality 009-91 agreed to rename HRIB as the Tourism Industry Board
education by providing venues to transform educators into Foundation Inc. (TIBFI) to be able to expand its coverage /
confident and values-laden professionals, committed to the membership to all sectors of the tourism industry.  
development of competent graduates with employable skills.
•    The conversion was finally approved by the SEC on March
25, 1992.
Association of Administrators in Hospitality Hotel and •    Mission:  To converge government, industry, education and
Restaurant Management Educational Institution training sectors in facilitating tourism human resource
(AAHRMEI) development.
 
Philippine Tour Operators Association Inc. (PHILTOA)
.
•      The Philippine Tour Operators Association (PHILTOA),
•      AAHRMEI looks back to its humble beginning when a Inc. is an organization of tour operators and allied members
group of 22 deans and faculty members met to establish what actively involved in the advocacy of responsible tourism.
is now composed of more than 2,300 strong members,
individual and institutional combined.   •      Founded in June12, 1986, non-stock and non-profit
organization.
•      Sixteen years ago Mrs. Sylvia S. Ama, then the director for
Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Management of DLSU – •      The membership includes travel agencies, hotel, resorts,
College of Saint Benilde, conceived the importance of an transportation companies, handicraft stores, and other tourism-
organization to look into the concerns of Hotel and Restaurant oriented establishments and associations.
Management and other related courses.  
•      The Philippine Travel Mart (PTM) is the flagship program
•      This idea came into reality in February 2001 when Dr. of PHILTOA.
Gloria Baken Wong-Siy was asked to join the trip to Singapore
 
to evaluate the performance of a 3 rd training partner together
with the CHED-NCR Director, Dr. Amelia A. Biglete who was The international character of modern tourism and the growing
impressed with the effect of the training abroad. influence of international agencies in various fields are shown
in the growth of international cooperation and organization in
•      Thus, she instructed Dr. Siy to come up with a strong
tourism. 
organization which could help CHED monitor the
implementation of the International Practicum Training Some countries and regions have felt the need to band
Program guidelines so that this program could be sustained.   together to strengthen their respective tourism programs. 
Countries that are often visited by tourists have a national
•      Inspired with this idea, Mrs. Ama and Dr. Siy worked on
tourism office that regulates and promotes tourist activities
the Constitution and By Laws with the assistance of Dr. Adela
such as the Department of Tourism in the Philippines.
J. Ruiz and called for an organizational meeting on February
24, 2001. There are also several national professional tourism
organizations that work closely with the government to promote
•      On February 27,2001, a meeting / workshop was held in
tourism in their respective countries.
Singapore and at the same time induction of officers of
AAHRMEI was held at the end of the activity wherein Dr. Siy as
the elected President.
•      Since then, AAHRMEI worked hard and has lived to its
objective of supporting CHED, TESDA, DOT and other
agencies to complement other organizations in order to pursue
quality and excellence in the hospitality education.  
•      It has extended its effort by establishing linkages abroad
to gain recognition for the hospitality and tourism education in
the Philippines.
 
Tourism Industry Board Foundation Inc. (TIBFI)
•    The Hotel and Restaurant Industry Board (HRIB) was
established in June 1980 by the National Manpower and Youth
Council (NMYC) in accordance with Article 50 of the New
Labor Code.
 4. Make an orderly list.

5. Draw a figure or picture.

MATH
6. Use a formula, model, or symmetry.
Polya’s Problem Solving Technique
7. Go through the process of elimination.
You may have heard or read of Polya’s problem-solving
technique, or you may have been using some of Polya’s
strategies without knowing it and where they came from. Here 8. Consider various cases.
is a concise discussion of Polya’s problem-solving technique.
9. Work backwards.
In his book “How to Solve It,” George Polya enumerates the
four basic principles of problem-solving: Establishing the connection between the known data and the
unknown will help you decide which strategy is most
1. Understand the problem; appropriate to use at that time. You may also have to
determine the questions you will have to answer before
answering the main question. The circumstances surrounding
2. Devise a plan;
the problem are also important. You may have encountered
similar or the same circumstances before.
3. Carry out the plan; and
The ability to discern which strategy is most appropriate is
4. Look back. obtained by solving many problems. The more problems you
are able to tackle, the easier it will be for you to determine an
Principle 1: Understand the Problem effective strategy readily.
Understanding the problem entails; Principle 3: Carry out the Plan

1. knowing the meaning of every keyword, expression,        Implement your chosen plan or combination of strategies.
Proceed with care, orderliness, patience, and persistence.
and symbol in the problem; Thoroughly check each step of your solution. Use assumptions
sparingly. If your plan does not lead you to a believably correct
2. determining the given data and whether they are answer, recheck your work. If your plan still fails, choose
sufficient; another strategy. This is how Thomas Edison worked until he
was able to produce the “perfect” bulb. It is always helpful to
start with a clean sheet of paper every time you recheck your
3. distinguishing which of these data are necessary to
work or change your strategy. You might not see the glitch in
solve the problem and which are superfluous; your solution if you go over a messy work with many erasures
or numbers superimposed on other numbers.
4. identifying what is not known and what is being
Principle 4: Look Back
required to be found; and
In any problem solving, looking back is as important as
5. establishing the limitations or conditions to which the understanding the problem itself. Reflecting on your work will
give you insights into why your initial plan did not work or why
given data are subjected. your adopted strategy worked in your favor. Going over your
work will enable you to appreciate the strategy and use it in
It is often helpful to restate the problem in your own words, list
future problem-solving activities. Checking your work ensures
down the given data, and draw a diagram or figure to better
that your answer is reasonably correct and whether you have
grasp the problem. Introducing your own notations or
truly answered the questions in the problem or not.
representations, such as when you let x be equal to an
unknown number or when you consider a shaded region of a
figure to represent a fraction of the area to be found, will give
you a better appreciation of the problem. Your ability to
represent mathematical information symbolically and visually
and restate it verbally is a sure sign that you have understood
the problem.
Principle 2: Devise a Plan
Devising a plan is strategizing. There are many ways to Process Flow:
approach or “attack” a problem based on its general nature.
Understand the Problem
1. Make a guess and check if it does solve the problem.
 What are the given data?
2. Represent the unknown and write an equation.
 What details are not known?
3. Look for a pattern either within the problem or from
previous problems solved.  What is required to be found?

Devise a Plan
 What is the nature of the problem? (arithmetic, algebraic,
geometric, probability, etc.)
 What are the possible strategies to adopt?
 Why have you chosen a particular strategy?
Carry out the Plan
 What steps were taken?
 Were there problems encountered?
 What materials did you need?
Look Back
 How effective was the plan?
 Could you have gotten the answer faster?
 How did you go about rechecking your work?
In your course of study in Mathematics, you may have used
several problem-solving techniques, such as guessing and
checking, assuming simpler values, looking for a pattern,
drawing a diagram, making a list, writing an equation, working
backwards, etc.
Let us see how each of the following problems can be solved
using a particular strategy.
Illustrative Example 1
Problem: If a woman is randomly chosen from a group of
mothers with exactly three children, what are the chances that
all her three children are male? 
There seem to be four possibilities. A woman can have three,
two, one, or no male children. So, you may conclude that there
is one out of four chances or 25% chance that a randomly
chosen woman would have three male children. However, that
is a wrong conclusion.
Solution:
Drawing a diagram (tree) and/or making a list of all possible
outcomes will help obtain the correct answer. Let us designate
B for boys and G for girls.
Illustrative Example 2
Problem: In a five story-condominium building, there are only
58 out of 75 units occupied. There are twice as many units
occupied on the fifth floor than on the third floor; three more
units occupied in the fourth floor than in the third floor; two
fewer units occupied in the second floor than in the fifth floor;
and one more unit occupied in the first floor than in the fifth
floor. How many units are occupied on each floor?
This problem can be solved by representing each quantity and
writing an equation.
Solution: 
Therefore, there are 7 occupied units on the third floor. Solve
and fill in the rest.
_______ occupied units on the first floor,
_______ occupied units on the second floor,
_______ occupied units on the fourth floor, and
_______ occupied units on the fifth floor.
Real-Life Problem Solving for the Quick-Witted
Unlike the ones above, some problems require quick thinking
and immediate action to resolve them. In real life, we may
encounter such problems or find ourselves in a situation where
our loved ones or we are put in imminent danger or physical
harm. So as not to be frozen by fear and by a pretentious hope
of someone else lending a hand, we need to develop mental
alertness.
       We all know what to do in case of a sudden power failure
at night in our home. We need to get our portable emergency
light on, be it a candle and lighter or matchsticks, flashlight, or
rechargeable lamp. To be prepared for such, we keep these
things in a place which we can easily grope our way in the
darkness. We then turn them on, check the windows, lock the
doors, and make sure everyone in the house is accounted for
and safe.
       We also get prepared for fires and earthquakes by
knowing what to do during these emergencies and even going
through a fire/earthquake drill. Below are two columns you
need to fill out with the things you need to do in case of fire or
earthquake.
Illustrative Example 3
While most accidents happen due to carelessness, many
accidents are preventable only if we have been drilled on what
to do, much like in a fire and earthquake drill. Studying
particular critical situations and dangerous scenarios
beforehand can help us be more prepared on how to behave
and what to do. Now, let us examine together two situations
where quick-wittedness and fast action are indispensable.

1. You are awakened in the middle of the night by a buzzing

sound and discover that an insect had crawled inside your ear.
That night you are alone in the house.
If your first instinct is to get a pair of tweezers, maybe you
should think twice before using it. It is difficult enough to pluck
out an insect that had gone deep inside your ear, even with the
help of someone. It would be doubtfully hard to do that all by
yourself. Even if the tweezers can get a good grip on the bug,
either the bug goes even deeper into your ear to avoid being
yanked out, or you will be able to pull out only a limb or some
body parts of the insect. Certainly, you do not want the insect
dying inside your ear. You think of bringing yourself to a
hospital and have the doctor/nurse there pluck it out. But the
drive to the hospital will take quite a while amidst moderate
traffic. Besides, the constant buzzing of the pesky insect is
driving you crazy. You have to get it out now. Then you
remember a lesson in Science class that bugs and insects are
attracted to bright light. So instead of getting a pair of tweezers
or your car keys, you fetch a flashlight or a goose-necked
lamp. You put its beam of light close to your ear and wait for
the insect to fly towards the light. 
Other than that, this situation implies two lessons: (1) clean
your ears regularly so that insects will not be attracted to
whatever is in there and (2) when one goes towards the light,
s/he can never come back.
2. You are enjoying a late afternoon swim 200 meters away
from shore when all of a sudden, the sky becomes dark and a
thunderstorm ensues. You simultaneously hear thunder rolling
and see lightning flashing. Your rowboat is anchored about 200
meters from the shore too. 
Your first thought might be to get onto the rowboat, lift its
anchor, and row it to shore. But then you remember two
lessons in Earth Science. First, when thunder and lightning
occur almost simultaneously, the thunderstorm is very near
your location. Second, lightning strikes the highest projection at
sea; if you get onto the boat, the chances of lightning hitting
you is highest. Your best option, therefore, is to simply swim to
shore and find shelter there. Never mind the rowboat in the
meantime as you can always come back for it after the
thunderstorm.

NSTP
DECISION MAKING
Decision making is the process of making choices by
identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing
alternative resolutions.  KINDS OF DECISION (THOMPSON, J.L. 1997)
Using a step-by-step decision making process can help you
make more deliberate, thoughtful decisions by organizing
relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach
increases the chances that you will choose the most satisfying
alternative possible. 
Decision making is important to achieve the organizational
goals/objectives within given time and budget. It searches the
best alternative, utilizes the resources properly and satisfies
the employees at the workplace. As a result, organizational
goals or objectives can be achieved as per the desired result
You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to
implement the alternative you chose in Step 5. 
Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences 
In this final step, consider the results of your decision and
evaluate whether or not it has resolved the need you identified
in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you
may want to repeat certain steps of the process to make a new
decision. For example, you might want to gather more detailed
or somewhat different information or explore additional
alternatives.
 
A. Operational Decisions 
such as marketing, production, finance, will contribute to its
strategic plan. 
B. Strategic Decisions 
is likely concerned with the scope of organization’s activities. 
C. Routine Decisions 
the decisions are left to one person, usually the leader 

7 STEPS IN TO EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING  D. Urgent Decisions 

Step 1: Identify the decision  is a decisions intended for some problems that occur rapidly
and may cause serious consequences if not dealt with
You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly urgency. 
define the nature of the decision you must make. This first step
is very important.  E. Problematic Decisions 

Step 2: Gather relevant information  Experts from outside the team may be called to give advice 

Collect some pertinent information before you make your F. Consultative decision 
decision: what information is needed, the best sources of
information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal consulting other people from outside the organization means
and external “work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it inviting others to serve as consultant.
through a process of self-assessment. Other information is
external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and
from other sources.  Difficulties in Decision Making 
Step 3: Identify the alternatives 
 Fear of Consequences 
As you collect information, you will probably identify several
possible paths of action, or alternatives. You can also use your  Conflicting loyalties 
imagination and additional information to construct new  Interpersonal Conflict 
alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable
alternatives.  Hidden Agenda 
 Blundering Methods 
Step 4: Weigh the evidence 
 Inadequate Leadership 
Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it
would be like if you carried out each of the alternatives to the  Clash of Interest 
end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be
met or resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go Involvement in Decision Making
through this difficult internal process, you’ll begin to favor
certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential A. The Plop 
for reaching your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a
The group makes a decision by not making decision
priority order, based upon your own value system. 
B. The One-Person Decision 
Step 5: Choose among alternatives 
This is quickly made, but later when the decider depends in
Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to
free or voluntary support from others to implement it. 
select the alternative that seems to be best one for you. You
may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in C. The Handclasp 
Step 5 may very likely be the same or similar to the alternative
you placed at the top of your list at the end of Step 4.  One person makes a suggestion another says what a
marvelous idea and without further discussion, the matter is
Step 6: Take action  decided. 
D. The Clique 
Is made by a small group who plans beforehand to get their
way. 
E. Minority 
Not consciously organized as those of clique, but a few
powerful personalities dominate the group. 
F. Majority Vote 
This is often the most effective way to make decision. 
G. Silent Consensus 
Unanimous agreement is sometimes assumed, when some
members have not felt free to disagree and have kept silent 
H. Consensus 
This is an agreement involving compromise or the combination
of various possibilities after all opinions have been heard.
P.E

CHAPTER 9: TWO TYPES OF BODY

MOVEMENTS
LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENTS 
NON-LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENTS D. HOP - THE HOP REQUIRES A PUSH-OFF FROM ONE
FOOT AND LANDING ON THE SAME FOOT. SPRINGING
TWO TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS ON ONE FOOT AND LANDING ON THE SAME FOOT.
1. LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENTS 
- THESE ARE MOVEMENTS WHERE THE BODY TRAVELS
THROUGH SPACE FROM ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER.
LOCOMOTOR MOVEMENTS PRIMARILY USE THE FEET
FOR SUPPORT HOWEVER, THE BODY CAN TRAVEL ON
OTHER PARTS SUCH AS THE HANDS AND FEET.
EVEN RHYTHM

E. LEAP - A LEAP IS PERFORMED BY PUSHING OFF

A. WALK - IS A TRANSFER OF WEIGHT FROM ONE FOOT
TO THE OTHER. USUALLY THE HEEL TOUCHES FIRST.
SHIFTING ONE’S WEIGHT FROM ONE FOOT TO THE
OTHER.
FROM ONE FOOT AND LANDING ON THE OTHER FOOT.
THE BODY IS SUSPENDED IN THE AIR BETWEEN THE
PUSH OFF AND THE LANDING. IT CAN BE COMBINED
WITH A RUN OR WALK. SPRINGING ON ONE FOOT AND
LANDING ON THE FOOT-WIDE STRIDE
UNEVEN RHYTHM

B. RUN - IS A TRANSFER OF WEIGHT FROM ONE FOOT

TO THE OTHER. HOWEVER, THE BODY IS PROPELLED
INTO THE AIR AND SUSPENDED BETWEEN RUN STEPS

A. SKIP - A COMBINATION OF A STEP AND A HOP ON THE

SAME FOOT FOLLOWED BY A STEP AND HOP ON THE
OTHER FOOT. THE RHYTHM IS UNEVEN LONG -SHORT.
LONG (THE STEP) AND SHORT (THE HOP).

C. JUMP – IT REQUIRES THE BODY TO PUSH OFF FROM

ONE OR BOTH FEET. MOST COMMON IS A TWO FOOT
TAKE OFF AND TWO-FOOT LANDING. A JUMP CAN TAKE
OFF ON ONE FOOT AND LAND ON TWO OR TAKE OFF
FROM TWO FEET AND LAND ONE FOOT; GOING UP AND
DOWN, WITH BOTH FEET IN THE AIR AT ONCE.
B. GALLOP - A FORWARD MOVEMENT WHERE ONE FOOT
LEADS THE GALLOP WHILE THE OTHER FOOT FOLLOWS. C. TURN - A FULL ROTATION OF THE BODY AROUND A
THE LEAD FOOTSTEPS WITH BENT KNEES AND PUSHES VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL AXIS. FULL, HALF OR
OFF INTO THE AIR AND LANDING ON THE TRAILING QUARTER TURN
FOOT. THE RHYTHM IS UNEVEN, LONG -SHORT. LONG
(THE STEP) AND SHORT (THE LANDING). STEPPING ON
ONE FOOT AND CUTTING THE OTHER, EITHER
SIDEWARD OR FORWARD.

D. BALANCE – AN EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT

ENABLING YOU TO REMAIN UPRIGHT AND STEADY.

C. Slide - Is similar to a gallop performed with the right or left

foot leading. The rhythm is uneven, long -short. Long (the step)
and short (the landing).
2. NON-LOCOMOTOR – MOVEMENTS THAT PERFORM IN
STABLE POSITION. IT IS NOT REQUIRE TO MOVE THE
BODY IN PLACE TO ANOTHER PLACE
E. BEND - A FLEX OF A BODY PART AT A JOINT. MOVING
THE MUSCLES AROUND THE JOINT WHERE 2 BODY
PARTS MEET

A. SWING - A PENDULA MOTION OF A BODY PART THAT

CAN MOVE FORWARD AND BACKWARD OR SIDE TO
SIDE. A PENDULA MOVEMENT BELOW AN AXIS.
F. STRETCH - EXTENDING A BODY PART OR THE WHOLE
BODY. DONE BY STRAIGHTENING OR EXTENDING ANY
PART OF THE BODY FROM THE JOINTS.
G. ROCK OR SWAY - SHIFT OF THE BODY WEIGHT
FORWARD, BACKWARD, SIDE TO SIDE OR IN A
CIRCULAR PATHWAY. A PENDULA MOVEMENT ABOVE AN
AXIS.

B. TWIST - A PARTIAL ROTATION OF BODY PARTS

AROUND AN AXIS. MOVING A PART OF THE BODY
AROUND A LONG AXIS, USUALLY FOR HEAD AND BODY

ETHICS
     LET’S BEGIN!
An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close
association or acquaintance between two or more people that
may range in duration from brief to enduring. The context can
vary
from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations
with
associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship.  infants used their cloth "mothers" as a secure base from which
Relationships may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual
agreement, and form the basis of social groups and
of society as a whole.  The study of interpersonal relationships
involves several branches of the social sciences, including
such disciplines
as communication studies, psychology, anthropology, social w
ork, sociology, and mathematics.
Types Intimate relationships
 
•      Romantic relationships generally - Romantic
relationships have been defined in countless ways, by writers,
philosophers, religions, scientists, and in the modern day,
relationship counselors. Two popular definitions of love are
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love and Fisher's theory of
love. Sternberg defines love in terms of intimacy, passion, and
commitment, which he claims exist in varying levels in different
romantic relationships. Fisher defines love as composed of
three stages: attraction, romantic love, and attachment.
Romantic relationships may exist between two people of any
gender, or among a group of people.
•      Romance - The single defining quality of a romantic
relationship is the presence of love. Love is therefore equally
difficult to define. Hazan and Shaver define love, using
Ainsworth's attachment theory, as comprising proximity,
emotional support, self-exploration, and separation distress
when parted from the loved one. Other components commonly
agreed to be necessary for love are physical attraction,
similarity, reciprocity, and self-disclosure.
•      Platonic love - As the Merriam Webster dictionary
explains platonic love as, " love conceived by Plato as
ascending from passion for the individual to contemplation of
the universal and ideal." It is a love that is affectionate but not
sexual; in modern terms it can be easily be mistaken for a
sexual relationship.
•      Marital relationship - Although nontraditional
relationships continue to rise, marriage still makes up the
majority of relationships except among emerging adults. It is
also still considered by many to occupy a place of greater
importance among family and social structures.
Familial relationships
 
Parent-child - In ancient times, parent-child relationships
•          
were often marked by fear, either of rebellion or abandonment,
resulting in the strict filial roles in, for example, ancient Rome
and China. Freud conceived of the Oedipal complex, the
supposed obsession that young boys have towards their
mother and the accompanying fear and rivalry with their father,
and the Electra complex, in which the young girl feels that her
mother has castrated her and therefore becomes obsessed
with her father. Freud's ideas influenced thought on parent-
child relationships for decades.
 
The study laid the groundwork
for Mary Ainsworth’s attachment theory, showing how the
to explore.  In a series of studies using the strange situation, a
scenario in which an infant is separated from then reunited with
the parent, Ainsworth defined three styles of parent-child
relationship.
securely attached infants miss the parent, greet them
•          
happily upon return, and show normal exploration and lack of
fear when the parent is present
insecure avoidant infants show little distress upon
•          
separation and ignore the caregiver when they return; they
explore little when the parent is present
insecure ambivalent infants are highly distressed by
•          
separation, but continue to be distressed upon the parent's
return; these infants also explore little and display fear even
when the parent is present
some psychologists have suggested a fourth attachment
•          
style, disorganized, so called because the infants’ behavior
appeared disorganized or disoriented.
•          
Siblings - Sibling relationships have a profound effect on
social, psychological, emotional, and academic outcomes.
Although proximity and contact usually decreases over time,
sibling bonds continue to affect people throughout their lives.
Sibling relationships are affected by parent-child relationships,
such that sibling relationships in childhood often reflect the
positive or negative aspects of children's relationships with
their parents.
Other examples of interpersonal relationship
•       Egalitarian and Platonic friendship, Enemy
•       Frenemy — a person with whom an individual maintains a
friendly interaction despite underlying conflict, possibly
encompassing rivalry, mistrust, jealousy or competition
•       Neighbor, Business
relationships, Partnership, Employer and employee, Contractor
, Customer, Landlord and tenant, Coworker, Official
 
Stages
One of the most influential models of relationship development
was proposed by a psychologist George Levinger. This model
was formulated to describe heterosexual, adult romantic
relationships, but it has been applied to other kinds of
interpersonal relations as well. According to the model, the
natural development of a relationship follows five stages:
1.    Acquaintance and acquaintanceship – Becoming
acquainted depends on previous relationships,
physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other
factors. If two people begin to like each other, continued
interactions may lead to the next stage, but acquaintance can
continue indefinitely. Another example is the association.
2.    Buildup – During this stage, people begin to trust and care
about each other. The need for intimacy, compatibility and
such filtering agents as common background and goals will
influence whether or not interaction continues.
3.    Continuation – This stage follows a mutual commitment to
quite a strong and close long-term friendship, romantic
relationship, or even marriage. It is generally a long, relatively
stable period. Nevertheless, continued growth and
development will occur during this time. Mutual trust is
important for sustaining the relationship.
4.    Deterioration – Not all relationships deteriorate, but those
that do tend to show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment,
and dissatisfaction may occur, and individuals may
communicate less and avoid self-disclosure. Loss of trust and
betrayals may take place as the downward spiral continues,
eventually ending the relationship. (Alternately, the participants
may find some way to resolve the problems and reestablish
trust and belief in others.)
5.    Ending – The final stage marks the end of the relationship,
either by breakups, death or by spatial separation for quite
some time and severing all existing ties of either friendship
or romantic love.
Terminating a relationship
The American Psychological Association has summarized the
evidence on breakups. Breaking up can actually be a positive
experience when the relationship did not expand the self and
when the breakup leads to personal growth. They also
recommend some ways to cope with the experience:
•       Purposefully focusing on the positive aspects of the
breakup ("factors leading up to the break-up, the actual break-
up, and the time right after the break-up")
•       Minimizing the negative emotions
•       Journaling the positive aspects of the breakup (e.g.
"comfort, confidence, empowerment, energy, happiness,
optimism, relief, satisfaction, thankfulness, and wisdom"). This
exercise works best, although not exclusively, when the
breakup is mutual.
 
Pathological relationships
•          
Abusive - Abusive relationships involve either
maltreatment or violence from one individual to another and
include physical abuse, physical neglect, sexual abuse, and
emotional maltreatment.   the behavior of other people. When two parties have or assert
•          
Codependent - Codependency initially focused on a
codependent partner enabling substance abuse, but has
become more broadly defined to describe a dysfunctional
relationship with extreme dependence on or preoccupation with
another person. There are some who even refer to
codependency as an addiction to the relationship. The focus of
a codependent individual tends to be on the emotional state,
behavioral choices, thoughts, and beliefs of another person.
Often those who are codependent neglect themselves in favor
of taking care of others and have difficulty fully developing their
identity on their own.
•          
Narcissists - Narcissists focus on themselves and often
distance themselves from intimate relationships; the focus of
narcissistic interpersonal relationships is to promote one's
selfconcept. Generally, narcissists show less empathy in
relationships and view love pragmatically or as a game
involving others' emotions.
 
Importance
Human beings are innately social and are shaped by their
experiences with others. There are multiple perspectives to
understand this inherent motivation to interact with others.
•      Need to belong - According
to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, humans need to feel love
(sexual/nonsexual) and acceptance from social groups (family,
peer groups). In fact, the need to belong is so innately
ingrained that it may be strong enough to overcome
physiological and safety needs, such as children's attachment
to abusive parents or staying in abusive romantic relationships.
Such examples illustrate the extent to which the
psychobiological drive to belong is entrenched.
•      Social exchange - Another way to appreciate the
importance of relationships is in terms of a reward framework.
This perspective suggests that individuals engage in relations
that are rewarding in both tangible and intangible ways. The
concept fits into a larger theory of social exchange. This theory
is based on the idea that relationships develop as a result
of cost-benefit analysis. Individuals seek out rewards in
interactions with others and are willing to pay a cost for said
rewards. In the best-case scenario, rewards will exceed costs,
producing a net gain. This can lead to "shopping around" or
constantly comparing alternatives to maximize the benefits or
rewards while minimizing costs.
•      Relational self - Relationships are also important for their
ability to help individuals develop a sense of self. The relational
self is the part of an individual's self-concept that consists of
the feelings and beliefs that one has regarding oneself that
develops based on interactions with others. In other words,
one's emotions and behaviors are shaped by prior
relationships. Relational self-theory posits that prior and
existing relationships influence one's emotions and behaviors
in interactions with new individuals, particularly those
individuals that remind him or her of others in his or her life.
Studies have shown that exposure to someone who resembles
a significant other activates specific selfbeliefs, changing how
one thinks about oneself in the moment more so than exposure
to someone who does not resemble one's significant other.
•      Power and dominance - Power is the ability to influence
unequal levels of power, one is termed "dominant" and the
other "submissive". Expressions of dominance can
communicate intention to assert or maintain dominance in a
relationship. Being submissive can be beneficial because it
saves time, emotional stress, and may avoid hostile actions
such as withholding of resources, cessation of cooperation,
termination of the relationship, maintaining a grudge, or even
physical violence. Submission occurs in different degrees; for
example, some employees may follow orders without question,
whereas others might express disagreement but concede
when pressed.
•      Relationship satisfaction - Social exchange theory and
Rusbult's investment model shows that relationship satisfaction
is based on three factors: rewards, costs, and comparison
levels (Miller, 2012). Rewards refer to any aspects of the
partner or relationship that are positive. Conversely, costs are
the negative or unpleasant aspects of the partner or their
relationship. Comparison level includes what each partner
expects of the relationship. The comparison level is influenced
by past relationships, and general relationship expectations
they are taught by family and friends.
 
Theories and empirical research
 
•      Confucianism - Confucianism is a study and theory of
relationships especially within hierarchies. Social harmony—
the central goal of Confucianism—results in part from every
individual knowing his or her place in the social order, and
playing his or her part well. Particular duties arise from each
person's particular situation in relation to others. The individual
stands simultaneously in several different relationships with
different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders,
and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and
others. Juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their
seniors reverence and seniors have duties of benevolence and
concern toward juniors. A focus on mutuality is prevalent in
East Asian cultures to this day.
 
•      Minding relationships - The mindfulness theory of
relationships shows how closeness in relationships may be
enhanced. Minding is the "reciprocal knowing process involving
the nonstop, interrelated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of
persons in a relationship." Five components of "minding"
include:
1.    Knowing and being known: seeking to understand the
partner
2.    Making relationship-enhancing attributions for behaviors:
giving the benefit of the doubt
3.    Accepting and respecting: empathy and social skills
4.    Maintaining reciprocity: active participation in relationship
enhancement 5. Continuity in minding: persisting in
mindfulness
 
In popular culture
Popular perceptions - Popular perceptions of intimate
•          
relationships are strongly influenced by movies and television.
Common messages are that love is predestined, love at first
sight is possible, and that love with the right person always
succeeds. Those who consume the most romance-related
media tend to believe in predestined romance and that those
who are destined to be together implicitly understand each
other. These beliefs, however, can lead to less communication
and problem-solving as well as giving up on relationships more
easily when conflict is encountered.
Social media - Social media has changed the face of
•          
interpersonal relationships. Romantic interpersonal
relationships are no less impacted. For example, in the United
States, Facebook has become an integral part of the dating
process for emerging adults. Social media can have both
positive and negative impacts on romantic relationships. For
example, supportive social networks have been linked to more
stable relationships. However, social media usage can also
facilitate conflict, jealousy, and passive aggressive behaviors
such as spying on a partner. Aside from direct effects on the
development, maintenance, and perception of romantic
relationships, excessive social network usage is linked to
jealousy and dissatisfaction in relationships.
Interpersonal Skills: Definitions and Examples
 
What is interpersonal communication?
Interpersonal communication is the process of face-to-face
exchange of thoughts, ideas, feelings and emotions between
two or more people. This includes both verbal
and nonverbal elements of personal interaction.
 
What are interpersonal skills?
Interpersonal skills are traits you rely on when you interact
and communicate with others. They cover a variety of
scenarios where communication and cooperation are essential.
These skills involve the ability to communicate and build
relationships with others. Often called people skills, they tend
to incorporate both your innate personality traits and how
you’ve learned to handle certain social situations. Effective
interpersonal skills can help you during the job interview
process and can have a positive impact on your career
advancement.  Some examples of interpersonal skills include:
Active listening,
Teamwork, Responsibility, Dependability, Leadership,
Motivation, Flexibility, Patience, Empathy
 
Why are interpersonal skills important?
Strong interpersonal skills can help you during the job interview
process as interviewers look for applicants who can work well
with others. They will also help you succeed in almost any job
by helping you understand other people and adjusting your
approach to work together effectively. For example, while a
software engineer may spend the majority of her time working
on code independently, she may need to collaborate with other
programmers to effectively bring a product to market.
Interpersonal skills examples
Unlike technical or “hard” skills, interpersonal skills are “soft”
skills that are easily transferable across industries and
positions. Employers value interpersonal skills because they
contribute to positive work environments and help maintain an
efficient workflow.  Here is a list of interpersonal skills for you to
identify interpersonal skills you may possess that are valuable
to employers:
•      Active listening- Active listening means listening to
others with the purpose of gathering information and engaging
with the speaker. Active listeners avoid distracting behaviors
while in conversation with others. This can mean putting away
or closing laptops or mobile devices while listening, and asking
and answering questions when prompted.
•      Dependability - Dependable people can be relied on in
any given situation. This can include anything from being
punctual to keeping promises. Employers highly value
dependable workers and trust them with important tasks and
duties.  
•      Empathy - A worker’s emotional intelligence is how well
they understand the needs and feelings of others. Employers
may hire empathetic or compassionate employees to create a
positive, highfunctioning workplace.
•      Leadership - Leadership is an important interpersonal
skill that involves effective decision making. Effective leaders
incorporate many other interpersonal skills, like empathy and
patience, to make decisions. Leadership skills can be used by
both managers and individual contributors. In any role,
employers value people who take ownership to reach common
goals.
•      Teamwork - The ability to work together as a team is
extremely valuable in every workplace. Teamwork involves
many other interpersonal skills like communication, active
listening, flexibility and responsibility. Those who are good
team players are often given important tasks in the workplace
and may be seen as good candidates for promotions.
 
 
How to improve interpersonal skills
1.    Attend workshops or online classes. There are several
workshops, online classes and videos on ways you can
practice building interpersonal skills. While many are free,
some are available at a cost.
2.    Seek out opportunities to build relationships. If you
work from home or do not otherwise have many opportunities
to build interpersonal skills, you might consider joining a group.
This could be related to your work like networking or industry-
specific groups, or simply a group that shares a similar interest
or hobby.
3.    Be thoughtful about ways your interactions could
improve. Take time to review the interactions you have and
consider ways you could have interacted more effectively. This
might be certain words you said, ways you reacted or body
language you used.
4.    Ask trusted friends or colleagues for constructive
criticism. It is helpful to get a third-party perspective about
your skill level and specific ways you can improve. Ask friends
or trusted colleagues to provide constructive criticism regarding
your interpersonal skills.
5.    Observe other positive interpersonal interactions. It
can also be helpful to learn by seeing others use interpersonal
skills. Observe positive interactions of those around you and
apply those qualities you admire to your own relationships.
Seek out mentorship. Asking someone you trust, admire and
respect to counsel you on improving interpersonal skills and
advancing in your career overall can be an extremely effective
way to learn.

PHILIPPINE HISTORY
The background of Rizal’s retraction was retrieved from
Ricardo R. Pascual’s book entitled “Dr. Jose Rizal Beyond the
Grave: A Vindication of the Martyr of Bagumbayan.”
         On May 18, 1935, a document was discovered in the
vault of the Archbishop of Manila by Father Manuel Gracial.
This document, among others, is the much debated "original"
of Dr. Jose Rizal's retraction of his anti-Catholic writings and
propaganda as well as his affiliation to Masonry. With its
discovery, the Church and her devotees claim with proud mien
that this document supposed and believed to have been
mislaid was in fact lying all the while in this "providential vault"
- a very providential omission according to the Catholics - only
to be brought to light in this "providential hour." Thanks to the
Providential Hand that directed the events that way. It only
seems too "providential" all the way through.
        Upon this discovery also, many of the opposite opinions
suggest some attending circumstances that may discredit the
execution "in good faith" of this priceless document. Some say
it was forced upon Rizal, and there are examples of forced
retraction which are cited as proof. The usual answer is that
force is not fitting in the character of Rizal as a means to make
him do something against his will. This contention that force
cannot be used upon Rizal, because that hypothesis does not
fit itself with the character of Rizal, who simply cannot be
coerced by force to do something much against his will, is an
ingenious argument, for indeed Rizal was a person of manly
character. But it is also to forget that despite his manly
character, Rizal succumbed to force, however much he hated
it. The proof of which is his own forced death, which he
protested against with his innocence.  members to renounce their faith. The Jesuits allowed Rizal to
Last Part of the Letter of Fr. Vicente Balaguer S.J. to Rev.
Pio Pi
         Yes, my dear Father, I can affirm with full certainty and
Your Reverence tell all the Manila Christians and that entire
country, that Rizal was never irreligious or bigoted, never an
enemy of the Church; that he was a young man waylaid for
some time by factors around him; that he was a good patriot,
and desired in good faith the welfare and the independence of
his country; that he confessed to me in the chapel that he had
never approved armed revolution; that he had hoped to win
autonomy and later independence through legal means. But
deep in his heart, he was in the beginning and at the end of his
life a good Christian. Let them honor the memory of Rizal, a
good Christian at heart, the first hero of the Philippines.
         For the full text of the letter of Fr. Vicente Balaguer S.J. to
Rev. Pio Pi, visit this link:
http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/2013/pu
blic/2013-2112-1-PB.pdf  was talking not to Fr. Balaguer but to Frs. March and Vilaclara.
Rene Escalante (2019) discussed two different versions of
Rizal’s retraction.
An Excerpt of Jesuit Version 
        According to Fr. Balaguer, he and Fr. Vilaclara arrived in
Rizal’s prison cell around 10 o’clock in the morning. He
mentioned in his letter and affidavit that their encounter with
Rizal started with a discussion of some articles of the Catholic
faith. They debated on issues such as the supremacy of faith
over reason and the dogmatic differences that divided
Catholics and Protestants. Since time was not on their side,
they persuaded Rizal not to spend so much time discussing
faith-related issues and focus instead on how to die in the state
of grace so that he could enter heaven. They explained to him
that they could not administer the sacraments he needed
without him signing a retraction letter and making a profession
of faith. Fr. Balaguer mentioned that Rizal softened a bit when
he warned him that his soul would go to hell if he did not return
to the Catholic fold. He reminded him that outside the Catholic
Church, there was no salvation (Extra Ecclesiam
Catholicamnulladatursalus) (Cavanna 1956, 8). The two
Jesuits left Rizal’s prison around lunchtime, with Rizal still
undecided over whether to sign the retraction letter or not. The
Jesuits went straight to the archbishop’s palace and informed
their superiors of what had transpired during their first meeting
with Rizal. 
         Frs. Balaguer and Vilaclara returned to Rizal around 3
o’clock in the afternoon and tried until sunset to persuade him
to recant. They were still not able to convince him to sign the
retraction document. Their third meeting with Rizal took place
at 10 o’clock that night, and it was during this meeting that they
showed Rizal the two retraction templates Fr. Pi had given
them. According to Fr. Balaguer, Rizal found the first template
unacceptable because it was too long and its language and
style were not reflective of his personality (Arcilla 1994, 114).
So Fr. Balaguer withdrew it and offered the shorter one. Rizal
did not sign it right away because he was uncomfortable with
the statement “I abominate Masonry as a society reprobated
by the Church.” He said he had met Masons in London who
had nothing against the Catholic religion. Rizal wanted to
emphasize that Philippine Masonry was not hostile to
Catholicism and that Masonry in London did not require its
revise the retraction template, and his final version read, “I
abominate Masonry as the enemy of the Church and
reprobated by the same Church” (Cavanna 1956, 9). After
making other minor changes to the draft, Rizal signed his
retraction letter before midnight. Fr. Balaguer handed it over to
Fr. Pi, who in turn submitted it to Archbishop Bernardino
Nozaleda (Guerrero 1971, 459).
        For the full text of Jesuit version of Rizal’s retraction, visit
this link: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seas/8/3/8_369/_pdf
An Excerpt of Cuerpo de Vigilancia Version 
        In his affidavit, Fr. Balaguer declared that he talked to
Rizal three times on December 29, 1896. The first time was in
the morning, from 10 to 12:30. It was during this meeting that
he presented the retraction template to Rizal but the latter did
not sign. Moreno Jose Rizal, Phil. Revolution, Cuerpo de
Vigilancia 381 confirmed this meeting, including the
presentation of the draft retraction. But he reported that Rizal
Moreno also confirmed that Frs. March and Vilaclara returned
to Rizal around 3 o’clock in the afternoon. Fr. Balaguer claimed
in his affidavit that he was one of Rizal’s afternoon visitors. Fr.
Balaguer continued that the third time he talked to Rizal was
around 10 in the evening. He had another lengthy and
passionate discussion with him for more than an hour. It was to Aguinaldo the cessation of agitation in exchange of
on this occasion that Rizal finally signed his retraction letter. pardon.
Moreno confirmed that Rizal had visitors after dinner, but the
persons he identified were Señor Andrade, Señor Maure, and         There are also not a few people who believe that the
Frs. March and Vilaclara. Again, Fr. Balaguer was not autobiography of Josephine Bracken, written on February
mentioned, and the time of the meeting was 9 o’clock and not 22, 1897 is also forged and forged badly. The document
shortly before midnight. Neither did Moreno’s report mention supposedly written by Josephine herself supported the
that they discussed issues concerning faith and the retraction. fact that they were married under the Catholic rites. But
The narrative is short and ends with Rizal going to bed. upon closer look, there is a glaring difference between the
penmanship of the document, and other letters written by
For the full text of Cuerpo de Vigilancia’s version of Rizal Josephine to Rizal.
retraction, visit this link:
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seas/8/3/8_369/_pdf         Surely, we must put the question of retraction to rest,
though Rizal is a hero, whether he retracted or not, we
must investigate if he really did a turn-around. If he did
not, and the documents were forgeries, then somebody
Peter Jaynul V. Uckung (2012) discussed the authenticity has to pay for trying to deceive a nation.
of Rizal’s Retraction.
        It was supposed to have been signed by Jose Rizal
moments before his death. There were many witnesses,
most of them are Jesuits. The document only surfaced for
public viewing on May 13, 1935. It was found by Fr. Manuel
A. Gracia at the Catholic hierarchy’s archive in Manila. But
the original document was never shown to the public, only
reproductions of it.
        However, Fr. Pio Pi, a Spanish Jesuit, reported that as
early as 1907, the retraction of Rizal was copied verbatim
and published in Spain, and reprinted in Manila. Fr. Gracia,
who found the original document, also copied it verbatim.
        In both reproductions, there were conflicting versions
of the text. Add to this the date of the signing was very
clear in the original Spanish document which Rizal
supposedly signed. The date was “December 29, 1890.”
        Later, another supposedly original document
surfaced, bearing the date “December 29, 189C”. The
number “0” was evidently altered to make it look like a
letter C. Then still later, another supposedly original
version came up. It has the date “December 29, 1896”.
This time, the “0” became a “6”.

So which is which?
        Those who strongly believed the faking of the Rizal
retraction document reported that the forger of Rizal’s
signature was Roman Roque, the man who also forged the
signature of Urbano Lacuna, which was used to capture
Aguinaldo. The mastermind, they say, in both Lacuna’s
and Rizal’s signature forging was Lazaro Segovia. They
were approached by Spanish friars during the final day of
the Filipino-American war to forge Rizal’s signature.
        This story was revealed by Antonio K. Abad, who
heard the tale from Roman Roque himself, them being
neighbours.
        To this day, the retraction issue is still raging like a
wild fire in the forest of the night.
        Others would like to believe that the purported
retraction of Rizal was invented by the friars to deflect the
heroism of Rizal which was centered on the friar abuses.
        Incidentally, Fr. Pio Pi, who copied verbatim Rizal’s
retraction, also figured prominently during the revolution.
It was him, Andres Bonifacio reported, who had intimated

CONTEMP
GLOBAL MEDIA
Globalization is not only economical, wherein the flow of
goods, capital, exchange of commodities, trade, and others are
conducted on a scale that involves a highly interconnected,
integrated, and interdependent world. However, aside from
this, this process also involves a cultural aspect involving the
flow of ideas, people, practices, knowledge, and culture. This is
achieved through the development and use of technologies
across international boundaries.
We can communicate by appealing to each one’s different
senses, such as the sense of smell, sight, hearing, taste, and
touch. Predominantly, we relay our messages or ideas through
our sense of sight or hearing. Society has become increasingly
complex, thereby making direct communication an increasingly
complicated matter. The majority of Filipinos at least have one
relative or knows someone who is an overseas Filipino worker.
We cannot visit them where they choose to work, but we want
to communicate with them consistently. Before the Internet was
invented, relatives of OFWs communicated with their loved
ones through postal mail, voice tapes, long-distance telephone
calls, or telegram.
Now, we are exposed to different social practices, beliefs,
activities, and cultural norms from societies located in various
parts of the world through the Internet, television, films,
newspapers, and magazines. These factors influence our
worldviews, preferences, and individual and collective
dispositions in one way or another. Mass media has become
an indelible feature of societal advances and a means through
which these advances are experienced by people worldwide.
With the advent of technology and the invention of various
platforms, such as the Internet and telecommunications,
through which communication and interconnectivity are
enabled, mass media is considered as the vessel through
which culture can be formed and understood. Media is also
considered as a location where social practices and customs
are realized and recorded. Contents featured through media
may vary, but almost all reflect the unique experiences,
observations, ways of life, and the individuals utilizing it. These
contents can then influence the worldview of the people
receiving or consuming these contents through the same
media or outlets available to them.
What is Media?
Mass media refers to different forms of technology used in
transmitting messages, ideas, and opinions to a large and
diverse group of people from various places. At present, mass
media is categorized into traditional and new media.
Traditional media refers to the conventional means of mass
communication, such as advertisements, newspapers,
magazines, radio, television, billboards, and films. These can
be traced to the time when humankind saw the need and
learned to communicate with one another. Cave paintings, sign
language, and a simple conversation can be considered forms
of traditional media. Moreover, it remains to be a reliable
platform for relaying information and knowledge to humans
across territorial divides. Except for telegram and telephone,
traditional media tends to be one-directional. It facilitates a
one-way communication where the person on the receiving
end cannot respond or give real-time feedback on the
information or message relayed to him or her.
Meanwhile, new media are a means of mass communication
that rely on or use computer technology as the platform.
Feedback from the recipient to the creator of the message or
information is minimal, if not inexistent. These are blogs, vlogs,
social media, email, websites, chatrooms, etc. New media’s
advantage over traditional media is its flexibility; it is more
accessible than traditional media. It allows individuals to be
involved in a communicative process to give feedback to each
other’s opinions, information, or messages in real-time, as
evidenced by our use of mobile phones, chat rooms, social
media, etc. In addition to allowing two-way communication,
new media bypasses communication time-space dimensions
more conveniently than traditional media. At present, we can
communicate with our relatives or friends from other parts of
the world in different time zones in real-time, thereby enabling
connectivity that traditional media was unable to attain. Media
scholars also argue that media enables communication and
allows for practice or culture to be transferred or practiced by
other groups. The information, content, knowledge, and
messages carried through media alter the traditional
understanding of people’s culture, ways of life, and beliefs to
integrate new and different ways of life of other groups of
people. With continuous exposure to various aspects of the
social existence of other groups, it becomes increasingly
familiar and integrated into their ways of life. This phenomenon
shrinks the vast and diverse groups of people in different parts
of the world into groups sharing similar identities and practices.
MEDIA CULTURE
However, media significance is no longer confined to the role
of relaying information, messages, or knowledge. It has been
proven that much of modern culture is transmitted by the media
or mass communication. In this sense, media can influence
and even alter how people worldwide experience and create
knowledge, information, and cultural exercises across various
aspects of social existence. Jansson added that media culture
is a sociocultural condition wherein commodities and media
texts are important for establishing and expressing cultural
identity. Generally, media culture refers to societies
predominantly influenced by Western capitalist culture through
mass media. This concept magnifies the impact of media on a
global scale.
Jack Lule (2014) explained that globalization could not exist
without media. The human impulse to globalize and the human
need to communicate over distance proceeded together
through history, each driving and influencing the other. To
understand this, Lule proposed five time periods of world
globalization. These five periods are as follows:
1. Oral Communication – Human speech is the oldest of
all media in humanity’s history. Lule explained that
speech had been around for at least 200,000 years ago
compared with the script (7,000 years), print (600
years), and digital technology (less than 50 years). In
 time, speech would develop into language, which will
enable humans to communicate, setting them apart
from other species, allowing them to cover and conquer
the world. Language would enable humans
cooperate and coordinate their activities amid a
hazardous and precarious environment. Whether it be
in hunting or transferring from one place to another in
search of food or sharing information to improve their
chances of survival, humankind would use language to
conduct these activities in a concerted manner, thereby
eventually leading to early humans populating the
farthest parts of the world.
2. Script – Lule considered this crucial for globalization
and culture. He argues that oral speech is imperfect.
Orally transmitted messages and information lose
accuracy when transmitted across great distances over
long periods because it relies on the retentive capacity
of the messenger’s memory. He also added that script,
which is the earliest form of writing, allowed humans to
communicate and share knowledge, ideas,
information over long periods and across vast spaces.
3. Printing Press – Its invention has a substantial role in
the history of globalization and media. Script allowed
the copying of documents, but it was slow and
laborious. Although script spread civilization to different
groups of people, it was also limited to an exclusive
few. The invention of the printing press made
previously expensively produced and made reading
materials affordable and easily circulated.
4. Electronic Media – Electronic media refers
technologies requiring electromagnetic energy, that is,
electricity. Examples of electronic media are telephone,
telegraph, radio, television, film, etc. The telegraph’s
impact during its time was sensational. It is credited for
expediting the relay of information electronically, which
took a considerable amount of time when relying on the
physical transport of printed or recorded messages.  The primary vehicle of the phenomenon of global media is a
5. Digital Media – Digital media are electronic media that
rely on digital codes. The most evident manifestation of
digital media today is the computer and the
smartphone. It basically enables people to
communicate in ways that are not facilitated by
to traditional mass media. Although the computer is
considered the most powerful medium to influence
globalization, the Internet facilitates exchanges and
transactions conducted by individuals and
organizations through the computer. Exchange of
email, real-time chat, and video calls, online trading,
music streaming, online banking, etc., are not only
proofs of digital media’s ability to bypass physical
boundaries and expedite transactions but also a means
to integrate individuals and societies into a deeply
interconnected and interdependent social, political, and
economic space.
GLOBAL MEDIA AND GLOBAL INTEGRATION
Media globalization is the phenomenon of expanding
multinational corporate media investment, thereby resulting in
the emergence of a global oligarchy of the first-tier
corporations, which own and operate a variety of mass media
content and distribution technologies, including television,
radio, film, music, broadcasting, satellite, telecommunication,
cable, newspapers, magazines, publishing companies, Internet
and content providers, and other forms of converged digital media.
Global integration depends mainly on the worldwide adequacy
of capital. Capital is scarce, more so in the developing world.
The financial means available to the developing countries must
harmonize with the human capital. Without human capital and
intellectual capital, financial capital is not conducive to
producing economic benefits. Therefore, intellectual capital
must develop side by side with human capital and financial
capital. Global integration can also involve the processes of
product standardization and technology development
centralization.
The growing international integration means that the state, as a
primary territorial unit organizing important social life aspects,
has become much weaker and possibly impotent in many
essential aspects today. Zygmunt Bauman, one of the most
interesting contemporary social theorists, argued that as the
result of globalization, “the military, economic and cultural self-
sufficiency, indeed self-sustainability, of the state – any state –
ceased to be a viable prospect.” In the case of the media,
to technological advances, such as the satellite transmission of
broadcast signals and the global character of the internet, have
decisively broken down the old close correspondence between
national political organizations regulated by states and the
prevailing organization of the media. In the old order, the
Federal Communication Commission in the USA or Ofcom in
the UK determined the broadcasting system’s shape. However,
they are powerless in the face of satellite signals that cross-
national boundaries at will.
multinational corporation. Media globalization has aided in the
production and distribution of information. Dominick (2002)
noted that the production rate of information doubles every
eight years. He also indicated that “information is being
produced at a rate that is four times faster than the
consumption of information.” The phenomenon of media
globalization and the increasing abundance of media-text
production have produced various effects researched by
communication scholars. Media globalization is a broad topic,
including television, radio, film, music, the Internet, and other
digital media forms. By definition, global media is “mass
communication at a global level, enabling people around the
world to share and access the same information.” Indeed,
technology has made life easier for people around the world. 
DYNAMIC BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL CULTURAL
PRODUCTION
“Globalization is an inevitable force. Many see this force as a
conflict with local interests. Consequently, globalization is often
considered a negative, imperialistic force that kills local
identities, forces the uniformity of culture and experience, and
destroys independent self-determination. At the same time,
globalization is occasionally seen as a positive force, helping
economic growth in poorer parts of the world, bringing peoples
of the world closer, and increasing knowledge and
understanding among nations. Most positive reactions seem to
be coming from international bodies that further the goals of
businesses and governments, along with global corporations
and governments themselves. Negative responses tend to go
from a loose coalition of citizens who seem most concerned
with the destruction of local life modes and traditions,
impoverishment of sectors that cannot merge into the global
economy, and cultural imperialism, as well as from several
labor organizations. In all cases, the debates tend to focus on
the dynamic of the local-global relations. 
The intensity of the global-local dynamic has been felt in
actions that have materialized around the meetings of some of
the most prominent international bodies, such as the World
Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade
Organization. These actions seek a different direction in
globalization–one that expands beyond economic success and
growth concern and recognizes the cultural, organizational,
and social diversity and needs of local communities that are
“integrated” into the global system, with minimal care for the
devastating effects of the required transformations or left out to
disintegrate under the pressures of globalism. The reactions
range from passive resistance to armed struggles”  (Firat,
2016).
Cultures have always been a result of the encounter of local
developments with outside influence. Adventurers, traders, and
warriors brought their cultures to the world and were also
influenced by their encounters. During World War II, we saw
the spread of global culture, increasingly competing with and
replacing parts of local culture because initially, this influence
was embraced and welcomed. Fashion, music, literature, and a
different way of living are appealing to many and seen as
exciting and enriching. Chewing gum, blue jeans, comics, rock
n’ roll, etc. Culture started to be mainly produced by actively
adopting elements from abroad. At the same time, a global
layer emerged–the amalgamation of local habits and customs
from various places. Radio and TV were the significant
accelerators of this development; later, the Internet also came
into the picture.
At present, local and global cultural productions are in decline
due to rising fragmentation and a local result of searching for
what originally was supposed to be there, that is, a new
dynamic. The fact that culture is not static but dynamic
because it is the product of reflection, necessities, and
discoveries are neglected. Culturally, humanity is going
backward at present. Society is also split into those that still
embrace and wish to foster global cultural production and re-
establish the past, whatever that past has ever been and
delivered.

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
The Biological Self
        According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the
biological notion of Self and non-self defines the characteristics
of identity that distinguish individual organisms from similar
kinds.
Three (3) Categories of the Biological Self:
1. Physical self
2. Biological Blueprint
3. Heredity
        "Physical Self refers to the body, this marvelous
container, and complex, finely tuned, a machine with which we
interface with our environment and fellow beings. The Physical
Self is the concrete dimension, the tangible aspect of the
person that can be directly observed and examined." The
Physical Self is categorized into two types: Physical features -
face, body structure, height, weight, and fitness (crucial
aspects), and Physical Components - physical competencies,
evaluation of physical worth, and perception of beauty.
"Scientifically, however, this important aspect of our Self
seems to have lost somewhere between the Eastern
detachment and Western narcissism, so much so that sufficient
theoretical development on this issue is lacking. However,
directly or indirectly, the discussion on Physical Self has found
a place in various schools of psychology like psychoanalysis,
behaviorism, humanism, etc. with some of its most ardent
exponents and followers dealing with the issue in varying
proportions." (Singh, n.d.)
Physical Self-esteem is a person's evaluation of their physical
self, including evaluations of physical appearance and physical
competencies, also known as Physical Self - worth.
Physical beauty is the degree to which a person's physical
traits are considered pleasing or beautiful. It is a combination of
qualities, such as shape, color, or form, that pleases the
aesthetic senses, especially the sight of people.  deoxyribonucleic acid." (Nemours KidsHealth, n.d.)
Three Qualities of Beauty
 Genetics - how we actually look
 Health and Grooming- how we take care of ourselves
 Positive Self-Regard- how we feel about how we look
        "Perception surrounds beauty, and body types not only
vary by culture but have evolved significantly throughout
history up until today, in which society' standard of beauty sets
women's ideal body types." (The Physical and Sexual Self.pdf)
The Biological Blueprint is a dynamic biological and chemical
process that contributes to physical features. It is the
Physiological processes that trigger bodily changes and
sustain survival. It also shows genetic transformation and
biological development embodied in heredity that triggers
physical characteristics.
        "DNA is the "genetic blueprint" that determines each
organism's genotypic makeup. In its purest form, DNA consists
of two strings of nucleotides, or bases (abbreviated A, C, G,
and T), wound around each other. The bases composing DNA
have specific binding capabilities: A always binds to T, and C
always binds to G. These binding capabilities are useful for
scientists to understand since, if the nucleotide sequence of
one DNA strand is determined, the complementary binding
allows the sequence of another strand to be deduced. In the
case of humans, DNA is organized into 24 structural units
called chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of
compacted coils of DNA. While much of this DNA has no
known function (these stretches of DNA are conveniently
referred to as spacer DNA or junk DNA), a significant portion of
the DNA codes for genes. Each gene provides the information
necessary to produce a protein, which is responsible for
carrying out cellular functions. The complement of proteins in
an organism is very important, with diseases often manifesting
when a protein does not function properly." (GENOME
PROJECTS: UNCOVERING THE BLUEPRINTS OF
BIOLOGY)
Heredity
        "It is defined by vocabulary.com that heredity is the
biological process responsible for passing on physical traits
from one generation to another. If your mom and dad both
have dreamy blue eyes, and so do you, then you have got
hereditary to thank for your movie-star gaze." (heredity -
Dictionary Definition, n.d.)
What is a gene?
        "Genes play an important role in determining physical
traits - how we look and lots of other stuff about us. They carry
information that makes you who you are and what you look
like: curly or straight hair, long or short legs, even how you
might smile or laugh. Many of these things are passed from
one generation to the next in a family by genes. Each cell in
the human body contains about 25,000 to 35,000 genes.
Where are these important genes? Well, they are so small you
cannot see them. Genes are found on tiny spaghetti-like
structures called Chromosomes. They come in matching sets
of two (or pairs), and there are hundreds - sometimes
thousands - of genes in just one chromosome. The
chromosomes and genes are made of DNA, which is short for
What is Maturation?
        "Maturation is the development of the individual through
growth processes. It is controlled by internal biological factors.
Maturation means the ordinary development of growth and
aging. It occurs naturally without any conscious effort on the
part of the individual." (What is the meaning of maturation in
psychology?, n.d.)
        "Sexual maturation is a process that extends from the
early embryonic differentiation of the sexual organs to full
maturity of these organs and fertility. Puberty is a transitional
period between childhood and adulthood during which the sex
organs and the reproductive system mature and the growth
spurt takes place. Major psychological, behavioral, cognitive,
and emotional changes also occur during puberty." (Beunen,
Rogol, & Mal, 2006)
SEXUAL SELF
        This is a part of yourself where you learn and understand
your sexual development and how people's sexual activity,
beliefs, misconceptions, and unlimited access from the internet
on sex can influence your sexual behavior and responses.  sexual drive or desire for sexual activity.
Sexual Development is a lifelong process that starts at the
moment of conception (Tsiaras, 2016). It is a part of human
development.
3 Reasons Why an Individual's Sex Is Important in Life-
long Development
1. Develop attitude and behavior patterns
2. Learning Experience
3. Parent's attitudes and significant others
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development
The Human Productive System
        Sex is not only for reproduction; it helps strengthen
relationships, encourages a man to stick around to take care of
his child, and affects not only health but well-being. (Tsiaras,
2006)
Female Reproductive System
 Ovaries - 400,000 eggs
 Ovum -100,000 times larger than the sperm cell
 X chromosome
 Puberty - 8-13 y/o (menarche)
Male Reproductive System
 Testes -200M sperm cells
 X or Y chromosomes
 Puberty - 10-15 y/o
 Hormones are constantly active
Human Sexual Response
 Androgens, Estrogens, Progesterone
 Sexual motivation - refers to the libido, a person's overall
The Cycles of the Human Sexual Response
1. Excitement (desire/arousal) - a sudden increase in
blood pressure, pulse, and increased blood supply to
the surface of the body resulting in increased
temperature
2. Plateau may feel physical and emotional excitement
and have physical sensations of sensitivity, warmth,
and even appear flushed.
3. Orgasm - is a feeling of intense pleasure that happens
during sexual activity. It's sometimes called coming or
climaxing. (What is an orgasm? , n.d.)
4. Resolution - the body slowly returns to its normal
functioning level and swelled, and erect body parts
return to their previous size and color.
(Sexual Response Cycle: Learn About the Phases of Sex, n.d.)
5 Circles of Sexuality
1. Sensuality - awareness, and feelings about your own
body and other people's body.
2. Sexual Intimacy - the ability to be emotionally close to
another human being and accept closeness in return.
3. Sexual Identity - a person's understanding of who
he/she is sexual, including the sense of being male
and/or female.
4. Reproduction and Sexual Health - a person's capacity
to reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make
sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable.
5. Sexualization - aspect of sexuality in which people
behave sexually to influence, manipulate, or control
other people - "shadowy" side of human sexuality
The Diversity of Human Sexuality

 Gender Bias - means holding stereotyped opinions about

people according to their gender.

 Sexual Orientation - an enduring pattern of emotional,

romantic, and sexual attraction to men, women, or both
sexes. It refers to a person's sense of identity based on
those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a
community of others who share those attractions.
(INTERVIEW: THE LGBT COMMUNITY IN TANZANIA, n.d.)
(What Is Sexual Orientation?, n.d.) (Essentials of Psych
DOUBLE Jeopardy Jeopardy Template, n.d.)
The Diversity of Sexual Behavior 
        Sexual behavior transcends in different forms. It may be
influenced by the basic psychological aspect of sexuality and
expectations, attitudes, beliefs, and state of medical and
biological knowledge. Heterosexuality - it is the sexual
attraction and behavior directed to the other sex. More than
male-female intercourse, it involves kissing, petting, caressing,
massaging, and other sexual activities.
Homosexuality and Bisexuality  Artificial Methods

        “Homosexuality is a romantic and/or sexual attraction         Artificial methods are diverse methods of contraception to
between members of the same sex.” (Chapter_7_- prevent a woman's conception. Artificial contracept ion
_Sexual_Self_with_Gender_and_sexuality_(1).pdf, depends on the individual's health status, age, sexual activity,
n.d.) Bisexuals are those who can be romantically or sexually and/or the number of sexual partners. Samples of artificial
attracted to the same sex and the other sex. Some male methods are oral contraceptives, transdermal patch, vaginal
homosexuals prefer the term "gay," and some female ring, subdermal implants, hormonal injection, intrauterine
homosexuals prefer the term "Lesbian." device (IUD), chemical barriers, diaphragm and cervical cap,
male and female condoms, etc.
Transsexuality
        These are people who believe that they were born with
the body of the other gender. Transsexuals sometimes seek
sex-change operations, which undergo several steps such as
intensive sexual counseling, hormone injections, living as a
member of desired sex for several years, surgery.
NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION
Natural Contraception
        This is a classification of birth control types that depend
on observations on a woman's body through monitoring and
recording different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle.
Though there are different methods, one may predict when a
woman will be more likely to get pregnant. Natural
contraceptives may be through abstinence, calendar method,
symptothermal method, ovulation detection, lactation
amenorrhea method, and coitus interrupt us. (Chapter_7_-
_Sexual_Self_with_Gender_and_sexuality_(1).pdf, n.d.)
Sexual Disorders
disorder causes significant distress, substantially
 Paraphilia is a frequent, intense, sexually arousing interferes with daily functioning, harms another person, or
fantasies or behaviors that involve inanimate objects, involves someone who has not given consent.
children, or non-consenting adults, or suffering or
humiliation of oneself or the partner.

 Paraphilic Disorders are paraphilics that cause distress or

cause problems functioning in the person with the
paraphilia or that harm or may harm another person. Most
people with paraphilia are men, and many have more than
one type of paraphilia. Some of them also have severe
personality disorders, such as antisocial personality
disorder or narcissistic personality disorder. (Paraphilias
and Paraphilic Disorders, n.d.) (Brawn, 2019)

Common Paraphilic Disorders

 Pedophilic disorder - characterized by recurring, intense

sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behavior involving
children (usually 13 years old or younger).

 Voyeurism - involves becoming sexually aroused by

watching an unsuspecting person how is disrobing, naked,
or engaged in sexual activity. Voyeuristic behavior
involves acting on voyeuristic urges or fantasies and
feeling distressed by or unable to function because of
those urges and fantasies. (Paraphilic Disorders - DSM-5,
n.d.)

 Transvestism - involves recurrent, intense sexual arousal

from cross dressing. Transvestic disorder is transvestism
that causes significant distress or substantially interferes
with daily functioning.

 Exhibitionism - involves exposing the genitals to become

sexually excited or having a strong desire to be observed
by other people during sexual activity. Exhibitionistic urges
or fantasies or being distressed by or unable to function
because of those urges and fantasies. (The psychology
behind public masturbation and indecent exposure, 2018)

 Sexual Masochism - involves acts in which a person

experiences sexual excitement from being humiliated,
beaten, bound, or otherwise abused. Sexual masocthat
causes significant distress or substantially interferes with
daily functioning.

 Sexual Sadism - involves acts in which a person

experiences sexual excitement from inflicting physical or
psychological suffering on another person. Sexual sadism