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LEARNING GUIDE
This module covers the knowledge, skills and required to understand business operations,
identify entities and data, diagrammatically represent their relationships and prepare a data
model
.LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the module the learner will be able to:
MODULE CONTENTS:
MODULE CONTENTS:
Lecture-discussion
Group work
Individual assignment
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
Interview/Written Test
Demonstration/Observation with Oral Questioning
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
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The entity type is the fundamental building block for describing the structure of data with the
Entity Data Model (EDM). In a conceptual model, an entity type represents the structure of top-
level concepts, such as customers or orders. An entity type is a template for entity type instances.
Each template contains the following information:
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An entity key is a property or a set of properties of an entity type that are used to determine
identity. The properties that make up an entity key are chosen at design time. The values of
entity key properties must uniquely identify an entity type instance within an entity set at run
time. The properties that make up an entity key should be chosen to guarantee uniqueness of
instances in an entity set.
The following are the requirements for a set of properties to be an entity key:
No two entity keys within an entity set can be identical. That is, for any two entities
within an entity set, the values for all of the properties that constitute a key cannot be the
same. However, some (but not all) of the values that make up an entity key can be the
same.
An entity key must consist of a set of non-nullable, immutable, primitive type properties.
The properties that make up an entity key for a given entity type cannot change. You
cannot allow more than one possible entity key for a given entity type; surrogate keys are
not supported.
Note: An entity is weak if it depends on another entity for part of its key
Entities are the things you're keeping track of. example in a video rental database, you keep track
of customers, invoices, titles, copies, etc. These are represented in tables where the rows are
individual instances of a customer or title. The columns are the attributes, the things that tell us
about the instance in the row. The customer's name, address, city, balance, etc. are attributes that
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help identify the customer. Databases link entities/tables so that a customer, described by its
attributes.so that attributes describe an entity.
Relationships are represented by lines between entities. Relationship lines indicate that
each instance of an entity may have a relationship with instances of the connected entity,
and vice versa.
The diagram above now indicates that students may have some relationship with schools. More
specifically, there may be a relationship between a particular student (an instance of the student entity)
and a particular school (an instance of the school entity).
If necessary, a relationship line may be labeled to define the relationship. In this case, one can infer that a
student may attend a school, or that a school may enroll students.
Entities and relationships can both have attributes. Examples: an employee entity might have a
Social Security Number (SSN) attribute; the proved relationship may have a date attribute.
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A relationship is how the data is shared between entities. There are three types of relationships
between entities:
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one-to-one: one instance of an entity (A) is associated with one other instance of another
entity (B). For example, in a database of employees, each employee name (A) is
associated with only one social security number (B).
one-to-many: one instance of an entity (A) is associated with zero, one or many
instances of another entity (B), but for one instance of entity B there is only one instance
of entity A. For example, for a company with all employees working in one building, the
building name (A) is associated with many different employees (B), but those employees
all share the same singular association with entity A.
many-to-many: one instance of an entity (A) is associated with one, zero or many
instances of another entity (B), and one instance of entity B is associated with one, zero
or many instances of entity A. For example, for a company in which all of its employees
work on multiple projects, each instance of an employee (A) is associated with many
instances of a project (B), and at the same time, each instance of a project (B) has
multiple employees (A) associated with it.
A 1:N (one-to-many) Relationship is a hierarchical relationship created or viewed from the
primary entity. Any one entity instance from the primary entity can be referenced by many entity
instances from the related entity.
An N:1 (many-to-one) Relationship is a hierarchical relationship created or viewed from the
related entity. Many entity instances from the related entity can reference any one entity instance
from the primary entity. Remember that the same relationship can be viewed from either of the
two entities that participate in the relationship.
A many-to-many relationship lets users relate one or more entity instances from another entity to
an entity instance of the current entity. A many-to-many relationship is reciprocal. Therefore,
entity instances can be related from either entity. A many-to-many relationship may also be self-
referential. This means that one or more other entity instances of the current entity can be related
to an entity instance of the same entity.
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Primary key
The primary key is a fundamental concept in relational database design. It's an easy concept:
each record should have something that identifies it uniquely. The primary key can be a single
field, or a combination of fields. A table's primary key also serves as the basis of relationships
with other tables
Functional Dependency
Closely tied to the notion of a key is a special normalization concept called functional
dependence or functional dependency . The second and third normal forms verify that your
functional dependencies are correct. So what is a "functional dependency"? It describes how one
field (or combination of fields) determines another field. Consider an example:
[ZIP Code]
ZIP Code
City
County
State Abbreviation
State Name
ZIP Code is a unique 5-digit key. What makes it a key? It is a key because it determines the other
fields. For each ZIP Code there is a single city, county, and state abbreviation. These fields are
functionally dependent on the ZIP Code field. In other words, they belong with this key. Look at
the last two fields, State Abbreviation and State Name. State Abbreviation determines State
Name, in other words, State Name is functionally dependent on State Abbreviation. State
Abbreviation is acting like a key for the State Name field
ER-Diagram
Data modeling is the formalization and documentation of existing processes and events that
occur during application software design and development. Data modeling techniques and tools
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capture and translate complex system designs into easily understood representations of the data
flows and processes, creating a blueprint for construction and/or re-engineering.
A data model can be thought of as a diagram or flowchart that illustrates the relationships
between data. Although capturing all the possible relationships in a data model can be very time-
intensive, it's an important step and shouldn't be rushed. Well-documented models allow stake-
holders to identify errors and make changes before any programming code has been written.
An entity – Relationship model (ER model for short) is an abstract way to describe a database.
It usually starts with a relational database, which stores data in tables.
There are three levels of ER models that may be developed. The conceptual data model is the
highest level ER model in that it contains the least granular detail but establishes the overall
scope of what is to be included within the model set. The conceptual ER model normally defines
master reference data entities that are commonly used by the organization. Developing an
enterprise-wide conceptual ER model is useful to support documenting the data architecture for
an organization.
1. Conceptual Data Modeling
A conceptual ER model may be used as the foundation for one or more logical data models. The
purpose of the conceptual ER model is then to establish structural metadata commonality for the
master data entities between the set of logical ER models. The conceptual data model may be
used to form commonality relationships between ER models as a basis for data model
integration.
2. Logical Data Modeling
similar to conceptual data modeling, but addresses the unique requirements of a specific
business. Illustrates the specific entities, attributes and relationships involved in a business
function. Serves as the basis for the creation of the physical data model. describes the semantics,
as represented by a particular data manipulation technology. This consists of descriptions of
tables and columns, object oriented classes.
A logical ER model does not require a conceptual ER model especially if the scope of the logical
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ER model is to develop a single disparate information system. The logical ER model contains
more detail than the conceptual ER model. In addition to master data entities, operational and
transactional data entities are now defined. The details of each data entity are developed and the
entity relationships between these data entities are established.
The logical ER model is however developed independent of technology into which it will be
implemented.
3. Physical Data Modeling
Represents an application and database-specific implementation of a logical data odel.describes
the physical means by which data are stored. This is concerned with partitions, CPUs, table
spaces, and the like.
One or more physical ER models may be developed from each logical ER model. The physical
ER model is normally developed be instantiated as a database. Therefore, each physical ER
model must contain enough detail to produce a database and each physical ER model is
technology dependent since each database management system is somewhat different.
The physical model is normally forward engineered to instantiate the structural metadata into a
database management system as relational database objects such as database tables, database
indexes such as unique key indexes, and database constraints such as a foreign key constraint or
a commonality constraint. The ER model is also normally used to design modifications to the
relational database objects and to maintain the structural metadata of the database.
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ER Diagrams Usage
ER While able to describe just about any system, ER diagrams are most often associated with
complex databases that are used in software engineering and IT networks. In particular, ER
diagrams are frequently used during the design stage of a development process in order to
identify different system elements and their relationships with each other. For example, an
inventory software used in a retail shop will have a database that monitors elements such as
purchases, item, item type, item source and item price. Rendering this information through an ER
diagram would be something like this:
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example for this. The order item will be meaningless without an order so it depends on the
existence of order.
Attribute
An attribute is a property, trait, or characteristic of an entity, relationship, or another attribute.
For example, the attribute Inventory Item Name is an attribute of the entity Inventory Item. An
entity can have as many attributes as necessary. Meanwhile, attributes can also have their own
specific attributes. For example, the attribute “customer address” can have the attributes number,
street, city, and state. These are called composite attributes. Note that some top level ER
diagrams do not show attributes for the sake of simplicity. In those that do, however, attributes
are represented by oval shapes.
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Attributes in ER diagrams, note that an attribute can have its own attributes ( composite
attribute )
Multivalued Attribute
If an attribute can have more than one value it is called an multivalued attribute. It is important to
note that this is different to an attribute having its own attributes. For example a teacher entity
can have multiple subject values.
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A relationship describes how entities interact. For example, the entity “carpenter” may be related
to the entity “table” by the relationship “builds” or “makes”. Relationships are represented by
diamond shapes and are labeled using verbs.
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Explanation
A Course has meaning only in the context of a Program, so it’s a weak entity, with
course_id as a weak key. This means that a Course is uniquely identified using its course_id
and the program_id of its owning program.
with its owning Program. This relationship has Year and Semester attributes that identify
its sequence position.
Student and Course are related through the many-to-many Attempts relationships; a
course can exist without a student, and a student can be enrolled without attempting any
courses, so the participation is not total.
When a student attempts a course, there are attributes to capture the Year and Semester,
and the Mark and Grade.
Define which functions within these organizations will utilize the database
Identify which existing and planned applications will be converted to the database system
Establish regular meetings and periodic management reporting for design team
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Train DBA in DMCL (Data Manipulation Control Language) and DDL (Data Definition
Language)
Stage 7 : Install and Test Database
Code DMCL, schema and subschema
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Prepare formal written conversion schedule and obtain commitments and from all parties
involved
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Self-check
Name: ___________________
LO1: Model Data object
1. Which is an entity
A. Borrower D. Borrower-Address
B. Borrower-ID E. Title
C. Borrower-Name F. Loan-Date
2. Which is an attribute
A. Book D. Student
B. Publisher E. Course
C. Order F. SSN(social security Number)
3. Of the following the one represents an entity diagrammatically
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A.
B.
C. ___________
D.
A.
B.
C.
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database normalization. It enables better, faster, stronger searches as it entails fewer entities to
scan in comparison with the earlier searches based on mixed entities. Data integrity is improved
through database normalization as it splits all the data into individual entities yet building strong
linkages with the related data.
More efficient database structure.
This is the "basic" level of normalization and generally corresponds to the definition of any
database, namely: First normal form (1NF) has two requirements: that there be a primary key,
and that no column shall contain more than one value.
Each row represents a unique instance of that sub-object or attribute and must be different
in some way from any other row (that is, no duplicate rows are possible).
All entries in any column must be of the same kind. For example, in the column labeled
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Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique
column or set of columns (the primary key).
Second normal form (2NF). Second Normal Form: Eliminating Redundant Data
Second normal form (2NF) requires that all non-key columns are fully dependent on the
entire primary key. If the table has only a single-column primary key, this requirement is
easily met.
At this level of normalization, each column in a table that is not a determiner of the contents of
another column must itself be a function of the other columns in the table. For example, in a
table with three columns containing customer ID, product sold, and price of the product when
sold, the price would be a function of the customer ID (entitled to a discount) and the specific
product.
steps
Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate
tables.
Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of
foreign keys
Third normal form (3NF) Third Normal Form: Eliminating Columns Not
Dependent on Keys
Third normal form (3NF) requires that there are no transitive dependencies, where one column
depends on another column which depends on the primary key.
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At the second normal form, modifications are still possible because a change to one row in a
table may affect data that refers to this information from another table. For example, using the
customer table just cited, removing a row describing a customer purchase (because of a return
perhaps) will also remove the fact that the product has a certain price. In the third normal form,
these tables would be divided into two tables so that product pricing would be tracked separately.
Steps
Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key.
* An entity is in Fourth Normal Form (4NF) if and only if it is in 3NF and has no multiple sets of
multi-valued dependencies. In other words, 4NF states that no entity can have more than a single
one-to-many relationship within an entity if the one-to-many attributes are independent of each
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other.
* Fifth Normal Form (5NF) specifies that every join dependency for the entity must be a
consequence of its candidate keys.
A row is in first normal form if and only if all underlying domains contain atomic values only.
1NF eliminates repeating groups by putting each into a separate table and connecting them with
a one-to-many relationship. A row is in second normal form if and only if it is in first normal
form and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the key. 2NF eliminates functional
dependencies on a partial key by putting the fields in a separate table from those that are
dependent on the whole key. A row is in third normal form if and only if it is in second normal
form and every non-key attribute is non-transitively dependent on the primary key. 3NF
eliminates functional dependencies on non-key fields by putting them in a separate table. At this
stage, all non-key fields are dependent on the key, the whole key and nothing but the key.
Example1 the following shows and answer what is the need of normalization?
What are the problems we can face if we proceed without normalization? And
What are the advantages of normalization?
Asking question to oneself is the best way to get familiar with all the concepts of normalization.
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In first look the above table is looking so arranged and well in format but if we try to find out what
exactly this table is saying to us, we can easily figure out the various anomalies (irregularities) in this
table.
1. Insert Anomaly: We cannot insert prospective course which does not have any registered student
or we cannot insert student details that is yet to register for any course.
2. Update Anomaly: if we want to update the course M4’s name we need to do this operation three
times. Similarly we may have to update student 1003’s name twice if it changes.
4. Duplicate Data: Course M4’s data is stored three and student 1002’s data stored twice .This
redundancy will increase as the number of course offerings increases.
Process of normalization:
Before getting to know the normalization techniques in detail, let us define a few building blocks which
are used to define normal form.
1. Determinant : Attribute X can be defined as determinant if it uniquely defines the value
Y in a given relationship or entity .To qualify as determinant attribute need NOT be a key
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Table shown above Student Details ,Course Details and Result Details can be further divided. Student
Details attribute is divided into Student#(Student Number) , Student Name and date of birth. Course
Details is divided into Course# ,Course Name,Prerequisites and duration. Similarly Results attribute is
divided into DateOfexam,Marks and Grade.
Student#Course# together form the composite key attributes for result relationship.
STUDENT TABLE
Student # Student Name DateofBirth
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COURSE TABLE
C3 Bio Chemistry 3
B3 Botany 8
P3 Nuclear Physics 1
M4 Applied Mathematics 4
H6 American History 5
B4 Zoology 9
RESULT TABLE
1001 M4 89 A
1002 M4 78 B
1001 H6 87 A
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1003 C3 90 A
1004 B3 78 B
1002 P3 67 C
1005 P3 78 B
1003 B4 67 C
1005 H6 56 D
1004 M4 78 B
EXAM DATE Table
Course# DateOfExam
M4 Some value
H6 Some value
C3 Some value
B3 Some value
P3 Some value
B4 Some value
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In the first table (STUDENT) ,the key attribute is Student# and all other non-key
attributes, StudentName and DateOfBirth are fully functionally dependant on the key
attribute.
In the Second Table (COURSE) , Course# is the key attribute and all the non-key
attributes, CourseName, DurationInDays are fully functional dependant on the key
attribute.
In third table (RESULT) Student#Course# together are key attributes and all other non
key attributes, Marks and Grade are fully functional dependant on the key attributes.
In the fourth Table (EXAM DATE) Course# is the key attribute and the non key
attribute ,DateOfExam is fully functionally dependant on the key attribute.
At first look it appears like all our anomalies are taken away ! Now we are storing Student 1003
and M4 record only once. We can insert prospective students and courses at our will. We will
update only once if we need to change any data in STUDENT, COURSE tables. We can get rid
of any course or student details by deleting just one row.
1001 M4 89 A
1002 M4 78 B
1001 H6 87 A
1003 C3 90 A
1004 B3 78 B
1002 P3 67 C
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1005 P3 78 B
1003 B4 67 C
1005 H6 56 D
1004 M4 78 B
We already concluded that :
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We need to do multiple updates on the existing record to bring them to new grading
definition
We will not be able to take away “D” grade if we want to.
2NF does not take care of all the anomalies and inconsistencies.
1. Third Normal Form (3NF)
A relation R is said to be in 3NF if and only if
It is in 2NF
No transitive dependency exists between non-key attributes and key attributes.
In the above RESULT table Student# and Course# are the key attributes. All other attributes, except
grade are non-partially , non – transitively dependant on key attributes. The grade attribute is
dependant on “Marks “ and in turn “Marks” is dependent on Student#Course#. To bring the table in 3NF
we need to take off this transitive dependency.
Student# Course# Marks
1001 M4 89
1002 M4 78
1001 H6 87
1003 C3 90
1004 B3 78
1002 P3 67
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1005 P3 78
1003 B4 67
1005 H6 56
1004 M4 78
100 95 A+
94 90 A
89 85 B+
84 80 B
79 75 B-
74 70 C
69 65 C-
After Normalizing tables to 3NF , we got rid of all the anomalies and inconsistencies. Now we
can add new grade systems, update the existing one and delete the unwanted ones.
Hence the Third Normal form is the most optimal normal form and 99% of the databases which
require efficiency in
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INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
Operations are designed in this normal form.
Example 2. The following example will illustrate how database normalization performed.
Title Author Bio ISBN Subject Pages Publishe
r
MY-SQL Database En00011 Database 500 Mega
Rabiya
Network administrator 1 Design 200 Mega
Quality Yonas Network En00011 110 Mega
con. administrator 2 54 Aster
Kidus Member of ISO En00011
Teamwork
member of the 3
documentation En00011
team. 4
In the example shown above, a lot of storage space will be wasted if any one criterion (author or
publisher) is considered as the identification key.
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Author’s table:
1 Rabiay Russell
2 Kidus Yared
3 Mike Hilyer
Subject’s table:
Subject Last_name
_ID
1 Rusell
2 Yared
Publisher’s table:
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The book’s table may have many to many relations with the Author’s table.
Author’s table may have many books and a book may have more than one author.
The Book’s table may have many to many relations with the Subject table.
The books may fit in many subjects and the subjects may have many books.
Many-to-many relations have to be presented by “link” tables
Book Author table:
ISBN Subject_ID
En000111 1
En000112 2
Book_Subject table:
ISBN Subject_ID
En000111 1
En000112 2
One-to-many in our example will be Books to Publisher. Each book has only one
Publisher but one Publisher may have many books.
We can achieve ‘one-to-many’ relationships with a foreign key. A foreign key is a mechanism in database
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management systems (DBMS) that defines relations and creates constraints between data segments. It
is not possible to review what is not related to the specific book. It is not possible to have a book
without an author or publisher.
En000111 3 A great
book!
Ababa
To comply with 3NF we have to move these outside the publisher’s table:
251 Addis 14
Ababa
Through the process of database normalization we bring our schema's tables into conformance
with progressive normal forms. As a result the tables each represent a single entity (a book, an
author, a subject, etc) and we benefit from decreased redundancy, fewer anomalies and improved
efficiency.
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Self-check 2
Name: _________________________
LO2: Develop normalization
Keys
A. True
B. False
5. The following is an example of one-to-one relationship
A. Marriage
B. kids
C. Face book
Does the model represent and correctly reproduce the behaviors of the real world system?
• Validation ensures that the model meets its intended requirements in terms of the methods
employed and the results obtained
• The ultimate goal of model validation is to make the model useful in the sense that the model
addresses the right problem, provides accurate information about the system being modeled,
and to makes the model actually used.
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Business Data model describes the major information of interest from a business respective. The
business data model is independent of specific application system needs and is best developed by
the data management group with input from business subject matter experts.
Model validation by the business community can be performed in several ways. From the
modeler's perspective, the most straightforward approach is to print a copy of the diagram and
walk through it with the business representatives. This approach requires the businessperson to
understand a diagram that is IT oriented, and it is appropriate when the validation is performed
by people directly involved in IT projects. Validation activities include:
Completeness for use: Is all of the data needed to support the pertinent application development
project modeled
Completeness: Are the business areas and concepts represented by the model completely
addressed?
Accuracy: Does the model correctly represent the entities, attributes and business relationships
of interest?
Generalization and specialization: Does the model represent the data at the appropriate level of
abstraction? And Does the model follow the data modeling rules for the level of normalization
(typically third normal form) used?
Specification and generalization can be classified into disjoints and completeness. The
disjointness constraint allows us to specify whether an instance of a super type may
simultaneously be a member of two or more subtype.
Self-check
LO3: Validate model
A. Completeness D. Specialization
B. Accuracy E. All
C. Generalization
9. Are the business areas and concepts represented by the model completely
addressed? This characteristics of the model is
B. Accuracy D. Generalization
C. Completeness
3.-----------shows the correct representation of entities, attributes and business
relationships of the data model
A. Accuracy
B. Completeness
Answers
1. E 2. B 3. A
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