TECHNICAL REPORT

ANALYSIS OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS FOR

AUTONOMOUS PLATFORMS IN GROUND
GREENHOUSES

Industrial Development

Almeria, May 15, 2023

Área Tecnova
Parque Científico-Tecnológico de Almería (PITA). Avda. de la Innovación, 23. 04131 El
Alquián (Almería). Tel. +34 950 29 08 22
mlopez@fundaciontecnova.com
 Ed. 1

ÍNDICE

1. INTRODUCCIÓN.....................................................................................................3
2. ROBÓTICA AGRÍCOLA.........................................................................................4
3. LOCALIZACIÓN Y NAVEGACIÓN......................................................................8
3.1. Evaluar la planificación de caminos......................................................................9
3.2. Sensores imprecisos............................................................................................10
3.3. Memoria espacial................................................................................................10
3.4. Puntos de referencia............................................................................................10
4. SISTEMAS DE NAVEGACIÓN/PLATAFORMAS AUTÓNOMAS PARA
INVERNADERO............................................................................................................11
4.1. Sistema Global de Navegación por Satélite.........................................................11
4.2. Fusión de sensores...............................................................................................12
4.3. Tecnología LiDar................................................................................................14
4.4. Sistema de navegación SLAM............................................................................15
4.5. Sistemas de navegación por visión artificial........................................................16
4.6. Sistema de navegación inercial............................................................................17
5. EMPRESAS EN EL MERCADO...........................................................................18
5.1. NDIVIA..............................................................................................................18
5.2. PAL ROBOTICS.................................................................................................24
5.3. SYNERSIGHT....................................................................................................25
5.4. KIVNON.............................................................................................................26
6. CONDICIONES DEL TERRENO..........................................................................27
6.1. Suelo...................................................................................................................27
6.1.1. Textura.........................................................................................................27

6.1.2. Estructura.....................................................................................................30

6.2. Pavimentación.....................................................................................................30
6.3. Tela Geotextil......................................................................................................31
6.4. Resumen de las situaciones a tratar.....................................................................32
BIBLIOGRAFÍA................................................................................................................33

Código ensayo 2 de 34
 Ed. 1

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper describes the state of the art of autonomous navigation systems/platforms for
use in greenhouses..

Agriculture is defined as "the art of cultivating the land", it is in charge of the different tasks
such as the production of vegetable crops, the treatment of plants, the treatment of the soil or
harvesting. All these tasks are performed by human labor. Although in recent years there have been
great technological advances in the field of agriculture, adopting innovative techniques that have
increased economic profitability, reduced environmental impact and improved the quality of
workers among other contributions.
Thanks to these advances, new automated and/or robotic equipment has begun to be
designed to greatly facilitate the performance of these agricultural tasks. One of the great
challenges of these new implementations is the need to achieve fully autonomous mobile
equipment with an intelligent and precise navigation system. In addition, it must be robust enough
to respond to the harsh and unpredictable environment inside a greenhouse. This will substantially
advance technological progress in the agricultural sector and its associated field work.

This report is the result of the study of the different techniques that currently exist for
navigation systems/autonomous platforms that can be used inside the greenhouse. In addition, their
pros and cons have been studied in order to observe which one is best adapted to the greenhouse
interior and to the intended use.

Código ensayo 3 de 34
 Ed. 1

2. AGRICULTURAL ROBOTICS

ith the growth of the world population, the demand for agricultural products is also increasing, so
more production is needed to supply the needs that arise. For this, one of the key factors is the
skilled labor force that performs the work of greenhouse cultivation and can supply, as far as
possible, this demand. However, at present there are fewer and fewer people dedicated to
demanding field work and the shortage of this labor is quite noticeable in the primary sector.
Therefore, technology and its advances are key factors in this scenario.

Nowadays, robotics is one of the great technological proposals capable of solving many of these
shortcomings, but it is essential to be precise in its use to avoid risks that may influence the crop
and its production.
Regarding this technology, we know that the definition of robot is understood as a "programmable
electronic machine or device, capable of manipulating objects and performing operations
previously reserved only for people...".”. [1]

Autonomous robots are "complete systems that operate efficiently in complex environments
without the need for constant guidance and control by human operators.” [2]

There are a number of capabilities that a robot must meet to be fully autonomous:

- Obtain information from the environment

- Work without human intervention for a prolonged period of time.
- Possibility of movement of the whole robot or part of itself without human assistance.
- Not allow situations harmful to people, media or itself, unless they are design
specifications.
- It must be able to adapt to changes in the environment, in addition to acquiring or
learning new knowledge such as new methods for performing its task.

Código ensayo 4 de 34
 Ed. 1

Currently, there are several projects in which robotics is being introduced to agriculture,
taking into account that it can be more advantageous than traditional technology. As we have
already mentioned, the agri-food sector is of special attention for the incorporation of advanced
technologies such as robotics. Among its various advantages are the following [3]:

- Allows the substitution of operators in tasks hazardous to health, such as spraying of

phytosanitary products.
- Addresses repetitive and tedious tasks, such as fruit picking.
- Allows tasks to be carried out at night, which saves time, for example, in harvesting.
- Improved precision in some agricultural tasks, such as those related to biotechnology, and
in particular the multiplication of plants from plant tissue.
- Improves the efficiency and quality of some of the tasks such as uniformity in making
holes in the transplant.
- It achieves the reduction of environmental risks such as the reduction of the amount of
phytosanitary product emitted.
- It achieves the reduction of costs (not for labor) since the amount of fuel and products
used in some tasks is reduced.
- It improves the quality of the products, such as the use of fewer pesticides.

In relation to the advantages offered by this technology, the basic tasks performed in the
agricultural sector are listed below, grouped into the main phases of the cycle. In these, the
particular advantages of robotization in each of them are indicated, including tasks with a certain
application of robotics and those that are potentially accessible for robotization. [4]:

1. Crop preparation: This phase includes the processes where the soil is prepared
for planting, such as weeding, tillage, leveling, disinfection, pre-fertilization of the
soil and making holes for transplanting. There is currently robotic machinery for
extensive crops, such as tractors manufactured by John Deere and other large
tractor companies. Basically, these are agricultural tractors with teleoperation
capacity and, in some rare systems, with the possibility of autonomous driving,
such as the brand's recent 8R model. There are also other less commercial
developments, such as Tresktor, an autonomous hybrid robot launched by the
French company SITIA. In intensive greenhouse and nursery crops, soil
preparation is mostly done manually or with mechanized machinery, such as that
presented by IDM, with its Fummimatic implements such as the leaf sweeping
Código ensayo 5 de 34
 Ed. 1

brush, finisher finisher and/or levelling roller. As for the robotized field of this type
of work, there is currently no powerful solution that is implemented in the market,
but there are solutions in this regard in the research field, as proposed by the
inventor of the Rumba robot, Joe Jones, who designed and developed Tertill an
adaptation of this for greenhouse, with the aim of eliminating weeds.

2. Planting: This phase includes the stages of seed planting, production of cuttings and
grafting, vegetative multiplication of plants, fertigation, environmental control of seedlings
and transplanting. As in the previous section, in extensive crops there are robotic tractors
and modified agricultural machinery to perform this work using tractors with the
appropriate equipment, such as the Farmdroid FD20 robot built by the French company
Stecomar sarl, an autonomous robot for mechanical sowing and weeding. In the case of
intensive crops, the most common in the planting process is sowing in seedbed and
subsequent transplanting. For this process of sowing in the seedbed, there are automated
machines for this task, such as the Tenerife planter developed by Arnabat agrícola. In
addition, there are already some types of robots such as the Farmbot manufactured by the
company Farmbot that perform this task.

3. Crop management: This includes the stages of fertigation of the crop, environmental
control of the crop, spraying of phytosanitary products, elimination of weeds (at a more
advanced stage of cultivation), pruning of plants, pollination, fruit protection, cleaning of
greenhouse covers and shading of the same. In both open field and protected cultivation,
fertigation is solved with automatic irrigation. The spraying of phytosanitary products as
well as the process of weed elimination are also solved by automatic irrigation. The
spraying of phytosanitary products as well as the process of weed elimination are also
solved by automatic irrigation.

Código ensayo 6 de 34
 Ed. 1

4. Harvesting: Harvesting can be either manual, automated or robotic. At present, in outdoor

crops, the most commonly used is automated or robotic, which can be divided into
continuous, vibratory, by pieces on trees or by pieces on plants. Sometimes, this task also
includes the processes of grading and packaging in situ.
Continuous harvesting appears in the massive crops of cereals, corn, fodder and others in
which the plants, dry or green, are normally cut at the bottom by devices of the comb type
blades and are collected and packaged in a non-stop process. Although there is partly
automated machinery for these processes, their autonomy can be increased based on the
use of sensors (for example, adding a sensor that activates the harvesting system when the
cutting height is optimal). Also, the robotization of this task can be increased through the
automatic driving of commercial harvesters.
In the open field, vibration is used. This mode of harvesting is indicated for hard fruits and
seeds such as almonds or walnuts, and for other products that must be processed later, not
posing problems of presentation or conservation such as olives or fruits for juices or jams.
For this purpose, mechanical arms are used which are attached to trunks or branches and
which are driven from tractor vehicles in the first case, and even small portable units for
lower power. In the case of tractors, these can have a degree of autonomy or teleoperation
indicated in other tasks.
Robotic harvesting by parts on trees or plants is a topic that is being treated with special
interest, both commercially and at the plant level, with prototypes existing for citrus fruits,
apples and bunches of grapes, and even for outdoor plants such as watermelons, melons or
cabbages.
In the case of greenhouse crops, there are also some prototype developments for different
varieties of tomatoes, cucumbers or strawberries, as well as for mushroom harvesting. One
of the main problems to be solved in this task is the localization of the fruits with vision,
requiring the use of sensory systems capable of detecting sensory systems capable of
detecting them considering the effect of the superposition of the different elements in a
plant or tree.

3. LOCATION AND NAVIGATION

Código ensayo 7 de 34
 Ed. 1

For a robot to work accurately in a new environment, it needs to know a location or reference point,
as well as be able to plan how it will move from one point to another.
The definition of localization is the process performed by the robot to obtain the position within the
environment in which it is located. In general, two types of classification are known, local and
global:
- Local: It is classified as local when it is necessary to provide the robot with the initial
position from where it starts.
- Global: It is classified as global when it is not necessary to provide its position at the
beginning of the navigation.

In addition, it currently has two techniques that focus on solving the navigation problem:
topological navigation (qualitative), and metric navigation (quantitative) [5]. The main difference
between the two types of navigation is that topological navigation is a navigation by means of plan-
like instructions, i.e., it is based on movements (moving forward, turning, etc...) and metric
navigation is based on metric maps.
In order to understand the concept of navigation, four basic questions can be raised that justify the
functions of navigation:

1. Where am I? You need to know the location of the robot at all times. For example,
with the absolute location (latitude, longitude, altitude).
2. Where am I going? The point where to go is usually marked by a human or a
planner.
3. Where did I go? The path traveled should be recorded. It could even be a target
for the robot.

4. What is the best way? This is the part of navigation that receives the most
attention. Route planning can be divided into two categories, qualitative and
quantitative.

These are based on the main tasks that are part of the navigation of the mobile robot are fundamentally
[6]:
Código ensayo 8 de 34
 Ed. 1

- Perception of the environment through its sensors.

- Planning its trajectory.
- Being able to reach the selected destination point.
- Guidance of the vehicle through the planned trajectory.

3.1. Evaluationg road planning

The most obvious in navigation is path planning. There are different techniques to do this, the
result of more than thirty years of research.
The criteria to evaluate if a path planning is adequate are:

o Complexity: Is the algorithm too computationally expensive, in storage space,

processing space, or can it fit within the limitations of a robot?
o Correct representation of the terrain: Terrain irregularities must be taken into
account.
o Correct representation of the robot's limitations: We have to take into account
whether the robot is holonomic or not.
o Compatibility with the reactive layer: Planning algorithms are deliberative by
definition. But in a hybrid style architecture, the reactive layer will be responsible for
carrying out the routing.
o Tolerance to map corrections and replanning: The robot must be able to start with
a planned map, realize that it is incorrect, and update it according to reality.

Based on these criteria, the possible solutions proposed will be discussed in the following sections.

Código ensayo 9 de 34
 Ed. 1

3.2. Imprecise sensors

Around the 1990s robots started to become economically viable, so many researchers
wanted to develop techniques using simulators and assumptions. Typically, it was
assumed that the robot would locate itself with each sensor update. This is incorrect, as
sensors often have noise and vulnerabilities. To solve this problem, a technique called
sensor fusion has now been developed and will be explained in detail in the next section.
Even so, there is always some inaccuracy.

3.3. Spatial memory

Spatial memory is about the robot's use of the representation of reality, based on four
basic functions:

o Attention
o Reasoning
o Route planning
o Information gathering

Spatial memory comes in two forms: topological (qualitative) and metric navigation
(quantitative). The type that represents space as connections between two landmarks is
the qualitative representation. These orientation cues assume that the agent is following
directions at each step. In contrast, the quantitative representation is basically the view
of space. This representation is independent of orientation and position.

3.4. Benchmarks

Topological (qualitative) navigation is guided by landmarks, so it depends on the presence of

landmarks in the terrain. A landmark is an indicator of position. Landmarks are necessary for
robot navigation so that the robot can determine that it has completed one segment of the path and
can begin the next.
Landmarks can be natural or artificial, but they must meet three criteria:
a. Be easily identifiable.
b. Support the activity according to the task.
c. Be recognizable from different points of view.

Código ensayo 10 de 34
 Ed. 1

4. AUTONOMOUS NAVIGATION SYSTEMS/PLATFORMS FOR

GREENHOUSES

4.1. Global Navigation Satellite System

One of the main pillars of localization are global positioning systems (hereinafter GNSS) [7].
There are currently three satellite navigation systems, one of them is called Galileo [8], which
was developed by the European Union and became operational in December 2016. Previously,
Navstar-GPS [9] and Glonass [10], developed by the United States and Russia respectively,
were developed. These navigation systems are used for civilian purposes, although they were
originally created for military purposes. These systems employ 22-24 satellites which are
located in an average orbit of 20,000 km. Although they have factors in common, the systems
are incompatible and interoperable with each other.

They present some cons for their use in robot navigation, among them:

- Vendors do not guarantee reliability or coverage.

- Reliability at high latitudes is uncertain.
- Signal can be interfered with.
- Accuracy is moderate for applications requiring rapid position determination.
- Precipitation attenuates signal.
- Risk of insufficient number of satellites.
- No real communication to users of errors occurring in the systems.
- Interruption of service in a national state of emergency.

"GNSS are composed of a constellation of satellites that transmit signal ranges used for
positioning and localization anywhere on the globe." [11]

Código ensayo 11 de 34
 Ed. 1

This navigation system has numerous disadvantages for use under greenhouse. The
main one is that the signal accuracy can be degraded by errors from atmospheric
effects, multipath effects, ephemeris and clock errors, and errors due to relativity. On
the other hand, its availability is selective, since the satellite signals are state
dependent.

Figura 1. GNSS etapas

4.2. Sensor fusion

The use of a single sensor for navigation is chaotic, as it presents numerous problems related to
the physical components of the sensors such as shortened measurement ranges and inherent
uncertainties. Given this, different sensor fusion techniques are generated to dampen these
problems by making use of various sensors coordinated in a robotic system [12].

The sensor fusion technique was performed thinking about the implicit errors in their
measurements as may be due to noise.
The term sensor fusion is used for any process that involves combining information from
multiple sensors into a single measurement. There are several strategies for combining them
which are: redundant, coordinated and complementary. They can be referred to as a competitive
strategy:

- Redundant sensors, because the sensors compete to expose the winning perception.

- Coordinated sensors make use of a sequence of sensors, usually in order to provide a focus of
attention.
- Complementary sensors provide separate information about an object.

Sometimes multiple sensors are used if one sensor is too inaccurate or noisy and the data it
provides is unreliable. When another sensor is added, data for another new perception can be
obtained. In the case where two or more sensors provide the same sensing, they are redundant
sensors.
Código ensayo 12 de 34
 Ed. 1

Figura 2.Fusión de sensores

Sensor fusion arises from the fact that there is currently no single technology that is optimal for
vehicle navigation in any scenario. The choice of the most appropriate sensor depends on its
application, although several sensors will always provide information to achieve a better result
than that provided by a single sensor. [13] Techniques used in agriculture to perform sensor
fusion include different probabilistic analysis methods, extended Kalman filters or other
algorithms for solving linear and nonlinear systems, among others.

This technique is not useful for use under greenhouse, since the path is not homogeneous, and
can cause errors in the measurement. In addition, there are many irregularities in the path and
this would create too much noise for this system to be functional.

Código ensayo 13 de 34
 Ed. 1

4.3. LiDar technology

LiDAR is the acronym for Light Detection and Ranging, i.e. detection by light and distance. It is a
laser system that measures the distance from the point of emission of the laser to an object or
surface. The distance to the targeted object is calculated based on the time it takes for the laser to
reach it and return. The result is a high-resolution 3D map of the terrain in question.

Figura 3.Cálculo de la distancia

LIDARs have their origin in 1962 thanks to the Hughes Aircraft Company, which invented
them after the discovery of the laser beam, as a system for locating satellites. [14]

Nowadays, it is used in surveying for large-scale mapping applications, it is revolutionizing the

acquisition of digital data relating to terrain elevation. It is also used for speed detection, or for
navigation of AGVs (Automatic Guided Vehicles) as a scanner of the environment, allowing the
generation of a map in real time, which facilitates the vehicle to navigate through it avoiding
collisions with surrounding objects.
This could be one of the valid options for use inside the greenhouse since this system is not
affected by lighting and could be used at any time of the day. In order to use this system, it
should be fused with other sensors to make it more efficient, since it would not be very useful
for autonomous navigation in the greenhouse. Among other reasons, because this process has
the problem that the vehicle's motion is not always uniform and this can cause deviations in the
measurement [15].

Código ensayo 14 de 34
 Ed. 1

4.4. SLAM navigation system

SLAM stands for Simulation Localization And Mapping, or Simultaneous Localization and
Mapping. This is a navigation technique in which a robot or vehicle builds a map of the
environment and at the same time moves within it, thanks to the information captured by its sensors
in real time. It uses a LiDAR scanner to map the environment. In addition to other sensors such as
GPS, sonar, inertial navigation and cameras, to provide better results. [16]

The project with which the SLAM navigation system started was published in 2007 by Andrew
Davison who described the first algorithm capable of performing SLAM in time with images from
a camera. In 2017, after 10 years from the start of the project, the SLAM problem was considered
solved. Currently, publications continue to be made that are dedicated to refining and improving
the system.

Figura 4.Visión SLAM

This system can be one of the most suitable for robot navigation under greenhouse because the
localization and mapping are simultaneous. It presents many advantages such as functionality as
it aligns sensor data on several levels creating a map. In terms of data collection, SLAM uses
multiple sensors, which makes it have a higher level of accuracy and robustness. Therefore,
these robots can perform well even in adverse conditions. In addition to the technology that
integrates it
cameras take up to 90 images per second. In turn, they record many LiDar images, which makes
it possible to be aware of the environment which, unlike other systems, use these images to plot
and map efficiently [17].

Código ensayo 15 de 34
 Ed. 1

4.5. Sistemas de navegación por visión artificial

Computer vision navigation systems, also called Computer Vision, aim to capture visual
information from the physical environment to extract relevant visual features, using automatic
procedures such as machine vision systems used for shape recognition, color recognition and
quality control. For years, the integration of these systems in mobile robots has been studied to
enhance their functionalities against possible complications, such as sudden changes in the
environment and various environmental and working conditions.

At the Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, projects have been developed that unite artificial vision
with mobile robotics; one of the most significant works is "Design and Construction of a Scara
robot with a machine vision system, which can be used as a teaching tool in robotics and control
subjects" [18], where an artificial vision system is implemented that is based on a webcam with
which a complete view of the environment is achieved. In addition, it includes a position marker
that indicates the starting reference in the environment.

Figura 5.Diagrama de Bloques del Sistema de Visión Artificial

2D and 3D computer vision, both in the visible spectrum and in other spectrums, is a fundamental
pillar in the use of robots in agriculture, both for the tasks of capturing information that, properly
processed, allows decision making, as well as to be used as a tool to aid in the relative positioning
between the robot and the environment on which it must act.
The use of 2D and 3D computer vision, both in the visible spectrum and in other spectrums, is a
fundamental pillar in the use of robots in agriculture, both for the tasks of capturing information
that, properly processed, allows decision making, and for being used as an instrument to help in the
relative positioning between the robot and the environment on which it must act. This system
presents difficulties in classifying the objects present in the image due to the homogeneity and
occlusions between the objects on which it acts, such as fruits within the foliage mass, and the
variability of the lighting conditions.

As is well known, inside the greenhouse the incidence of light is very different throughout the day,
so it is not a controlled type of light and this greatly hinders the use of this system, as it is affected
by light changes.

4.6. Sistema de navegación inercial

Código ensayo 16 de 34
 Ed. 1

An inertial navigation system (INS) is a device that uses a computer, motion sensors
(accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously compute by estimation the
position, orientation and velocity (direction and rate of motion) of a moving object without the
need for external references [19].

Figura 6.Esquema de un sistema de navegación inercial

INS is often used in maritime or aerial navigation, because this system can detect a change in
geographical position, a change in speed or a change in orientation. One of the positive aspects of
this system is that it only needs an external reference at the beginning, so it is immune to
interference that other systems such as GPS could suffer.

This system makes use of Newton's law to know the acceleration and the orientation is measured
by gyroscopes. The mechanical gyroscopes are constituted by a flywheel or mass that rotates fast
enough around an axis, with the property that the axis of rotation of the mass always maintains its
orientation. While electronic gyroscopes employ the effect of Coriolis acceleration.

For its use in a greenhouse, this system has a main disadvantage and that is the drift rate, whereby
the position must be corrected every X amount of time. Another factor against the use of this
system for its implementation in greenhouses is the need to incorporate additional
elements/components to those normally used in a greenhouse. According to the technical meetings
held between the company IDM and Tecnova, the use of beacons was initially discarded due to the
fact that the working environment does not need to be modified.

Código ensayo 17 de 34
 Ed. 1

5. SOIL CONDITIONS.

This section focuses on the characteristics of the different types of soils in the environments of
interest for the development of the project. We are talking about the soil that we can find in a
greenhouse, since there are different types of soil depending on the age and especially the initial
purpose. According to the conditions of the crop to be worked in this project, pear tomato in this
case, and taking into account the situation of the test scenario, such as the experimental center of
CT Tecnova, we will focus this study on the main types of soil that can occur in mutitunnel and
scrape-and-grass greenhouses. All this in order to know the main challenges that the mobile
equipment will face to perform a good displacement in any type of soil.

5.1. Soil
Soil composition is made up of three phases: solid, liquid and gaseous. These last ones
occupy 25% of the volume of each one, being the solid phase the one of greater presence with 50%
of volume. This in turn is subdivided into a mineral part (45-50%) and an organic part (0-5%).
The solid phase is of great interest for the purpose of this section. To know it better, we
will analyze the texture and structure of the soil [25].

5.1.1. Texture

The texture of a soil is the amount or proportion of particles contained in the soil. Depending on the
size (diameter) of the different types of particles, they are classified into several groups:

Tipos de Partículas Diámetro (mm) Tipos de Partículas Diámetro (mm)

Elementos gruesos más de 2 mm
Arena 2 - 0,02 mm
Limo 0,02 - 0,002 mm
Arcilla Menos de 0,002 mm

To determine the physical characteristics of the soil it is necessary to know the existing proportion
between them, in this way the texture or textural class will be attributed.

For this purpose, the system proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),
known as texture triangles or textural diagrams, will represent the of the particle quantities resulting
in the corresponding texture.

Código ensayo 18 de 34
 Ed. 1

Figura 7. Clasificación del suelo por textura. (Sistema USDA).

Although coarse elements are not considered to determine texture, they should be taken into
account for some physical properties of the soil, since they can hinder tillage, hinder root
development and have a certain beneficial effect by improving water infiltration. On the other
hand, texture also has a great influence on the agricultural properties of the soil, determining
characteristics such as:

- Ease of tillage.
- Risk of erosion.
- Risk of superficial crust formation.
- Ease of water circulation.
- Water retention capacity available for plants.
- Capacity to store nutrients.

Código ensayo 19 de 34
 Ed. 1

Knowing the texture will help in proposing the design of the platform. Therefore, a summary table
showing the main properties of the three basic types of soils according to texture is presented
below:
TIPE CHARACTERISTICS
SANDY – - With a higher percentage of sand than silt and clay.
– - They are very permeable, i.e., they allow water to pass through easily.
SOILS
– - Low capacity to retain water.
(Light – - They have a high degree of aeration.
– - Easy to work.
soils)
– - Low thermal inertia (they heat up and cool down very easily).
– - Low capacity to retain nutrients.
– - Difficult to compact.
– - Easy to root penetration.

CLAY SOILS – - Predominantly clay particles.

– - Low permeability, and may present drainage and waterlogging problems.
(Heavy
– - High water retention capacity.
– - Difficult to till.
soils)
– - High thermal inertia.
– - High chemical fertility.
– - Poor aeration.
– - Easy to compact.
– - Difficult to root penetration.

FRANK In general they are of intermediate characteristics between those of sandy

GROUND and clayey soils. Its fertility depends to a great extent on its capacity to form
S a good structure. It can be said that it is the ideal texture from the agronomic
point of view, since the existing balance between the quantities of the
different particles (clay 10-30%, silt 30-50% and sand 20-50%) combines
the advantages of each of them and eliminates their disadvantages.
advantages of each of them and eliminates their disadvantages.

Código ensayo 20 de 34
 Ed. 1

5.1.2. Estructure.

The structure represents the way in which the different mineral particles of the soil are joined
together to form aggregates. In general, when the soil has good structure it is said to be "fluffy", on
the one hand, with large pores that allow the passage of air, water and roots, on the other hand, with
small pores to retain water and nutrients. The structure also influences a series of soil
characteristics, which are presented in the following table:
Property Effect of a good structure
Floor area Difficult crust formation
Water movement Improved water penetration into the soil. Increased capacity to retain
water.
Porosity Good circulation of air, water and nutrients. Easier root growth

Compactness The soil is more difficult to compact. Easier to work.

5.2. Paving
With the advance of the years and the implementation of heavy machinery inside
greenhouses, there are situations in which the greenhouse floor is concreted to facilitate the work of
heavy equipment. The most common types of concreting used in these cases are screeded and
troweled concretes.

HRegleonado concrete: This type of pavement is the concreting with the simplest
finish offered by the concrete. Basically, it is a matter of spreading the concrete along the
profiles of the screed with the corresponding water slopes, passing through the screed a a
ruler in order to eliminate air bubbles trapped in
the dough. trapped in the mass. In this way a
concrete of greater resistance is obtained.
After drying, separation joints are usually
made, every x meters as in any other concreting.
other concreting. This process achieves a
more or less homogeneous
and fairly homogeneous soil
Figure 8. Process of concreting and levelling.
stable for the movement of heavy machinery with an established limit.

Código ensayo 21 de 34
 Ed. 1

Troweling concrete: This concreting technique consists of a process of mechanical

manipulation of the last layer of concrete in order to obtain a harder, more homogeneous surface
with friction. When the concrete is fresh, with the use of a troweling machine, the process of
compacting the material is carried out in order to obtain a smooth and regular surface with a fine,
semi-fine and non-slip finish of choice[26]. This process makes it possible to obtain a much more
uniform floor than the previous one, without roughness and more polished.

Figura 9. Troweled concrete

For both cases, it is possible to find ramps or steps of about 10-15 cm at the beginning of each aisle
line. This scenario would be optimal and would facilitate the displacement of the platform, but it is
not the most common in a real environment.

5.3. Geotextil Fabric

The geotextile fabric is a product whose elements are lamellar, flexible, and porous with a
mechanical or chemical bond between the filaments of the structure that compose it, being
structured or mechanized with mechanical and hydraulic properties [27]. This mesh formed by a
synthetic fiber has a draining capacity and presents good mechanical resistance to perforation and
traction. With the use of this material, a stabilization of the soil of different grain size and at the
same time the protection of waterproofing sheets is obtained.

Ilustración 1:Tela Geotextil

Código ensayo 22 de 34
 Ed. 1

Basically, it is a protective layer that compacts the area of the soil a little more. Its main
function is to prevent the growth of weeds, thus leaving a cleaner area. Therefore, the environment
would be clearer, but the resistance of the soil would be the same as that of the soil under the
surface of the geotextile. Moreover, in this type of soil, the movement of machinery sometimes
causes a series of inconveniences in the use of the same, such as roughness, deformity or breakage
of the fabric itself by inadequate turns of the wheels of the machinery.

5.4. Summary of the situations to be dealt with.

With the characteristics described in the previous points, the greenhouse will be able to
present different combinations of soils, from the presence of only one of them to the use of all
three, depending on an economic factor and a factor of need of the crop itself.

Scraping and harrowing situations: Within these possibilities of existing combinations,

the most common situations that will be found will be the greenhouses completely of earth, used by
most of the farmers for an economic factor. In some cases, these greenhouses will have a paved
central aisle for the entrance of the torillo, which will take out the pallets filled with the products
obtained.

Multi-tunnel situations: In this type of greenhouses there are more possibilities of having
more paved areas, since these structures are developed by large companies with the intention of
obtaining higher productivity. This usually occurs in the central aisle and common areas inside the
greenhouse, in addition to the fact that it can be provided with a geotextile fabric in the lines. A
completely paved greenhouse only occurs in crops without soil planting.

Código ensayo 23 de 34
 Ed. 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] <<Robot>>, RAE [En línea]. Disponible en: www.rae.es . [Último acceso: 21 marzo 2022]
[2] <<Robots autónomos>>, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid [En línea]. Disponible en:
http://arantxa.ii.uam.es/~gdrivera/robotica/introd.htm . [Último acceso: 21 marzo 2022]
[3] Comité Español de Automática. “Libro blanco de la Robótica”. 1ra Edición. 2011. Pag.42,43.
[4] Comité Español de Automática. “Libro blanco de la Robótica”. 1ra Edición. 2011. Pag.42,43.
[5] Murphy R.R. “Introduction to AI Robotics, MIT Press, Cambrige”, MA, USA, 1st edition.
2000
[6] <<Planificación de Trayectorias para Robots Móviles>>, Universidad de Málaga [En línea]
Disponible en: http://webpersonal.uma.es/~VFMM/PDF/cap2.pdf .
[7] <<Sistema global de navegación por satélite>>, Hispaviación [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://www.hispaviacion.es/sistema-global-de-navegacion-por-satelite/ .
[8] <<Galileo>> European Union Agency for the Space Programme [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://www.euspa.europa.eu/ .]
[9] <<Chapter 3 – Satellite Systems>> Novatel [En línea]. Disponible en: https://novatel.com/an-
introduction-to-gnss/chapter-3-satellite-systems
[10] <<Chapter 3 – Satellite Systems>> Novatel [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://novatel.com/an-introduction-to-gnss/chapter-3-satellite-systems
[11] <<Sistema global de navegación>> Wikipedia [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_global_de_navegaci%C3%B3n_por_sat%C3%A9lite
#:~:text=Un%20sistema%20global%20de%20navegaci%C3%B3n,en%20tierra%2C%20m ar%20o
%20aire .
[12] Santiago Martínez, Rafael Sisto. “Easy Robots: Control y Comportamiento de Robots
Omnidireccionales”, 2010
[13] F. Reid, John. “Precision Guidance of Agricultural Vehicles”, 2008
[14] <<Escáner LiDAR>> Clem [En línea]. Disponible en: https://clem.es/noticia/que-es-un-
escaner-lidar- 516#:~:text=Los%20LIDAR%20tienen%20su%20origen,sistema%20de
%20localizaci%C3
%B3n%20de%20sat%C3%A9lites. .

Código ensayo 24 de 34
 Ed. 1

[15] <<Tecnología LiDAR>> Nobbot [En línea]. Disponible en:

https://www.nobbot.com/futuro/tecnologia-lidar/ .
[16] M. Llofriu y F. Andrade. “Estudio del arte del SLAM e implementación de una plataforma
flexible”, 2012
[17] <<Importancia de la localización y el mapeo simultáneos (SLAM)>> Inteligenciaes [En línea].
Disponible en: https://inteligenciaes.com/importancia-de-la-localizacion-y-el-mapeo- simultaneos-
slam/ .
[18] Jiménez Robayo C.E. “Diseño y construcción de un robot Scara con un sistema de visión de
máquina, que pueda ser utilizado como herramienta didáctica en asignaturas de robótica y control”.
Trabajo de Grado (Ingeniero en Mecatrónica). Facultad de ingeniería,
Universidad Militar Nueva Granada. Bogotá, 2008
[19] <<Qué es un sistema de navegación inercial>> Xatakaciencia [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://www.xatakaciencia.com/sabias-que/que-es-un-sistema-de-navegacion-inercial .
[20] <<NGC Catalog>> NVIDIA [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://catalog.ngc.nvidia.com/?filters=&orderBy=scoreDESC&query= .
[21] <<PAL Robotics: Liderando la robótica de servicio>> PALRobotics [En línea]. Disponible
en: https://pal-robotics.com/es/ .
[22] <<Historia Synersight>> Synersight [En línea]. Disponible en: https://synersight.es/ .
[23] <<Movimiento inteligente 4.0>> KIVNON [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://www.kivnon.com/es/ .
[24] <<Leanding the Mobile Robotics era>> ASTI [En línea]. Disponible en:
https://www.astimobilerobotics.com/?hsLang=en .
[25] Fernández Fernández, M.M., Suelo y medio ambiente en invernaderos. Consejería de

Agricultura, Pesca y Desarrollo Rural, 2014

[26] Galistar, Hormigón fratasado (2019), https://www.galistar.es/hormigon-fratasado/

[27] Geosai, Geotextil (2020), https://www.geosai.com/geotextil/

Código ensayo 25 de 34