17.

1 Laser A hundred years ago, Albert Einstein laid the foundation of one of the most revolutionary
inventions of the twentieth century – LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation). His theory of stimulated emission of radiation, published in 1917, stimulated and guided
research endeavours towards development of a working LASER for the next 43 years, culminating in
the invention of the first operational LASER by Theodore Maiman in 1960. The term LASER conjures
up images of incredible sources of light energy and magic light machines that can cut and drill
metals, destroy satellites, read and send data, cool atoms, trigger fusion and perform complicated
surgeries. 17.2 History Lasers are, in fact, generators of light. It is based on the amplification of light
by means of stimulated radiations of atoms or molecules. Different types of LASERs developed in
various research are listed in Table 17.1. • In 1917, Einstein did predict the possibility of such a
stimulated radiation. • In 1952, Ch. Townes, J. Gordon and H. Zeiger in U.S.A, and N. Basov and A.
Prokhorov in USSR, separately suggested the theory of generating and amplifying microwave
oscillations. It leads to the invention of MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) in 1954. • In 1960, Theodore Maiman of Hughes Research Laboratory synthesised the first
laser using a ruby crystal. • A. Javan, W. Bennett and D. Harriot of Bell Laboratory, using a mixture of
Helium and Neon gases, in 1961, developed the first gas laser. In the same laboratory, L.F. Johnson
and K. Nassu produced the first neodymium laser that ideally is the most reliable lasers available. •
The first semiconductor laser, was developed by R. Hall at the General Electric Research Laboratory
in the year 1962. 17.3 Laser Properties The properties that give LASER its extraordinary application
potential are its high coherence, monochromaticity, convergence and intensity. Coherence Coherent
waves are locked together with respect to time and space. Monochromaticity LASER light is only a
single-colour light. Convergence LASER light spreads very little compared to ordinary sources of light,
i.e., they have minimum divergence for a given diameter. Table 17.1 Major Land Marks in Lasers
Intensity As the energy from an ordinary source of light spreads in all directions, its intensity
decreases as it moves away from the source in proportion to the square of the distance. However,
due to very high directionality of a LASER beam, the light energy is concentrated only in a very small
region of space. This results in extremely high value of intensity, even though, the power of the laser
may be small. 17.4 Laser Types • Since the first LASER invented by Maiman in 1960, thousands of
new LASERs have been developed so far. • Schawlow even made a joking reference to the “edible”
LASER (made of favoured gelatin) and the “drinkable” LASER (made of an alcoholic mixture). •
LASERs are classified in several ways such as the choice of the active material used for LASER action,
mode of operation (pulsed or continuous), power, efficiency and applications. • Some well-known
lasers are solid-state lasers, gas lasers (further classified as atom lasers, molecular lasers and ion
lasers), semiconductor lasers, liquid lasers, chemical lasers, dye lasers, metal-vapour lasers, free
electron lasers and Raman lasers. On the basis of medium, these are further divided into: (a) Solid,
(b) Liquid and (c) Gas. 17.4.1 Solid Lasers These solid-state lasers were the first-known lasers. They
belong to the high-density gain media. Examples: Ruby laser, Glass laser, Fibre laser, YAG Laser, etc.
• Ruby laser: Ruby was the first laser. The active material used is Cr 3+ doped in Al2O3 crystal. It has
a high-energy storage capability. Its efficiency is of 0.1 to 1 per cent. It is mostly important for uses in
holography. • Glass laser: It is widely used in material processing and in the medical sector. They are
used in nuclear fusion and in military application such as range calculation. • Fiber lasers: It is used
for fibre optic communication because optical signals travel longer distances with the least amount
of loss. These lasers are highly useful in under-sea communication and long-haul communication
links. 17.4.2 Liquid Lasers In this laser, the active media are formed by the solutions of certain dyes
dissolved in liquids, such as water or alcohol. These dye lasers are tunable and have high gain as
compared to solid lasers. The dyes used in this laser are polymethene dye, scintillator dye, xanthene
dye and coumarin dye. 17.4.3 Gas Lasers Gas lasers belong to low-density gain media. According to
the active medium, the gas lasers are further divided into atomic laser, ionic laser and molecular
laser. The optical quality is better because it is optically homogenous.

17.4.4 Some Other Important Lasers 17.4.4.1 Semiconductor Lasers It is a specially designed p-n
junction diode, which emits coherent radiation in forward-biased condition. There are two types of
lasers, i.e., homo-junction laser and hetero-junction laser. These emit lights almost anywhere in the
spectrum, from UV to IR. The advantage of this laser is that it is portable and has an easily controlled
source of coherent waves. It is widely used in optical reading, high-speed laser printing and in CD
audio players. 17.4.4.2 Helium-Neon Laser This was the first laser ever, developed in 1961 and the
most widely used lasers. It is an atomic laser, having four-level pumping schemes. The active
medium is the mixture of 10 parts of Helium and 1 part of Neon. These are mostly used in the
laboratories for barcode reading and laser printing. These are used as reference beams in surveying
for alignment of pipe line, etc. 17.5 Application of Laser Within science, these are used for different
applications, such as huge interferometric technique varieties, atmospheric remote sensing,
holographic technique, Raman spectroscopy. Laser-based Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
technology has applications in remote sensing, seismology, atmospheric physics and geology. After
the laser invention in the year 1958, a large number of applications in the field of medical, military,
scientific, and commercial laser have been developed. Some important applications are given below:
17.5.1 Materials Laser cutting technology is used to cut materials, which are used for industrial
sectors. These are done by directing the output of a high-power laser, by computer, at the material
to be cut. The material then melts or burns or vapourises away by a jet of gas. Similarly, laser-
welding works are going on both at large scale and small scale. One example of large-scale
utilisation: the Indian Navy uses lasers to weld huge metal parts together in ship-building. On a small
scale: the laser welds tiny circuit parts used in TV, computer, etc. Likewise, lasers are used in heat-
treating, i.e., converts the surface layer to crystalline state that is harder and more resistant to wear.
17.5.2 Electronic Industry Lasers are widely used for material processing in electronic industry. They
are mainly employed in making electrical connection for thick film hybrid circuits, in repairing photo
marks, etc. Use of lasers in trimming of the materials gives about 50 per cent cost-saving rather than
other techniques. Silicon chips could be prepared more quickly and cheaply by using laser
photolithography, which is developed by physicists in US. 17.5.3 Nuclear Energy Natural uranium is
used to fuel nuclear reactors containing isotopes of U-238 and U-235. The differences in the nuclear
mass shift the electronic energy level and therefore, each isotope absorbs light at different
absorption bands. The desired energy is obtained by tuning a dye laser to a precise wavelength with
a very narrow line width. In nuclear fusion, using of laser offers low-cost and pollution-free energy.
Now, a group of scientist in the USA are working on the laser-induced nuclear physics. Now-a-days,
laser systems are available with several terawatts of power and some of the largest laser systems,
such as VULCAN laser are situated at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK. It uses glass lasers for
amplifying medium in nuclear fission process of U-238. This is an excellent medium for producing
pulses of high energy in short duration. 17.5.4 Medicine and Surgery Laser plays an important role in
the field of medicines and therapies. Laser surgery has been extensively used in cosmetic surgery,
i.e., removing tattoos, wrinkles, stretch marks, scars and hair. Lasers used in dermatology are ruby,
alexandrite and YAG specially. In eye laser surgery, Argon laser beam is focused on the desired point
of the eye’s retina. In open eye surgery, YAG laser is used to remove cloud membrane. Techniques
used include LASIK, which is used to correct short and long sightedness in version, by using excimer
laser cornea, can be reshaped. Note: LASIK: It is a refractive surgery used to describe surgical
procedures that correct common vision problems (nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism and
presbyopia) to reduce your dependence on prescription eyeglasses and/or contact lenses at any age
in human life. Argon laser photocoagulation has been used for the treatment of non-vascular
diseases such as diabetic retinopathy. Also, it is used for muscular degeneration. In dentistry, laser
rays are vapourised tissue, which coagulate and close the small blood vessels so that wound surface
is sterilised. Laser angioplasty is a therapy in which excimer laser is inserted in catheter, vapourises
the plaques and thus, opens the artery. Lasers are used in destroying kidney stones and gallstones.
17.5.5 Defence Laser can also be used for ranging and description of target, defending
countermeasures, communications and guided weapons. Lasers are used in measurement of
distances in the same way as microwaves do in radars. The optical radars, by utilising laser beams,
are engaged in the detection of distant objects and about their information collection. This is known
as range finding. Now-a-days, flying aircrafts having low heights are being used for ground attacks.
These are equipped with laser instruments so as to measure the target range and the bomb directing
onto it, thereby, reducing the human element to the minimum. It is required from laser weapons
that their beam may either disable the enemy weapons or destroy them. It is easier to achieve the
goal of damaging the infrared sensors on guided missiles or the sensitive electronic eyes of spy
satellites. On 19th July 2010, at the Farnborough Airshow, an anti-aircraft laser was displayed, which
was referred as the “Laser Close-in Weapon System”. On 06 April 2011, a laser gun was successfully
tested by the U.S. Navy, being manufactured by Northrop, Grumman and mounted on the former
USS Paul Foster, currently used as the navy’s test ship. Target Designator An additional usage of laser
for military purpose is the laser target designator. It is a low-power pointer, which is used in target
pointing for an accurate directed target, usually aircraft launcher. In the year 2007, LaserMax, a firm
which specialises in the production of lasers for its usage in firearms of military and police, launched
the initial green colour laser for mass-production of small arms. It is built-up on the handgun or long
arm underside on the rail accessory. In the

bright light, green lasers have greater visibility than the red lasers due to the reason that red light is
less bright than green light for the similar power condition. The US Air Force designed a non-lethal
laser weapon, for temporarily impairing the enemy’s ability to fire a weapon, or for further
threatening the enemy forces. 17.5.6 Consumer Electronic Industry A barcode, called as the
Universal Product Code (UPC), is a series of lines at various widths, which represent information,
read by an optical scanner called a barcode reader or scanned for an image by special software.
Barcodes are mentioned now-a-days on all consumer items. The code contains information
regarding the item and its manufacturer. A low-power (He-Ne) laser beam is used to detect the
code. As the item is moved, the bright areas reffect it. The presence or absence of reffected light is
registered by a photosensitive light detector. In this way, the supermarket scanner converts the
pattern of barcode into a series of electrical signals. The information passes on to a central
computer, which Identifies the product, looks up the price and prints the details on the bill. Compact
Discs (CDs) are similar to phonograph records in their appearances. Music is recorded in analogue
form on phonograph records, while it is recorded in digital form on the compact discs. The encoding
pattern follows a continuous spiral path, covering the entire disc surface and extending from the
innermost track to the outermost track. The data is stored on the disc with a laser (while writing)
and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated (while reading) with a laser. 17.5.7 Optical
Communication Using Lasers Lasers occupy a very important place in the field of communications.
Open atmosphere communications are restricted only to line of sight. The semiconductor laser is
well matched to optical fibres communications. Its emitting area is only a few micro-conductors
wide; small enough to couple light efficiently into the thin optical fibres. The glass optical fibres have
lower loss. InGaAsp lasers generate radiation at these wavelengths. Indium Gallium Arsenide
phosphate (InGaAsP) laser takes advantage of the window in the transmission spectrum of optical
fibre. Laser communication systems offer more advantages over radio frequency (RF) systems. 17.6
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) The acronym LIDAR is an optical remote sensing technology,
which can measure the distance or other properties of a target by illuminating the target with light,
often using pulses from a laser. Ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light are used by LIDAR in
imaging the objects and have a usage with extensive target range such as non-metallic objects,
aerosols, chemical compounds, rocks, clouds, rain and even single molecules. A fne beam of laser is
used in the mapping of physical features having high resolution. LIDAR is vastly used as a technology
to prepare high-resolution maps, with applications. LIDAR, is used in geometrics, archaeology,
geodesy, geography, geomorphology, seismology, geology, forestry, atmospheric physics, airborne
laser swath mapping (ALSM) and laser altimetry. LIDAR is sometimes simply referred to as laser
scanning or 3D scanning, with terrestrial, airborne and mobile applications. Use of LIDAR in
Agriculture Agricultural scientists have formulated a way for the inclusion and usage of LIDAR with
yield rates on agricultural fields. This technology will be helpful in steering the farmers in directing
their resources towards the high-yield land section. The usage of LIDAR is done in determining their
fields areas for the application of costly fertiliser. It develops the topological field maps and further
helps in exposing the farmland slopes and sun exposure. Use of LIDAR in Archaeology It helps in the
field campaigns’ planning and features mapping underneath the forest shelter. It also helps the
archaeologists in providing with the capability for the creation of high-resolution digital elevation
models (DEMs) pertaining to archaeological sites, thereby disclosing the micro-topography, which
are concealed otherwise by the vegetation. LIDAR is also used in oceanography, to survey biomass in
surface layers of the ocean. LIDAR led to meaningful advances in geomorphology. The usage of first
LIDAR was done to study atmospheric pollutants, clouds, structure and aerosols, which include N2,
CO2, SO2, NO2, etc., gases and particulate matter such as dust, smoke and fy ash. Differential
Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) is used for range-resolved measurements of a particular gas in the
atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, ozone or water vapour. Raman LIDAR is also used for accessing
the concentration of atmospheric gases, but can also be used to retrieve aerosol parameters as well.

Doppler LIDAR is used to measure wind speed along the beam, by measuring the frequency shift of
the backscattered light. 17.7 Optical Computer An optical computer (also called a photonic
computer) is a device to perform digital computations. It uses the photons (light unit) in visible light
or infrared (IR) beams, rather than electric current. An electric current flows at only about 10 per
cent of the speed of light. This limits the data rate, which can be exchanged over long distances.
Visible-light and IR beams can easily pass through each other without interacting and interferences.
An optical computer, besides being much faster than an electronic one, might also be smaller. 17.8
Uses in India India plans to cover more than 40 vulnerable unfenced stretches along Pakistan border
by laser wall. All the river stretches located in Punjab would be covered by laser wall technology,
developed by the Indian Border Security Force, to eliminate the chances of breach of border by
terrorists. The laser wall is a mechanism to detect objects, passing the line of sight between the laser
source and detector. A laser beam over a river sets of a loud siren in case of breach. India is making
major strides in developing laser technology that is revolutionising treatment of cancer. The laser is
used in applications in the field of photodynamic therapy for treating cancers. In December 2013,
experts from India and Germany took part in scientific conference on Laser Application and Nano
Science, discussed molecular structure of laser and its dynamics. India’s collaboration with Germany
is now working on the development in microwave coherence spectroscopy, imaging sensor and new
materials for fibre lasers. In 2016, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is
making directed energy weapons (DEWs) of 10 Kilowatts against UAV-like targets with the
establishment of critical technologies of precision tracking and laser beam combination. DRDO’s
Laser Science and Technology Centre is working on an array of systems from chemical oxygen iodine
lasers to “high power fibre lasers”. Laser weapons would require 500-kilowatt beam to destroy a
missile. 17.9 Advantages Laser is hotter, faster, more accurate and also safer to use for welding,
cutting or scribing. In air medium, the laser beam can be transmitted. The process is easily
performed with robotic machinery. X-rays are not generated. The advantages of laser cutting
materials are that they are fne and precise. There is no chance of distortion in the material that is
being cut, as laser system has a small heat-affected zone. There are more chances to operate on
complex profiles with reduced curving radius. In nuclear energy, it offers low cost and pollution-free
energy. In nuclear fusion, the laser produces less radioactive nuclear waste materials. The light
nuclei required for a fusion reaction are available in abundance on earth than the heavy elements
needed for the process of fission. In fission process, due to use of laser, the output fission element is
more tightly bounded by fragment elements than original nucleus and excess energy is released as
kinetic energy of motion. In medicine, the first big success of laser was in the treatment of eyes. It is
helpful in the detachment of retina, as retina is very sensitive to normal light. Laser treatment, in
conventional open eye surgery, made it very simple and fast. In laser therapy, it is more accurate
than standard surgical tools, so they do less harm to normal tissues. As a result, patients will be
subject to less pain, bleeding and swelling. It takes less time for patients to heal after laser surgery.
There are fewer chances to get infections. Laser can measure enormous distance with great
accuracy. A laser beam travels at a constant speed same as the speed of light, so it takes less time
for figuring out a very long distance. In consumer electronic industry, the bar code reader usage
facilitates in tracking items and lessens the shoplifting instances, concerning swapping of price tag.
Post-production companies use barcodes to track videotapes and film reels. It allows fast moving
and fast selling of those products. It is very useful in areas of logistic. In laser communication system
certain advantages are, it has smaller antenna size, lower weight, lower power and mineral
integration impact on the satellite than radio frequency (RF). Laser communication is capable of
much higher data rate than RF. 17.10 Disadvantages The main disadvantage of laser cutting is the
high power consumption. The resolution of the technique is fast approaching the diffraction limit, so
it will not be able to make features much smaller than the current minimum size of about 130
nanometres and that the semiconductor industry could soon violate one of its guiding principles.
Laser irradiation of the eye may cause damage to the cornea, lens, or retina, depending on the
wavelength of the light and the energy absorption characteristics of the ocular tissues. Keratocon-
junctivitis, overexposure to infrared will cause corneal burns in eye. The international laser safety
standards, IEC-825, thus defines that the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) that the eye can
receive is a short exposure of 2.5 Megawatt per square centimetre, without causing eye injury. The
laser causes homeostasis in human being. But in addition, homeostatic imbalance is also responsible
for physical changes, associated with aging. Homeostatic imbalance causes diabetes, hyperglycemia,
gout and dehydration. In laser angioplasty, the problem has been that the lasers are too hot. It can
cause damage to arterial walls. Laser therapy has also several limitations. Laser therapy may not last
long, so doctors may have to repeat the treatment, which causes internal damage to the body.
Exposure of the skin to high-power laser beams can cause burns. In Defence, the use of laser
targeting the eyes increases the possibility of blindness. However, the majority of nations view the
enemy’s permanent blinding deliberately, as prohibited by the war rules as blinding laser weapons
protocol. Now-a-days, for computer data backup and physical data transfer, optical discs such as CDs
and DVDs are replaced with faster, smaller and more reliable devices known as USB flash drives. CD
players are supplanted by MP3 players and the Internet. 17.11 Antilaser 17.11.1 Basics of Antilaser
More than 50 years after the invention of the laser, scientists at Yale University have built the
world’s first antilaser. It is a device that almost perfectly absorbs incoming beams of coherent light
and converts it to some form of internal energy such as heat or electrical energy. This invention is
based on a theoretical study by Prof. A. Douglas Stone and his colleagues. Antilaser is also called as a
“Coherent Perfect Absorber” (CPA) because it perfectly absorbs light due to the interference of the
light beams. The antilaser is about 1 centimetre across, and capable of absorbing 99.4 per cent of
incoming light. Some future versions will be able to absorb 99.999 per cent of the light, and could be
built as small as 6 microns soon. The current CPA is also limited to absorbing near-infrared light but
in future versions, it might be able to handle visible and infrared light. 17.11.2 Laser Versus Antilaser
Conventional lasers were first invented in 1960, in which, generally, the light or electricity is pushed
into a gain medium, like the semiconductor gallium arsenide, thereby producing plenty of electrons
in excited energy states. When the electrons move into lower energy states, they emit photons,
which move to and fro in a laser cavity. The electrons, which are in higher excited state, maintain a
coherent light beam of particular wavelength, emerging from one end. The gain medium can be a
solid, liquid or gas. Laser is an acronym for “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.”
The antilaser device performs under the same laser principle but the other way around, and makes
use of the concept, termed as the “time-reversal symmetry”, related to electromagnetic theory. In
the antilaser, a coherent light beam is put into a loss medium (also known as absorbing medium),
being the similar material as the gain medium or one less expected to emit light, such as the usage
of silicon in the experiment. In antilaser device, two specific frequency laser beams will cross
through the specially designed optical cavity, which is made-up of silicon. It traps the incoming
beams of light and forces them to bounce around, until all their energy is dissipated. While a normal
laser takes electrical energy and emits light in a very narrow frequency range, the antilaser takes
laser light and transforms it into heat energy.

17.11.3 Applications of Antilaser 1. It is built-up of silicon, which is widely used in computing. 2.

Under antilaser device, the absorption could be turned on or of. This might make antilasers
extremely useful as optical switching devices. It will be used as optical switches, detectors and other
components in the next generation of computers, called optical computers because it will be
powered by light, in addition to electrons. 3. As in radiology, we can also use antilaser, where the
principle of the CPA (Chirped Pulse Amplification) could be employed to target electromagnetic
radiation in a small region within normally opaque human tissue, either for therapeutic or imaging
purposes.

As in medical applications, it may also be used for imaging a tumour growth in human body.

5. The energy is released into the loss medium in the heat or the electricity form through the
absorption of photons. It may give a way in delivering a burst of energy, within a living tissue.

6. By adding a bias voltage (DC voltage deliberately applied in between two points for the purpose of
circuit control), the

antilaser functions as a photovoltaic device. So this device is used in creating a signal in a

photodetector.

Antilasers could be used for making filters for laser based sensors at terahertz frequencies for
sniffing out biological agents or pollutants , which requires detecting a samll backscattered laser
signal against a a large background of thermal noise