SIGNMUND FREUD PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

We begin with Sigmund Freud, one of the most well-known pioneers and early founders of
psychology who has been a very influential figure in the area of development. His psychodynamic
perspective of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of
behaviorism in the 1930s and beyond. Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence
on our adult lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences
in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of
neuroses).

UNCONCIOUS, PRE-CONSCIOUS, CONCIOUS

Sigmund Freud was the first to discuss the unconscious mind and its role in human behavior. He believed
that there were three levels of consciousness. features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the
analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

First is the unconscious mind, which exists outside of your awareness at all times. Here lie the processes
that are the real cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part
you cannot see. The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse
kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area. Includes all of the things outside of our awareness—
all of the wishes, desires, hopes, urges, and memories that we aren't aware of, yet continue to influence
behavior

The preconscious mind consists of all which can be retrieved from memory. which includes all
information that you are not currently aware of but that can be recalled.

Finally, the conscious mind is your current state of awareness. The conscious mind includes all the things
we are aware of or can easily bring into awareness. On the surface is consciousness, which consists of
those thoughts that are the focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg.

ID, EGO, SUPEREGO

 Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption
of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect.
Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.

The Id is the biological component of the personality and includes your instincts. The id is the most
primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most basic urges. The id is entirely
unconscious and serves as the source of all libidinal energy. The id operates in our unconscious mind. The
id, the basic, primal part of the personality, is the part of the self with which we are born. It consists of the
biologically-driven self and includes our instincts and drives. It is the part of us that wants immediate
gratification. Later in life, it comes to house our deepest, often unacceptable desires, such as sex and
aggression. It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience 'unpleasure' or tension, which means
that the criteria for determining whether something is good or bad is whether it feels good or bad. An
infant is all id. It is like the little devil sitting on the cartoon character's shoulder that is always selfish and
needy. It operates according to the pleasure principle. The pleasure principle is the idea that all of your
needs should be met immediately.
Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle
(gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or
drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos. Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it
directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by
the life instincts is known as libido. The life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for
survival, reproduction, and pleasure. They include such things as the need for food, shelter, love, and sex.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human
beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and
violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than
self-destruct.Self-destructive behavior, he believed, was one expression of the death drive. However, he
believed that these death instincts were largely tempered by life instincts.

The ego is the component of personality that deals with reality and helps ensure that the demands
of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable. The ego develops from the id
during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In
contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle (the ego's control of the pleasure-seeking activity of
the id in order to meet the demands of the external world, and to act upon it accordingly to socially
acceptable, as opposed to acting on the pleasure principle) as it operates in both the conscious and
unconscious mind.The ego operates in your preconscious and conscious mind. The ego is the part of the
personality that makes your decisions; this is like the cartoon character in the example. The ego is in the
middle, makes the decision, and faces the consequences. The ego operates according to the reality
principle. The reality principle is the idea that the desires of the id must be satisfied in a method that is
both socially appropriate and realistic. The ego must mediate the demand of Id, Superego and the reality
The superego, the last component of personality to develop, starts to emerge around the age of
five when a child interacts more and more with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The
superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and standards that we
acquire from our parents, family, and society at rlarge. The superego acts as our conscience; it is our
moral compass that tells us how we should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior,
leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt.e superego exists in all
three levels of consciousness. The superego is like the little angel. It is always concerned with what is
socially acceptable. The superego pushes you to obtain the ego ideal (an image of the perfect self towards
which the ego should aspire), or your view of what is right. It also represents your conscience, or your
view of what is considered to be wrong.

In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego, the ego is the rational part of our
personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the part of our personality that is seen by
others. Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates
on what Freud called the “reality principle.” The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.
The id and superego are in constant conflict because the id wants instant gratification regardless
of the consequences, but the superego tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the
ego’s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id’s desires in a rational way that will not lead
us to feelings of guilt. According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the demands
of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud maintained that imbalances in the system can
lead to neurosis (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors.
For example, a person who is dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with a
dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny themselves even socially acceptable
pleasures; conversely, if the superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An overly
dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual whose rational grasp on reality is so
strong that they are unaware of their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive (overusing
ego defense mechanisms).
ANXIETY
 In defining anxiety, Freud emphasized that it is a felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by
a physical sensation that warns the person against impending danger. Only the ego can produce or feel
anxiety, but the id, superego, and external world each are involved in one of three kinds of anxiety—
neurotic, moral, and realistic. The ego’s dependence on the id results in neurotic anxiety. Neurotic
anxiety is defined as apprehension about an unknown danger. The feeling itself exists in the ego, but it
originates from id impulses. Dependence on the superego produces moral anxiety. Moral anxiety, stems
from the conflict between the ego and the superego. After children establish a superego—usually by the
age of 5 or 6—they may experience anxiety as an outgrowth of the conflict between realistic needs and
the dictates of their superego. And its dependence on the outer world leads to realistic anxiety. Realistic
anxiety, is closely related to fear. It is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a
possible danger. However, realistic anxiety is different from fear in that it does not involve a specific
fearful object.

DEFENCE MECHANISM
Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological responses that protect people from feelings of
anxiety, threats to self-esteem, and things that they don't want to think about or deal with. 1 First described
by Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms function to protect against anxiety.
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person
from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian theory, defense
mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in wome way so that we are better able to cope with a
situation. We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise
because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding. Defense mechanisms
operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things
feel better for the individual. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal.  When they get out of
proportion (i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or
hysteria.

1. Denial is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud which involves a refusal to accept
reality, thus blocking external events from awareness. If a situation is just too much to handle, the
person may respond by refusing to perceive it or by denying that it exist, used often to describe
situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth Denial functions
to protect the ego from things with which the person cannot cope.
2. Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or
threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. Repression acts to keep information out
of conscious awareness. However, these Repression, which Anna Freud also called "motivated
forgetting," is just that: not being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or event. Thoughts
that are often repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego. This is
not a very successful defense in the long term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or
memories into the unconscious, where, although hidden, they will create anxiety. Repressed
memories may appear through subconscious means and in altered forms, such as dreams or slips
of the tongue.

A Freudian slip, is a verbal or memory mistake (a "slip of the tongue") that is

considered to be linked to the unconscious mind. These slips apparently reveal private
thoughts and feelings that individuals hold. Representative examples include a person
calling their partner by an ex's name, saying an incorrect word, or even misunderstanding
a spoken or written word.

3. Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute

target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic substitute.
Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on people or objects
that are less threatening Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something of which the
Super ego does not permit. The Ego thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of
the Id. Thus there is a transfer of energy from a repressed object-cathexis to a more acceptable
object.
4. Sublimation is similar to displacement, but takes place when we manage to displace our
unacceptable emotions into behaviors which are constructive and socially acceptable, rather than
destructive activities. Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable
impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form. For example, a person
experiencing extreme anger might take up kick-boxing as a means of venting frustration.
5. Projection is a psychological defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud in which an
individual attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person. Projection is a
defense mechanism that involves taking your own unacceptable qualities or feelings and
ascribing them to other people,  is almost the complete opposite of turning against the self. It
involves the tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people. In other words, the
desires are still there, but they're not your desires anymore. For example, if you have a strong
dislike for someone, you might instead believe that they do not like you. Projection works by
 allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize,
therefore reducing anxiety.
6. Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into your own personality
characteristics of someone else, because doing so solves some emotional difficulty. Whereas
projection involves placing an unwanted impulse onto an external object, introjection is a
defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive qualities of another person into their
own ego. For example, an adolescent may introject or adopt the mannerisms, values, or lifestyle
of a movie star. Such an introjection gives the adolescent an inflated sense of self-worth and
keeps feelings of inferiority to a minimum. People introject characteristics that they see as
valuable and that will permit them to feel better about themselves.
7. Regression is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud whereby the ego reverts to an
earlier stage of development usually in response to stressful situations. Regression functions as
form of retreat, enabling a person to psychologically go back in time to a period when the person
felt safer. When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and
revert to patterns of behavior used earlier in development.
8. Rationalization is a defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud involving a cognitive
distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. We do it often enough
on a fairly conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.  Rationalization is a defense
mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical
manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior. For example, a person who is turned down for
a date might rationalize the situation by saying they were not attracted to the other person
anyway. A student might blame a poor exam score on the instructor rather than their own lack of
preparation. Rationalization not only prevents anxiety, but it may also protect self-esteem
and self-concept.
9. Reaction formation, which Anna Freud called "believing the opposite," is a psychological
defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to
which he or she thinks or feels. Reaction formation reduces anxiety by taking up the opposite
feeling, impulse, or behavior. Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety
a person feels regarding their socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. Usually, a
reaction formation is marked by exaggerated behavior, such as showiness and compulsiveness.
An example of reaction formation would be treating someone you strongly dislike in an
excessively friendly manner in order to hide your true feelings. By using the reaction formation,
the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives.

SIGMUND FRUED PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

 Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the
pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. As Freud proposed that
personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral,
anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different
ways and through different parts of the body, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a
source of pleasure.The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development,
depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy
personality is the result. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage,  fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage; The idea that part of a person's libido is
stuck in a particular stage of development through overindulgence or disruption. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for
example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.

ORAL STAGE (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important. During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its
mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.  Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth
orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives
pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant
is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression.. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.  We see
oral personalities or Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biters,
finger-chewers, and thumb suckers.  Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when
under stress.
ANAL STAGE (1 to 3 years)
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has to learn to
control their bodily needs. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that
their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has
developed). Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach
toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time
encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the basis for
people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage.
Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents. Freud believed that this type of conflict
tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child
can defecate.  The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship
with all forms of authority.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents
take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality  could develop in
which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an  anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive. Early or harsh
potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively
tidy, punctual and respectful of authority.  They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and
possessions.

PHALLIC STAGE (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to six
years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone. Freud
suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age,
children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
 The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).  This is resolved through the process of
identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

Oedipus Complex

The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex.  This is one of Freud's
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the Oedipus complex
derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon
discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind.  This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term
for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.  He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get
rid of his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about
all this, his father would take away what he loves the most.  During the phallic stage what the boy loves
most is his penis.  Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine
dad-type behaviors.  This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his
Oedipus complex.

Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another person.  The
consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that
become the superego.

Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.

Electra Complex

For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory.  Briefly, the girl desires the
father, but realizes that she does not have a penis.  This leads to the development of penis envy and the
wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for
a penis with the wish for a baby.  The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great
tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take
on the female gender role.

LATENCY STAGE (6 years to puberty)

 The latency stage is the forth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six
years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual development takes
place (latent means hidden).  During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies
are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of
the family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins

around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies, and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual
energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence. As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it
was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy
can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.  Much of the child's energy is
channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined
to other children of the same gender.

GENITAL STAGE (puberty to adult)

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage
begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.If
the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm,
and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego
were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.Teens in the genital stage of development are
able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social
norms.
The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development, and
begins in puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.

Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. 

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.  
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. 

For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.