Reviewer in Indigenous People Legends for Color Coding:

Important Information
Studies
Year

Bold w/Color- Terms

CHAPTER 1 Prepared by: Poonin, Jehn Paola d.

Ethnic Communities
Dr. Henry Otley Beyer -American Anthropologist.
The total number of indigenous ethnic
In 1916, he estimated the “PAGANS” (the one’s that
communities has not yet been accurately reported.
believes in Anito and other things around them as
This is partly due to the relative geographical isolation
Gods) that has the population in the Philippines at
and scattered settlements of many groups that render
around 584, 500 that is 5% of the total population.
them inaccessible to official census-takers. Thus,

many of the demographic surveys are at most rough In 1948, the Bureau of Census estimated the
estimates. The National Census and Statistic Office indigenous groups (which included the Muslim
(NCSO) gives varying figures. population) at 702,869 or approximately 3.7 percent

of the total population. So many changes have taken

‣PANAMIN (Presidential assistance for national
place since these initial counts. However, the
minorities). In 1979, they listed seventy-six (76)
demographic picture of the ethnic communities
groups, scattered all over the different parts of the
remains vague—each ethnographer has his own
country.
statistics and so do the national agencies.
‣UGAT (Ugnayang agham tao). In their 1983
In 1979, the now defunct “PANAMIN”, placed the
ethnographic surveys they are able to list 46 groups,
total national population of the indigenous ethnic
with varying demographic sizes.
communities at 4,500,000, a figure which contrasts
The different regional offices of ethnic communities with the 1975 estimate of 1,553,100. So far, no
also have their own respective listings. The ethnic map accurate census is available on ethnic population (as
of the Philippines, entitled The Filipino People, of 1991), even if authorities (see National Census and
identified one hundred and six (106) groups, including Statistics Office) claim the number of people to be
the numerous subgroups within the same culture area. over 6.3 million.
The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) has
Included in the present study are fifty-six (56)
further refined the listing and classification coups on
groups, with population sizes ranging from a few
the basis of the 5 dialecti-of the indigenous ethnic
hundred to several thousand individuals, found in three
g Cal variations within the same speech community.
major geo-graphical regions of the Philippines: Luzon,

Visayas, Mindanao. The selection of ethnic

communities included in this study is based on the

availability and the quality of ethnographic data.

Identified groups that do not have enough or good -Reinforced by their social status as signified by

ethnographic information are noted but not treated in accumulated material wealth in the form of ancient

detail. jars, beads, and gongs

-Warrior groups and institutionalized warfare are

present
“Luzon Area”

In Luzon, most of the ethnic groups are

concentrated on the northern mountain ranges of the

Central Region of Cordillera
Cordillera area. These people occupy the interior hills, 1. Bontoc
strips of flat land, along deep valleys, and narrow 2. Sagada (Lepanto)
plateaus. 3. Ifugao

4. Southern Kalinga
Northern Sector of Cordillera
These people are:
1. Tinggian (Tinguian)
-wet-crop agriculturists
2. Isneg-Apayao

3. Northern Kalinga -practicing rice-terrace and irrigated farming possess

specialized institutions, like the ATOR (well-

These people occupy the area close to the watersheds
developed among the Bontoc and the Sagada but less
of the tributaries of the Chico, the Tineg, and the
so among the Ifugao and the Kalinga.), the ULOG, and
Abulug Rivers. In spite of the prominent ecological
the AGAMANG, which serve as centers of social,
differences in their habitats, these ethnic
religious, and political activities.
communities share many basic cultural traits.

- Dormitories for boys and girls in different forms

Basic Cultural Traits that these 3 groups has:
are found in almost all groups.
-Settlement consists of scattered hamlets
-Social stratification is clear-cut and is based on
-Community organization is dominantly kin-based
descent and material wealth.

-Marriage munity is generally endogamous (custom

- Institutionalized practices, like head taking and
of marrying only within the limits of a local
warfare, grand canyao, and peace pacts, are shared
community, clan, or tribe.)
by all central Cordillera ethnic communities.

-Social stratification is clearly defined

- Linguistically, these people speak closely related

-Leadership is based essentially on the bravery and languages belonging to the northern subgroup of

the personal charisma of leaders Philippine languages.

 settlement is dispersed and fluid, as households
Southern Group of Cordillera
move, divide, and merge to follow the swidden or
1. Ibaloi flee from the law."
2. Kankanay

These people are:

-Not well-known in literature, in spite of the e fact Outside Cordillera Area

that they live in a gold-bearing district of the
These people inhabit the foothills and the narrow
Cordillera.
valleys of the Sierra Madre Mountain ranges in
-They show closer affinity with their northern eastern Luzon.
neighbor’s, particularly the Bontoc, than with the
1. Agta
southern-ones.
2. Dumagat
- There are also marked differences in the nature of 3. Yogad
4. Ikalahan
the economic base of communities within this area.
5. Kalanguya
6. Itawis
-The late development in these ethic communities

are:
-Along the foot-hills of the Zambales range in

-Wet rice agriculture western Luzon are found small groups of highly mobile

people known as Pinatubo ( Hambal, Ayta, and

- Well-developed feature of Ifugao and Bontoc
Sambal)
economy
- the Baluga inhabit the northwestern part of

Pampanga and the southwestern section of Tarlac.

Southeastern Section of Cordillera
In Quezon Province, Pollilo Island, and the Bicol

These two ethnic groups are found on the low-lying peninsula (Camarines Norte and Sur) are found,

hills of the Sierra Madre and the Caraballo Sur. scattered along the interior hillsides, additional groups

of Agta, also known as (Ayta, Ati, and Dumagat)

1. Southern Gaddang - have undergone massive

changes in recent years and are now oriented to

the Ilocano culture, except for a few relatively

isolated hamlets that have retained much of the

“Central Philippine Area”
traditional Gaddang culture.
The Central Philippine area consists of islands
2. Ilongot- have remained conservative and, as one
found between Luzon and Mindanao. Although
anthropologist has pointed out, "... their ways of
popularly known as the Bisayan area, the islands of
life appear archaic, the code of ethics situational;
Mindoro and Palawan are not officially included in this
category; they belong to the Southern Tagalog - They engage in sla`sh-and-burn

Region (Region4). Both islands are inhabited by agriculture.

numerous indigenous ethnic communities. Hence, the - Supplemented with extensive

more neutral geographical designation of Central hunting, trapping, inland fishing,

Philippine area is used. and gathering.

(4) Hanunuo and Buhid

- reported to be more culturally

Island of Mindoro sophisticated

- They are the highly literate

On the island of Mindoro, there are at least seven
groups, writing in ancient scripts
groups of swidden cultivators, collectively known as
similar to those of the Tagbanua of
the Mangyan. These ethnic groups speak a language
Palawan.
belonging to the central Philippine family of

languages.

Scholars have divided the Mangyan groups into two

Island of Palawan
major divisions: On the island of Palawan there are principal ethnic

(1) the northern groups, which include communities collective known as:

a. the Iraya a. The Tagbanua

b. the Alangan b. The Batak
c. he Tadyawan c. The Tau't Bato.
(2) the southern groups, which include
- These are the well-known and extensively reported
a. The Batangan
groups, although there are others that are only
b. The Hanunoo
identified but not closely studied.
c. The Buhid (also known as Buid, Buhi,

Bukid, Buhil, and Buquil) Keney

d. The Ratagnon are said to be recent
-reported to inhabit the interior mountains of
immigrants from Cuyo. Palawan, but no detailed ethnography of them is
available at the time of this study; and so with the
Palaw'anen.
(3) Batangan-Alangan

- most conservative when reached in

the 1950s TAGBANUA

- When reported, they were making -Geographically, they are found in central northern
Palawan
and wearing bark cloth, long

abandoned by other groups.

-They are are culturally advanced and north well on hill-sides and the narrow valleys of the interior

organized into relatively autonomous villages. mountains of Panay and Negros.

- Literacy is very high among these people, and they

write in ancient scripts similar to the Hanunoo of

Mindoro.
ATI of iloilo

-The term “TAGBANUA” derived from the word taga- -Been reported, but no detailed ethnography of their

banua, meaning "people of the village." lifeways is available.

-While beginning to pursue a more sedentary life, they

continue to be seasonally mobile—hunting small game

BATAk
as well as gathering seeds and medicinal plants,
- are found in scattered groups in the area north of which they sell to the neighbouring Christianized
Puerto Princesa and in north-eastern Palawan, Bisayans, particularly the folk healers.
principally on the interior foothills of Tinitian,
All these ethnic communities speak a
Babuyan, and Tanabog.
language related to the central Philippine family of

languages ( Tagalog (and Filipino), Bikol, and the major

Visayan
Four ethnic communities have been identified and
languages Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Kinaray-a,
described on the interior foothills and remote coastal
and Tausug)
areas of Panay and Negros Islands. These are;

a. The Sulod (some-times identified as

Bukidnon) “Mindanao Area”

b. The Magahat

c. The Ata On the island of Mindanao, there are about fifteen

d. The Ati. major ethnic groups and a number of subgroups living

in its interior rain forest and narrow valleys, as well as

on its hills, plateaus, and marginal plains. The people

SULOD AND MAGAHAT
are non-Muslim and non-Christian. Comparatively, they

- slash-and-burn agriculturists (where they us the share many of the generalized points in the outline

method of cultivation in which forests are burned and of Filipino indigenous culture. However, there are also

cleared for planting) marked cultural differences in their institutions and

practices. These differences are largely due to the

- They live in scattered and semipermanent
varying ecological settings of their communities. The
settlements close to their swidden farms and located
orientation of their cultural developments, however, some scholars lump together with the southern

appears to be toward the Muslim groups. Philippine group of languages.

-In the island of Mindanao, there are about fifteen Linguistically, Manobo is closely related
major ethnic groups and a number of subgroups: to the central and the northern families of Philippine

a. Subanun languages. It needs to be stressed that, in most cases,

b. Higaonon language is the only differentiating element in ethnic

c. Tasaday cultures, particularly among those that occupy

d. Cotabato Manobo adjacent and contiguous territories.

e. Tiruray

f. T’boli

g. Bagobo SUBANON
h. Manuvu
-Located at the interior hills and in the narrow
i. Matigsalug
coastal low-lands of the Zamboanga peninsula.
j. Ata

k. Mandaya -Derived from the Christian and Muslim subanen,

l. Coastal Bagobo meaning "upstream people”.

m. Agusan Manobo
-Speak a mutually intelligible language belonging to a
n. Tagkaolo.
subgroup of the central Philippine family of languages

The names of most of the ethnic groups are derived

-The Subanun are principally slash-and-burn
from generic terms given by the Bisayan lowlanders.
agriculturists. They supplement what-ever they
Compound Terms, such as:
produce with inland fishing, hunting, and gathering.

1. Mandaya from the words man, meaning

- Dialect diversity however exists, although this does
"people," and daya, meaning "upriver"
not seem to affect communication among the
2. Manobo from the terms man, meaning "people,"
different villages located in various parts of the
and obo, meaning "hill" or "mountain,"
peninsula.

As the usage became popular, even the

- Rice is the main staple, although corn and sweet
people themselves used the terms to describe their
potatoes are also planted.
ethnic identities and differentiate themselves from
- Little trade is carried out with neighboring
other groups.
groups; and this consists mainly of forest products,
Most ethnic communities in Mindanao speak
like rattan and locally ma handicrafts.
languages belonging to the Manobo family of

languages, except Bilaan, T'boli, and Tiruray, which


Higaonon
-Found in the interior uplands of northern Mindanao,
on the broad, grass-covered plateaus of Bukidnon
Province.
-Higaonon means "mountain dweller “
-Higaonon speak a language related to the Manobo
family of languages, with several dialects spoken in
different places.
- In the past, the Higaonon were separated from
other ethnic groups by rugged mountains and deep
ravines. This is one reason why they retained many
of their traditional institutions and practices.
- Changes have been so rapid in this group, due
mainly to contacts with Christian Filipino
immigrants from the coastal areas and to the
construction of roads following the intrusion of
loggers and other concessionaires of forest products.
- Slowly absorbed into the dominant lowland Bisayan
culture.
Lives in Southern Highlands of Mindanao
These people speak a language belonging to the
southern Philippine family of languages.
These people are swidden agriculturists, with
little trade. However, they have developed elaborate
and beautiful handicrafts, like baskets, trinkets,
bracelets and earrings made of brass. They are the:
a. Tasaday-these people were said to be
using tools as their basic equipment (a
gathering and for aging people) (Metal
tools were later introduced, which caused
changes in their lifestyles)
b. Tiruray
c. Cotabato Manobo
d. T’boli - T'boli fabrics are among the
most artistically designed (T’nalak)
Central Highlands of Mindanao
They live on slopes of the mountain ranges between
Davao, Bukidnon, and Cotabato
BAGOBO
- The term is derived from the word bago, meaning
"new," and obo, meaning "man." As the term became
popular, it acquired the added meaning of "native" or
"hill people.
- There are other ethnic groups similar to the
Bagobo, which occupy the upper headwaters of Davao,
Tinanan, and Kulaman Rivers:
a. Manuvu(most identified ethnic groups in
the area have not been adequately
studied.
b. Matigsalug
c. Ata
Found on the coastal and interior hills
of Davao Gulf.
a. Mandaya
b. Coastal Bagobo
c. Agusan Manobo
d. Tagkaolo
These groups share numerous similar culture traits
and social institutions. Listed as:
• Art styles, clothing, and religious rituals
are fairly uniform.
• Economic life revolves around slash-and-burn
agriculture, with fairly developed trading
activities.
 • Well-known warrior groups (the BAGANI),
headed by DATUS, assume leadership.
• Warfare is institutionalized.
• The important factors to choose their
political leadership is based on, Bravery,
skills success in warfare.
In classifying ethnic groups according to types of
social organization;
▪️Native terms - used to identify each type instead of
the standard anthropological terminologies, although
close correspondence with anthropological concepts
(and usage) is maintained.

Indigenous People in Mindanao The reason for this choice is that native terms are
precise compared to the anthropological categories
1. Ata 10. Mandaya and that they describe better the nuances of local
2. Bagobo 11. Mangguwangan social organizations. Moreover, the people
3. Banwaon 12. Manobo themselves use these terms to establish their
4. Blaan 13. Mansaka
personal and social identities. In effect, native
5. Bukidnon 14. Subanen
6. Dibabaonon 15. Tagkaolo terms represent not only the social units for which
7. Higaunon 16. T’boli they are labels but also the cultural sentiments that
8. Kalagan 17. Teduray underlie group cohesion. Since each ethnic community
9. Mamanwa 18. Ubo has its own term for group identities, we have
arbitrarily chosen one term to encompass all
communities sharing greater institutional similarities
and to assign them to the same class or type.

Chapter 2 Pisan
The Typology of Indigenous -“Agta” term for small exogamous local groups
Social Organization consisting mostly of kinsmen.

-Gathering, foraging, and hunting ethnic groups

Based on the available ethnographic data, Filipino
generally led by a male head of the family or
indigenous ethnic communities can be grouped into
household.
five general types:
-Corresponds to the anthropological concept of
1. Pisan (campsite)
BAND.
2. Puro (settlement)
3. Ili (village) -They live temporary campsites located in the
4. Magani (district) foothills, river-valleys, sheltered bays and rugged
5. Banwa (domain) coastal area in different islands of the archipelago.

This classification scheme is arbitrary and heuristic.
It is intended to put order into an otherwise
unorganized mass of ethnographic data. The grouping
of ethnic communities under each type is guided by the
degree of shared institutional complexity and level of
sociocultural integration each ethnic community had
attained at the time its lifeways were recorded.
- Nuclear family is the basic unit of Pisan social
organization.
-There is no social stratification, it is a classless
society.
-Ranking is defined in terms of age and social
prestige.

-In religion, the environment is seen as part of

supernatural world.

Art : Tattooing, scarification and teeth
mutilation.
Puro
-Sulod word for the semisedentary amorphous
aggregate of persons who live in a particular and
named settlement.
-They do swidden, or kaingin, cultivators, headed by
the oldest member of the founding family.
-Kindred type of social organization.
-Divorced is practiced.
- These people may or may not be related to one
another.
-Datu
-Autonomous and semi-permanent settlements of
varying sizes.
Settlement Types:
-
• Minor Settlement- A single cluster
with at least two (2) houses
• Simple Settlement- A single cluster
with at least three (3) houses and two or
more residence families but with only one
spouse set in the oldest generation
• Complex Settlement- A single
cluster with at least four (4) houses and
three or more resident families including at
least two siblings or cousins (other than
spouses) in the oldest generation
• Compound Settlement- A linked
cluster comprising two separate but close
house clusters (not more than a few hundred
meters apart)
-Dwellings are generally impermanent, rectangular,
gabled-roofed house made of bamboo and grass or
nipa shingles.
Ili
- Bontoc name for " Village"
-Subdivided into semiautonomous politicojuridical
units.
-The social organization of mixed dry-and-wet crop
cultivators, who reside in compact villages and are
supervised by a council of elders.
A. Central Cordillera in Northern Luzon : Bontoc ,
Ibaloi, Ifugao , Kankanaey , Tinguian and Souther
Kalinga.
B. Central Philippines : Tagbanua of Palawan,
Aumanen Manobo of Mindanao
-Most villages are, large, compact districts composed
of clusters of small towns of varying sizes.
- Rice is a major staple.
-Divorce is common especially when there is no child.
- Peace - pacts known as " budong" in Kalinga and
"penchen" in Bontoc are held to restore normal
relations between warring and feuding villages.
magani
- Derived from the Agusan Manobo term bagani,
meaning "renowned warrior."
-Dry-crop farmers and traders residing in exogamous
(pertaining to or characterized by the custom of
marrying only outside the limits of a clan or tribe)
districts, headed by the warrior class and assisted by
a council of elders.
-Approximates the anthropological concept of RANK
organization. It has more subdivisions, larger in size
than the Pisan or the Puro, and village integration
centers on a political unit—the council of elders and -Datu has considerable juridical , political and
the warrior class. ecclesiastical influence within his territorial domain.

- Political Structure -Two types of people in Banwa

*Bagani 1. Mahingod - native

*The Commoners 2. Lapu- foreigners

*The Propertyless People

-The most important food is rice.

-Crafts like weaving , pottery-making and metal work

are done by the local specialist .

-Polygyny is allowed (one man is married to several

women)

-Incest is traditionally forbidden .

Banwa

-Manuvu term, meaning "domain."

-To represent the social organization of the

sedentary dry-crop and hemp cultivators who also
practice extensive trade.

-The members of the Banwa reside in self-contained

villages, located in adjacent and contiguous
territories and bound together as a single
sociopolitical unit under the centrally located political
office of the datu. The datu is assisted by a council
of elders and the warrior groups.

- The Banwa corresponds closely to the

anthropological concept of CHIEFDOM.

-Most complex among the five types of social

organizations.

-They are only found in Mindanao.

-Types of property:

1. Personal Property

2. Family Property

3. Communal Property

-The village constituting the banwa are discrete ,

independent and self-sufficient units.
 Chapter 3

The Pisan Type of Social Organization

The term pisan is an agta word for “BAND” We use it

here advisedly and heuristically to refer to and
encompass the highly mobile groups living in small
temporary campsites, possessing simple technology,
and having relatively similar forms of social
organization.

Geographical Location

Most of these groups with Pisan type of social

organization are found on the fringes of interior
highlands, principally along foothills, riverbanks,
valleys, and savannahs. Some of them are encountered
along remote coastal areas and sheltered bays.

In Luzon, these bands roam the foothills of the

mountain ranges between Ilocos Sur and Abra,
between Ilocos Norte and the Apayao-Cagayan border,
and along the marginal areas of the Sierra Madre
Mountains, from Cagayan to the Bondoc peninsula in
Quezon.

In central Philippines, the Pisan groups are found in

northeastern Palawan and along the coastal and
interior foothills of Panay and Negros.

Campsites

As stated earlier, ethnic groups with Pisan type of

social organization live in temporary campsites located
close to foothills, river valleys, sheltered bays, and
rugged coastal areas on the different islands of the
archipelago.

Campsites are generally constructed far apart from

one another, although close to the same hillside and
source of fresh water supply. Traditional dwellings
among ethnic groups with Pisan type of social
organization are crudely built.
Most of these temporary dwellings, known in the
literature as lean-to, are floorless-the ground is
merely covered with dried banana stalks and leaves.
Economic Activities
The Pisan economic life revolves largely around for
aging, gathering, hunting, and occasional fishing. These
activities are pursued with an unusual degree of
flexibility. The seasonal avail ability of ripe fruits and
tubers lends to greater mobility. Predictability of food
supply is nil, and its procurement demands constant
exploration and study of the characteristics of the
surrounding flora and fauna. They become part of the
environment and are thus equipped with a vast
knowledge of plant and animal life.
individually or communally is directly related to the
mode of extracting a living from the environment.
The accumulation of surplus appears to be unimportant
to the Pisan people. The abundance of food supply in
the environment throughout the year is one of the
reasons why accumulated surplus is not an important
part of community aspirations.
Social Structure
The Pisan type of social organization is held together
by a network of interlocking familial and kinship ties.
The nuclear family is the basic unit of the Pisan social
organization.

This knowledge consists of a systematic recognition of Interfamilial forms of cooperation characterize the
a phenomenal number of plants, birds, animals, and social and economic activities within campsites. Within
insects, including the habits and behavior of catch. the family, husbands and wives complement each other
Most economic activities in the campsite center on in all endeavors-social, economic, and religious. They go
food gathering. Everyone-children and adults, male or with the adults and help gather roots, seeds,
female-engages in this activity. mushrooms, snails, and other foodstuff. Marriage
tends to be camp exogamy. That is, a spouse is
Hunting is the dominant feature of Pisan economy. This
recruited from outside of own camp.
is mostly undertaken by men, although women and
children help. Incest taboo is universal among these people. It is
observed very strictly by all groups. The taboo is lifted
Fishing is another source of livelihood. Freshwater fish
by performing a cleansing ritual that separates
found in rivers and streams, especially those close to
"the blood" of the parties concerned.
the mountains and away from densely populated areas.
Polygamous marriages are allowed but uncommon.
Damming is done by diverting water from its main
Most marriages are contracted between the parents
course, thereby drying the riverbed. This makes it
or the guardians, usually when the children are young
easier to catch fish, shrimps, eels, and crabs. Shells
(even in the womb).
and other mollusks are also gathered as soon as the
bed is dry. Marriage negotiations are sometimes elaborate. The
occasions are extended by almost all members of the
Poisoning is widespread throughout the archipelago,
families concerned.
and it is used not only by Pisan groups but also by
lowland Filipinos. Divorce is permitted in some groups but not in others.
Even if allowed, it is rarely practiced.
These direct ways of harnessing the resources of the
environment for survival enhance the development of
a concrete and wide-ranging knowledge of biotic and
botanical life among these people.

Division of labor in economic activity is not clearly

defined, although men do the heavier work. On the
other hand, foraging and gathering are tasks
Sociopolitical
traditionally undertaken by women. Whatever is owned
Coming together again as a group in spite of previous
differences is one of the dominant features of Pisan
camp life. The identity of the group is often associated
with two factors
The first is the name of the oldest member who is also
considered the leader. The second is the geographical
location of the campsite where the group stays the
longest during the annual cycle of activities. There is
no social stratification in Pisan social organization
Status in the Pisan type of social organization is
acquired mainly on the basis of personal achievements,
although a certain ascribed status, like age, is
important in attaining prestige.
Internally, the Pisan is socially cohesive in spite of
structural flexibility. Fundamental to this unity is the
feeling each person has about his being an organic part
of the whole system. Observance of the generalized
rule of good social relations is reflected in the ways
conflicts are resolved.
Although confrontation is sometimes inevitable and
leads to the breakup of the camp, conflicts are often
resolved amicably.
There are no formally structured village councils or
recognized formal leaders who specialize in settling
disputes. Each case is handled separately. Generally,
the oldest man who is respected for his skills, courage,
and knowledge of traditional lore is sought to settle
cases. Ethnic groups with Pisan type of social
organization are nonaggressive people. There is no
institutionalized war fare, although family feuds occur
and result in open conflict. Interpersonal conflicts and
intervillage feuds arise, but these are easily resolved.
In addition, tattooing, scarification, and teeth
mutilation are common. Garvan notes that the purpose
of scarification is, in most regions, beautification of
the person.
SUMMARY
In sum, the Pisan as a type represents the simple form
Of indigenous ethnic social organization. It is
characterized by neo-local, with initial patri-local,
residence and group exogamy. The family and the
household are central to all community activities. They
constitute the social core. The Pisan society is strictly
egalitarian with role differentiation based on age,
knowledge of local lore, personal skills, generosity, and
social prestige. There are no formal leaders, although
the most skilled among the older members is always
looked up to for leadership, and he exercises more
influence than the others.
Authority relations are carried out through appeal,
consultation, and consensus. Community cohesion is
founded on kinship, cooperative hunting and gathering,
food sharing and socio religious ceremonies. In most
group=endeavors, the family and the group are
functionally one. There are no separate and formally
organized economic, political, and religious institutions.
All these are aspects of the kinship and family
organization.
On the whole, the Pisan type of social organization is
characterized by the following:
1. the absence of agriculture beyond gardening
and
2. shifting cultivation;
3. no full-time occupational or craft specialists;
4. little trade, mostly barter with other ethnic
groups;
Chapter 4
The Puro Type of Social Organization
PURO is derived from a “SULOD” (also known as
BUKIDNON) word for “SETTLEMENT” It is used
here to represent the kindred type of social
organization. It is generally composed of related
persons who occupy a particular settlement and who
are in close interaction with one another. In this
context, it is the neighborhood, which is also the
settlement that is important.
Ethnic communities with Puró type of social
organization are found in different upland and coastal
areas of the country. They are identified by field-
workers according to the ethnic label people use to
call themselves and the geographical location of their
habitat. Except for the Mindoro groups, which are
sometimes lumped together as Mangyan, each Puró
group is individually named.
Geographical Location
In northern Luzon, the Puró groups included in this
study are the Ibanag, the Ikalahan, the Ilongot, the
Itawis, the I’wak, the Kalanguya, and the Yogad.
The I’wak, the Ikalahan, and the Ilongot inhabit the
contiguous upland terrain of northern Nueva Vizcaya,
Western Isabela, and Southern Ifugao.
The Yogad, the Itawis and Ibanag are encountered in
small, scattered settlement in Isabela and Cagayan.
Mindoro
The groups with Puro type of social organization
include the Hanunuo, Buhid, Alangan, Iraya, Batangan,
Tadyawan and the Ratagnon.
Iraya occupy the greater portion of the highlands
of Western Mindoro.
Ratagnon, Hanunuo and Buhid portion of the Eastern
Side.
The heart of the island is found in the Batangan,
Tadyawan and Alangan.
There are three Groups:
Taot Bato are slash and burn agriculturist s who
occasionally especially during rainy days, inhabit
limestone caves. Also known as Cave Dwellers.
Palawanen and Ke-ney are mentioned in the
literature but not yet studied in detail.
Sulod
It is also known as Bukidnon, inhabit the interior of
Panay island.
Magahat live on the foothills of Southern Negros.
Subanon are found on the interior hillsides of
Zaboanga in Western Mindanao.
Tiruray and Tboli occupy the highlands and riverine
valleys of Southern Mindanao in the provinces of
Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat.
Settlement Pattern
Indigenous ethnic communities with Puró type of
social organization reside in clusters of scattered,
autonomous and semi-permanent settlements of
varying sizes. On the whole, almost all indigenous
ethnic communities with Puró type of social
organization sgare the Hanunoo basic settlement
types:
A. Minor settlement - A single cluster with at least
two houses (ex. Roof structures) but only one
resident family.
B. Simple settlement - A single cluster with at least Among the Hanunoo several houses are

three houses and two or more resident families but sometimes constructed close to one another,

with only one spouse set in the oldest generation. linked by open verandas. The combination of wood

and bamboo as building materials is common among

C. Complex settlement - A single cluster with at least
the Tiruray.
four houses and three or more resident families,

including at least two siblings or cousins (other than When residing in caves, the Tau't Bato
spouses) in the oldest generation. incorporate limestone walls of the cave into the

basic design in building a da'tag, a sleeping

D. Compound settlement - A linked cluster comprising
platform furnished with a fireplace, or the more
two separate but close house clusters (not more than
generalized catch all structure, the paga.
a few hundred meters apart) of the types listed

above in the following combinations: AB, AC, BB, BC, Close to most houses are structures built
but not AA (which, according to Hanunoo principles of for special purposes, like granaries and religious
nucleation, would always become a simple B).”O rituals. These are identified by specific features,

The fifth type of settlement may be added-that of like the lining of pig skulls at the ceiling, as among

the I’;wak in Nueva Vizcaya. the l'wak, and the absence of verandas, as among

the Hanunoo. Among the Sulod, this structure,

called urub, has a tent-like roof that touches the

I’wak ground and is used for emergency purposes, such

as the sudden occurrence of storms and strong

It is build their settlements on leveled
winds. The best constructed buildings among the
grounds out into the mountainside with all the
Tau't Bato are granaries, called lagkaw, which are
structures contained within a perimeter fence. At
distinguished by the disc-like rat guards placed
times, the houses form part of this fence, an
about each post.
arrangement that works well with the architecture,

for it incorporates two doorways: one opening into These structures, however, are absent in

the enclosure and the other to the outside. 12 some Puró communities, like the Sabanun, the

Sometimes the dwellings cluster around ritual Tiruray, and the Ilongot. Instead, an open space

houses located centrally in the compound. beneath the house is used for storage, chicken coop,

and coral for domestic animals, like carabaos, goats,

Dwellings are generally impermanent
and pigs. Sometimes this space is utilized as a
rectangular gable-roofed houses made of bamboo
workplace, especially during rainy days or at
and grass or nipa shingles. These are raised on posts
noontime during dry months.
about four to six feet above the ground. Floors are

made of bamboo slats and the walls of flattened

bamboo or bark.
House furnishings are few
In the corner designated as kitchen, one
usually finds the stove, composed of three stones
sunk in a box of ashes or dirt, or a similar device
of clay.
These stones serve as props, supporting the
utensils when cooking. Above the hearth is an
improvised structure, which the Sulod call tarap-
anan, on top of which kitchen utensils are placed
after cooking.
Mortars and Pestles
It is used for pounding rice, also found in
the kitchen area. Large basket containers are
generally placed in the corner close to the living
room, if these are not kept under the house or in
the granary.
Economic Pattern
Most ethnic communities integrated in the
Puró level of social organization are dry-rice
agriculturists who practice shifting cultivation.
This agricultural system is characterized by a
rotation of fields, rather than of crops, by short
periods of cropping (one to three years, but often
as long as six to eight years) and by clearing via
the slash-and-burn method.
Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is highly influenced by
the terrain of the area where it is practiced.
Careful assessment of landform is done before
the decision to cultivate is made.
The Tiruray, for example, recognize eight types of
landforms: namely, datar (plain of flatland), liung
(plateau of flatland surrounded by slopes), keseligan
(hill-side), uruk (mountaintop), kebak (cliff), lefak
(creek bed), layasan (seasonal swamp), and luwoluwon
(swamp).
The Hanunoo have four categories for potential
swidden sites: durungsulan (irregular because of
rocky outcrops or boulders), ma'agwad (irregular
because of several close/often parallel valleys and
ridges), tagudtud (slightly irregular due to the
presence of at least two slopes resulting from a
ridge-top location), ma'ambak (slightly irregular
because of a diving ravine or a sharp change of slope
direction) or dangag/minsan (regular, i.e., all in one
plane/irrespective of slope).
Hanunoo can identify 1,652 plants types of
which 1,000 have specific uses according to
Thomas Gobson.
The Iwak of Nueva Vizcaya
The main food crops are taro and sweet potatoes,
can distinguish ten varieties of taro and fourteen
varieties of sweet potatoes. Even the behavior of
bees is correlated with the appearance of the
blossoms of a number of trees and vines. Bees are
important sources of honey
 varying sizes.

Sometimes scythes are also used.

There are Nine Hunting Techniques that are

known and are availed of by the Sulod of

Central Panay.

Tiruray employ twenty-eight (28) named

techniques a vast majority are done by a single

hunter and only two (2) are group activities. Group

hunting with the use of dogs, is practiced

occasionally by almost all groups. As Rosaldo notes

among the Ilongot of Nueva Vizcaya.

Fishing is another important economic

activity among the different communities.

It involves a number of techniques from the use of

bow arrow to fish poisoning.

Trading is another important economic

activity in many Puro communities. Swidden

agriculture is not possible without metal tools that

could be procured only from traders outside of

the local villages.

Smaller knives and homemade metal

Heirloom pieces
trowels

They are also considered family property.

They are used for weeding and for cultivating crops.
These include metal bracelets, carryings, rings,
Scythes and smaller bolos are used for cutting grass
beads, gongs, spears, swords, bolos, betel-nut
around the field and between the fallows, such as in
boxes, metal belts, and porcelain jars. Personal
corn and taro fields.
property is limited to clothes, charms, homemade

Harvesting is done with V-shaped implements, and ornaments. This property is used

harvesting blades of to negotiate for a bride, to enhance family

 prestige during annual social and religious
ceremonies, and to pay for fines to help a kinsman
out of trouble.
Inheritance
Inheritance is well recognized as part of customary
rights and obligations. Children are entitled to have
a part of the accumulated property of their parents;
in turn, the parents are obliged, by customary
practice, to pass on to their children whatever
property they have acquired.
Among the Sulod
The inheritance system seems to lean
toward primo-ultimo geniture patterns-that is, all
things considered; the eldest andthe youngest
siblings tend to receive larger shares of the
inheritance than others of the sibling group.
Among the Subanun
The basic principle of inheritance is
simple, but its application is complex. It is
recognized that movable property is inherited
equally among the offspring upon the death of the
parents. Sometimes problems arise over the
allotment of specific items, over the rights of
offspring who were members of their family of
orientation at the time of a parent's death.
Social Structure
Most ethnic groups with Puró type of
social organization are loosely stratified. Social
differentiations are based mostly on affluence,
politico-jural influence, and knowledge of native
lore, genealogical history, and personal charisma.
The Tboli use the honorific term datu to
apply to natural leaders and their families. The
term carries no political power. It has no
definitive social boundaries either, and being a
datu is not directly hereditary.
At most, the term Datu refers to the
elders of the community to whom the people go for
interpretations of T'boli laws and for settling
tribal disputes.
Datuship is not directly hereditary. Highly
respected and well-known datus sons, for instance,
might never be considered by the people wise and
proficient enough in what is 'traditional". Hence,
they would never be accorded their father's title
of datu regardless of the family's possible wealth
or social prestige. (Gabriel Casals)
The family acquires social prestige through the
achievements of anyone of its members, as in being
a well-known babaylan, arbiter or negotiator, and
orator. These statuses are reinforced by economic
affluence. Wealth is measured in terms of ownership
of ritual items, like ancient jars, porcelain, plates,
gongs, beads, and jewelry.
Rice fields and livestock also form part of the items
of affluence. Social prestige, in almost all ethnic
groups with Puró organization, is validated in pan-
settlement religious ceremonies, like the tiyawan the unit, are drawn back into the core.

among the Tiruray.

The elementary family is the basic

building block of the Puró social organization. The

The Puró social stratification is closely dominant domestic unit, however, is the household,

linked with kinship and the family. The hierarchical the composition of which varies according to the

arrangement of status is anchored on the alliances type of family structure.

of families and kinship groups, particularly those

who are affluent. Individual achievements, like

Monogamy is preferred, although sororal
bravery in battle or acquisition of supernatural
polygyny and fraternal polyandry are allowed to occur,
power, is often attributed to psychic inheritance
66 especially among the well-to-do families. In the
or favors bestowed by ancestral spirits.
case of polygamous structures, the composition of

the household expands to include more kinsmen,

Among the Sulod, a man becomes an especially those of the co-wives.

achiever because the unseen powers of his

Marriage is generally characterized by
ancestral spirits or their spirit friends have
complex negotiations and elaborate religious
opened all avenues of luck and fortune for him. In
ceremonies. Central to the legal negotiation is the
return for such favors, the lucky person should
amount of bride gift to be given to the family and
observe all rituals and taboos necessary to
kinsmen of the woman. Special spokespersons, called
maintain his relationship with the kindred spirits
kefeduwan among the Tiruray and tagapatigayun
and, in the process, maintain his own social status.
among the Sulod, 69 are employed to argue, bargain,
The Puró kinship, as in all ethnic groups,
maneuver, and come to terms for andon behalf of the
belongs to what anthropologists call the
families of the boy and the girl.
generational-bilateral. That is, the overall

framework of kinship referents is organized on

Residence is generally matri-local until the
the principle of generation, with each generation
bride gift is fully paid for or the bride service has
clearly defined and differentiated by a distinct
been fully rendered. This can last for a long period
set of referential and vocative terms.
of time. However, after this initial matri-locality,
Group endogamy is encouraged among the
the couple can either shift to patrilocality or neo-
Puró groups, stressing the disadvantages of
locality.
marrying outside their region. In fact, cousin
Levirate Is common and, in some groups,
marriages are practiced. This is one of the
sororate is occasionally practiced. In levirate, the
mechanisms by which kinsmen who are becoming
male sibling takes over the family of his deceased
distant, by virtue of generational expansions of
brother, including taking his widow as a second wife.
The reverse is true with sororate the surviving
female sibling takes over the family of the deceased
sister, including marrying her surviving husband.
Divorce is practiced and is accompanied by
pro- longed and expensive litigations. Among the
major causes are cruelty, adultery, incompatibility of
temperament, in-law problems, and irresponsibility
(like laziness) of either spouse. Divorce is negotiated
by skilled go-betweens. Disposition of bride gifts and
custody of children depend upon who is judged as the
guilty party. The amount of bride gift paid during the
marriage influences the adjudication of the case.
Leadership Pattern
Leadership in most communities with Puró
type of social organization is assumed by the most
influential elder who possesses the personal
ability to persuade and influence.
Among the Ilongot the eloquent public speaker who
has mastered the art of oratory, known as purun,
holds considerable influence and authority in the
community."
Among the Tiruray the recognized leaders are those
who are, like the Ilongot, good speakers and who
possess good knowledge of custom laws. They are the
community orators who speak in highly metaphorical
rhetoric and who are thoroughly familiar with the
smallest details of their customs.
Tiyawan is the formal adjudicatory
discussion for the nonviolent settlement of disputes,
in which marriage is the most common example. The
Tiruray are peace. Loving people. They have a general
concern over the rights and feelings of all people,
even those involved in a controversy or conflict.
The kefeduwan of each side, in adjudicating
cases, does not try to win for his side. Together, all
kefeduwan participating in a tiyawan are expected to
strive earnestly to achieve a situation where all benal
have been recognized, where those responsible for
the trouble have through their kefeduwan accepted
their responsibility and fault and have been properly
fined, so that all fedew (feelings) have been made
fiyo (good).
Leadership among the Subanun is
assumed by men who are effective legal decision-
makers. Frake calls them "legal authorities.” The
status of a leader is not hereditary; it is acquired
through personal charisma and good knowledge of
custom laws, as well as etiquette of Subanun social
behavior.
The informal leader among the Sulod of
central Panay Island is called parangkuton
(advisor) or husay (arbiter). He is a respected
individual because of his wisdom, but he is not the
center of power and authority.
The parangkuton, who also functions as
the husay, or arbiter, is generally sought after and
followed because of his ability to form opinion and
to give advice on the basis of Sulod custom laws.
In settling the case, the parangkuton maintains
disinterest and, as much as possible, explores all
possibilities for amicable settlement before a
particular problem is discussed in the community-
wide council. In arbitrating cases, he is assisted
by the timbang (assistant) who acts as his

spokesperson while he listens to all the parties Religion and Art

concerned.
One of the striking features of the Puro

The timbang may suggest or argue against certain type of social organization is the persistence and

points of custom laws as interpreted by the elders pervasive influence of native religion upon every

or by the parangkuton. Sometimes he scolds, facet of community life. Religious beliefs and

harangues, threatens, exaggerates the crimes of practices are so neatly intertwined that it is

the defendant, criticizes the motives of the difficult to distinguish what is religious from what

plaintiff, and swears to the spirits of the is secular in the people's lifeway.

ancestors, if this becomes necessary, to

Moral and ethical order in society is
emphasize the wisdom of judgment about to be
defined in the context of human-spirit relations.
made.
Any infringement of spiritual demands or wishes,
Comparatively, all Puró leaders are
as revealed in dreams or spirit encounters, brings
assistedby a council of elders, called kahimataan,
about misfortune, illness, and personal discomfort.
among the Sulod. Some ethnic communities have no
Relief from these maladies and personal
name for this group of decision makers (i.e.,
discomforts is achieved by propitiating the spirits
ethnographers have not noted it) who are also
through simple or elaborate rituals.
legal experts, religious functionaries, and kinsmen.

The Buhid Mangyan call such informal Cosmological concepts among the ethnic

meetings tultulan or ampangan(collective with Puró type of social organization include a

discussions or talks). A meeting is convened when stratus ethnic group spirit world in the afterlife.

a person or a family brings up a case for discussion. The afterlife is perceived to be an extension of

The case may be a personal offense or a marriage the present.

proposal submitted for negotiation. The council is

Among the Sulod of Panay the spirit
attended only by elders whose opinions are
world is divided into four: the ibabawnon
respected and followed, and who are at the same
(upperworld), the pagtun-an (middle world), the
time experts in custom laws and skilled in
lupanon (earth world), and the idadalmunon
argumentation and negotiation.
(underworld). All of these layers are further

Among the Subanun a favorite device of divided into sub-layers and are inhabited by

legal authorities in arbitrating disputes is to different spirits that participate in the daily

eliminate the plaintiff by demonstrating that he affairs of the Sulod.

too is at fault, thereby collecting fines from both

parties.
 Among the Tiruray the earth is the 3. HANDUGAN The student makes his first
center of the multilayered universe. The spirits offering (a black chicken) to his chief spirit-

are also ranked according to their role in human protector. It is also during this period that he

affairs. The classes of supernatural beings learns the names of all his ancestral-deities,

include: the tulus, the highest; the maginalao, the especially those who were babaylans, good hunters

powerful beings of the upper world; the segoyong, and fishermen, and successful farmers during

the nature spirits on this earth; malevolent giants their time on earth.

and dwarfs, including the busao (giants who are

4. TAGBUNGAN or the period of ritual study.
said to eat the livers of persons); and the bolbol,
The student is taught the magical religious arts,
spirits that may come to a person who has
rituals, dances, songs, and music, but he is not
demonstrated bravery and give him whatever he
allowed to perform them is public.
desires, including power over other persons.

Rituals and other religious activities are led by 5. HAGBAYAN During this period, the student is
specialists who are able to communicate with the allowed to attend to minor cases. He is called

spirits and who share their powers. They are merku. He assists the chief baylan in the public

exceptionally gifted individuals chosen by the spirits performance of important ceremonies. At the end

themselves to be their spokespersons with the living. of his term, he departs for a nearby cave to

They are known as babaylan or baylan among the communicate with his spirit-friends and to gather

Sulod, the Tiruray, and the Subanun. herbs for his himagan, or medicinal oil.

Among the 6. TURUPADAN By this time, the student is

Sulod expected to know all the rudiments of curing

The following steps are followed in training the ceremonies, to recognize all known medicinal

would-be baylan: plants, to memorize all the names of his departed

ancestors, and to dance the different ritual

1. BARATAKAN This is the period of dances. He performs these in the presence of the

apprenticeship during which spirit-protectors and chief bavlan. He is also required to make an

spirit-friends are assigned to the trainee. The offering to his chief spirit protector. The

student baylan merely assists the chief baylan. sacrifice consists of seven red chickens.

2. SANGUBAN During this phase, the student is 7. BANAWANGUN The student kills a black pig
taught to recognize and memorize the names of all and offers its liver to his chief spirit- protector

medicinal plants and to learn all the symptoms of and the carcass to the less powerful divinities. He

illnesses as caused by the different diwata of the invites the whole community to witness his first

forests, rivers, streams, clouds, and springs. public ritual performed without the help of the
chief baylan.