DEGREE PROJECT IN THE FIELD OF TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

AND THE MAIN FIELD OF STUDY
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS
STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2018

Comparison of centralized and

decentralized ventilation in a
multifamily building in Stockholm
An LCA-study

SARA LINDVALL

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
 Abstract
Construction companies in Sweden has to comply with regulations for
both indoor environment and energy performance in multifamily build-
ings, and they also face a growing demand for certified green buildings.
In order to lower the energy demand, all potential energy savings are
of interest. Recent European studies have reported that a decentral-
ized ventilation system might have a lower energy consumption for fans
than a centralized system, and an increasing interest for decentralized
ventilation in multifamily buildings has been noted among the building
companies in Stockholm. However, research comparing the environmen-
tal impact from the whole life cycle seem to be missing. In this thesis,
an LCA-comparison of centralized and decentralized ventilation was per-
formed for a case building in the outskirts of Stockholm, considering a
lifetime of 50 years. The energy performance was also compared, in rela-
tion to Swedish building regulations, and the initial costs were estimated
for both systems. The LCA-study was carried out in SimaPro, using
Ecoinvent 3 as inventory database and ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) as
impact assessment tool. The results showed that if the pressure drop
across supply air diffusers was kept at 70 P a in the decentralized system,
energy for fans was 19% lower than in the centralized system, and at
a supply air diffuser pressure drop of 30 P a the corresponding energy
saving was 44%. This led to lower environmental impact on resources,
human health and ecosystems for the decentralized system. When the
air supply temperature was raised from 16◦ C to 21◦ C, the differences in
environmental impact increased between the systems due to the fact that
district heating was employed for air heating in the centralized system
while Swedish electricity mix was used in the decentralized system. Pro-
duction of products only had limited impact on the LCA-results, while
transports and maintenance had no impact on the results at all. The
energy performance in relation to Swedish building regulations was best
for the decentralized system, if air heating was minimized. Both energy
and LCA-results were highly dependent on the choice of pressure drop
over supply diffusers in the decentralized system, indicating that the sys-
tem performance is sensitive to relatively small changes in pressure drop
due to the low efficiencies of the small fans. The initial costs were es-
timated to be 27% higher for the decentralized system, and an increase
with 25 m2 in salable area would be required in the case building to cover
for the higher cost. Further research regarding long-term functionality
would be valuable in order to evaluate quality aspects and operational
differences between the systems. Also, a more thorough inventory of en-
vironmental impact from district heating generation and a life cycle cost
analysis would be welcome.
 Sammanfattning
Svenska byggföretag behöver förhålla sig till regler gällande både in-
omhusklimat och energiprestanda i flerbostadshus, och de möter också
en växande efterfrågan på miljöcertifierade byggnader. Varje möjlig ener-
gibesparing är därför av intresse i byggnadens projekteringsfas. Nyligen
genomförda europeiska studier har rapporterat att decentraliserade ven-
tilationssystem kan ha ett lägre energibehov för fläktarbetet jämfört med
centraliserade system, och i Stockholm verkar intresset för decentralise-
rat ventilationssystem i flerbostadshus ha ökat bland byggbolagen. Jäm-
förande studier av miljöeffekter med ett livscykelperspektiv tycks dock
saknas. I denna uppsats genomfördes en LCA-jämförelse av centraliserat
och decentraliserat ventilationssystem som en fallstudie på en byggnad
i utkanten av Stockholm, med avseende på 50 års livscykel. Även ener-
giprestandan jämfördes, i relation till svenska byggregler, och de initiala
kostnaderna uppskattades för båda systemen. LCA-studien gjordes med
hjälp av SimaPro, där databasen Ecoinvent 3 användes för inventering
och ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (H) för utvärdering av miljöeffekter. Resul-
taten visade att det decentraliserade systemet förbrukade 19% mindre
fläktenergi då tryckfallet över tilluftsdonen sattes till 70 P a, respektive
44% mindre om tryckfallet sattes till 30 P a istället. Detta ledde till en
lägre miljöpåverkan på resurser, folkhälsa och ekosystem för det decent-
raliserade systemet. När tilluftstemperaturen höjdes från 16◦ C till 21◦ C
ökade skillnaderna i miljöeffekter mellan systemen eftersom fjärrvärme
användes som uppvärmning i det centraliserade systemet medan svensk
elmix användes i det decentraliserade. Tillverkning av produkter hade
endast begränsad effekt på resultaten, medan transporter och underhåll
inte alls påverkade resultaten. Energiprestandan i relation till svenska
byggregler var bäst i det decentraliserade systemet, förutsatt att värm-
ning av luften minimerades. Både energi- och LCA-resultat berodde till
stor del på valet av tryckfall över tilluftsdonen, vilket indikerar att syste-
mets prestanda är känsligt för relativt små förändringar i tryckfall p.g.a.
de låga verkningsgraderna hos de små fläktarna. De initiala kostnaderna
uppskattades till att vara 27% högre för det decentraliserade systemet,
och en ökning av den säljbara ytan med 25 m2 skulle krävas för byggna-
den i fallstudien för att täcka denna extra kostnad. Ytterligare forskning
på långsiktig funktionalitet vore värdefullt för att utvärdera kvalitetsa-
spekter och skillnader i driftegenskaper mellan systemen. Även en mer
noggrann utvärdering av miljöeffekter från fjärrvärme samt livscykelkost-
nader vore välkommet.
Contents
Nomenclature

1 Introduction 1

2 Background 2
2.1 Heating and ventilation systems in multifamily buildings . . 2
2.1.1 Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.2 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Operational energy of buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1 Policy of energy use in buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.2 Energy consumption in Swedish buildings . . . . . . 4
2.2.3 Heat losses in buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.4 Energy performance of ventilation systems . . . . . . 6
2.3 Environmental impact related to ventilation systems . . . . . 8
2.3.1 Steel production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.2 Zinc production and coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.3 Other production processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.4 Energy for operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.5 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.6 End-of-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.7 Environmental effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Swedish building regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Regulations for indoor environment . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.2 Regulations for energy performance . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Sustainable building certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 An introduction to LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.1 Purpose and standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7.2 Attributional or consequential LCA . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.3 Conventional or dynamic LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.4 Levels of LCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7.5 Methodological steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Thesis outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Literature review 21
3.1 Previous research on decentralized ventilation . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 The impact of LCA methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Method 23
4.1 Case building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Ventilation system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.1 Duct design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
 4.2.2 Choice of products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.3 CV system pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2.4 DV system design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.5 Sound calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Energy models and calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3.1 Energy performance estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.2 CV system energy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3.3 DV system energy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 Cost estimations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.5 LCA Goal and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5.1 Functional unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.5.2 Reference flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5.3 Material data and assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.4 Production processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.5 Energy and maintenance processes . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5.6 Waste scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5.7 LCI - Inventory analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5.8 LCIA - Impact assessment tools and software . . . . 35
4.5.9 Interpretation of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5.10 Sensitivity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5 Results 37
5.1 Operational energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1.1 Energy consumption for fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1.2 Energy consumption for air heating . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.1.3 Life cycle energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2 Compliance with Swedish building regulations . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.1 Installed electric capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.2 Effects on building EPpet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.3 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4 LCA results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4.1 Damage assessment at 21◦ C supply air . . . . . . . . 41
5.4.2 Damage assessment at 16◦ C supply air . . . . . . . . 41
5.4.3 Impact categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.4 Process contributions - Resources . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.5 Process contributions - Human health . . . . . . . . 46
5.4.6 Process contributions - Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.5 Sensitivity analysis results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

6 Discussion 53
6.1 The impact of system pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2 The impact of fan efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.3 Swedish building regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.4 System functionality and reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5 Air quality and noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.6 Fire security aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
 6.7 Cost aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.8 Weaknesses in the modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7 Conclusions 60
7.1 Energy performance during operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.2 Compliance with Swedish building regulations . . . . . . . . 60
7.3 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.4 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
List of Figures
2.1 The energy mix in Swedish electricity generation 2016. . . . . . . . 10
2.2 The energy mix in Swedish district heating production 2016. . . . . 11
5.1 Annual energy consumption for fans and air heating in the CV and
DV systems at 21◦ C supply air temperature, separated by energy
source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Bought operational energy for fans and air heating in the different
systems during a 50 years life cycle at 21◦ C supply air temperature. . 39
5.3 Effects on building energy performance at different air supply tem-
peratures, with the CV system at 21◦ C as reference, in relation to
current and proposed primary energy factors (BFS 2017:5 and BFS
2018:xx). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.4 Damage assessment comparison between the CV and the DV systems
in terms of Resource scarcity, Human health and Ecosystems. . . . . 42
5.5 Damage assessment comparison between the CV and the DV systems
in terms of Resource scarcity, Human health and Ecosystems. . . . . 42
5.6 Relative damage on the two resource impact categories Fossil resource
scarcity and Mineral resource scarcity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.7 Relative damage on the four human health impact categories Fine
particulate matter formation, Global warming human health, Human
non-carcinogenic toxicity and Human carcinogenic toxicity. . . . . . 43
5.8 Relative damage on the four ecosystem impact categories Land use,
Global warming terrestrial ecosystems, Terrestrial acidification and
Water consumption terrestrial ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
List of Tables
1 Possible impact during the life cycle of a ventilation system . . 13
2 Swedish building regulations for dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Recommended max SFP according to BFS 2017:5 . . . . . . . . 14
4 Energy performance requirements for multifamily buildings in
Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Primary energy factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Air flow requirements from client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7 A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level requirements for
noise from installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8 Distribution of pressure drop in the CV system . . . . . . . . . 26
9 Quantity of DV systems in energy model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10 Pressure drops and flow rates in DV systems . . . . . . . . . . 27
11 Input data for Minimaster RDKS fan efficiency calculations . . 29
12 Reference flows in CV and DV systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
13 Products and transport assessment in SimaPro . . . . . . . . . 34
14 Operational energy assessment in SimaPro . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
15 Waste recycling assessment in SimaPro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
16 Assessed impact categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
17 Input data for ∆EPpet calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
18 Estimated initial costs [T housand SEK 2018] . . . . . . . . . . 40
19 Fossil resource scarcity by process [USD 2013] . . . . . . . . . . 45
20 Mineral resource scarcity by process [USD 2013] . . . . . . . . . 46
21 Fine particulate matter formation by process [DALY] . . . . . . 47
22 Global warming human health by process [DALY] . . . . . . . . 47
23 Human non-carcinogenic toxicity by process [DALY] . . . . . . 48
24 Human carcinogenic toxicity by process [DALY] . . . . . . . . . 48
25 Land use by process [species.yr] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
26 Global warming terrestrial ecosystems by process [species.yr] . 49
27 Terrestrial acidification by process [species.yr] . . . . . . . . . . 50
28 Water consumption terrestrial ecosystems by process [species.yr] 51
29 Damage assessment results with and without industrial waste
heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Nomenclature

AHU Air Handling Unit

BFS Boverkets författningssamling

CV Centralized Ventilation

DALY Disability Adjusted Life Years

DV Decentralized Ventilation

EPD Environmental Product Declaration

FTX Exhaust Supply Heat Exchange (Swedish abbreviation)

GHG Green House Gases

ISO International Organization for Standardization

LCA Life Cycle Analysis

NZEB Nearly Zero Energy Building

SFP Specific Fan power

1 Introduction

The human need for a comfortable indoor climate has led to many important
technical inventions aiming to supply heating, cooling and fresh air into a built
environment. It takes energy to achieve good air quality and to maintain a
suitable indoor temperature, especially in hot or cold climates, and the demand
for energy efficient solutions is continuously growing. Efforts are being made,
both on technical and political levels, to minimize the energy consumption in
the building sector.
Construction companies in Sweden has to comply with regulations for
both indoor environment and energy performance, and they also face a growing
demand for certified green buildings [1, 2]. At the same time a building project
has to be economically profitable. In this context, the design of a building’s
climate system is highly important since it affects the resource efficiency during
both production and operation. The commonly used ways to deliver heating,
cooling and fresh air are therefore questioned from time to time and new
designs and methods are implemented on the market. When this happens,
it is important to evaluate the new solutions with a life cycle perspective, to
try to ensure that they are more sustainable than the old ones. Life Cycle
Analyses (LCA) is a useful tool for assessing the environmental impact of a
certain activity, e.g. the service of providing fresh air, and it can also be used
to compare products, systems and methods.
It has recently been shown that the production and construction of an en-
ergy efficient multifamily concrete building in Stockholm, built with contem-
porary methods, can contribute to 50% of the building’s life cycle emissions of
green house gases (GHG) [3]. This is much more than the 15% contribution
that often is allocated to upstream activities for buildings, and it strongly
highlights the importance of including the whole life cycle when assessing
sustainability. Similarly, environmental impact from production of ventila-
tion systems has recently been recognized as more important than previously
assumed [4]. These findings are partly related to the increased energy perfor-
mance during the operational phase and points to the fact that the impact
from production no longer can be neglected.
According to Structor Installationsteknik AB, there is an increasing in-
terest among building constructors to install decentralized ventilation (DV)
systems in multifamily buildings [5]. The reasons behind this are ambiguous,
but they might be related to the benefits from a larger salable area when
compared to buildings with a central ventilation (CV) system. In this thesis,
a DV system is defined as one small air handling unit in every apartment,
with air supply and exhaust through the facade and a local ducting system
within the apartment. If this kind of installation is a new trend on the mar-
ket, it is highly relevant to evaluate the effects such a change would have on
life cycle energy performance, environmental impact and cost. A few studies
related to this topic have been performed in other countries, but research in
a Swedish context has not been found yet. Research with a life cycle perspec-

1
tive on DV are scarse, and also, the system boundaries of performed studies
do not always include primary energy for heating and/or cooling of the air.
LCA methodology was employed in this thesis, to estimate and compare the
environmental impact of centralized and decentralized ventilation systems in
a new multifamily building in Stockholm. A lifetime of 50 years was assumed
and the primary energy for heating the air was included.

2 Background

Here the background behind the topic of this thesis is outlined. To begin with,
common building climate systems are introduced from a technical and statisti-
cal perspective. Parameters crucial for energy performance and environmental
impact are presented, and relevant Swedish building regulations are identified.
Finally, the concept of LCA is introduced.

2.1 Heating and ventilation systems in multifamily buildings

There are many ways of providing a suitable indoor climate and the design
of the building itself is strongly affecting the need for external energy supply.
By employing so called passive design, where the architecture is adapted to
the environment and natural thermodynamic effects are utilized, the need for
supplied energy can be minimized from the beginning [6]. However, in this
section the most commonly used active methods to supply heating and fresh
air to newly built Swedish multifamily houses will be introduced, with a focus
on mechanical ventilation solutions.

2.1.1 Heating

If the heating demand of the building is very low, like in a so called passive
house, it is common to cover the remaining heating demand by supplying air at
a suitable temperature [7]. In newly built non-passive multifamily buildings,
waterborne heating with radiators is a common primary heating method, with
electric floor heating in bathrooms and the indoor air temperature set to 21◦ C
[5].
About 90% of Swedish multifamily apartments built in 2011-2015 were
connected to the district heating network in 2016, whereof approximately a
third were combining district heating with some other heating source where
exhaust air heat pump dominated (See 2.1.2) [8]. The remaining 10% were
using a heat pump as primary heating method, with ground, earth or sea as
heat source [8].

2
2.1.2 Ventilation

Centralized ventilation (CV) is here defined as a mechanically driven system

with at least one common ducting system. The system can consist of an
exhaust ventilation system only, or be balanced, as described below.
In a mechanical exhaust ventilation system, used air is extracted from the
apartment, predominantly from kitchen and bathroom, while outdoor air is
passively supplied through cracks and openings in the facade. The exhaust
fan creates an under-pressure in the apartment which causes fresh air to enter
from the outside. The exhaust fan is centrally installed in the building, and the
extracted air is exhausted through a central ducting system and released to the
ambient. This system is often combined with an exhaust air heat pump which
utilizes the available heat in the exhaust air as heat source for an air-to-water
heat pump.
In a balanced ventilation system, supply air is mechanically provided with
the same volume flow rate as the exhaust air is extracted. Air is usually
supplied in bedrooms and living rooms and extracted from wet rooms. To
accomplish this a double ducting system is required, along with one exhaust
fan and one supply fan. A central air handling unit (AHU) is often employed
to heat, cool, filter, dry or humidify the incoming air before distributing it
to the building. Heat exchange between exhaust air and incoming air can be
done if a heat recovery unit is installed in the AHU. In Swedish residential
buildings the treatment of the air mainly involves filtering, heat recovery and
heating. Balanced mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (FTX) is now
the most common installation in new multifamily buildings in Sweden, and
in Stockholm it is now common not to place the AHU in the attic so that
this area can become apartments instead [9, 5]. Heating of the air stream
is predominantly supplied by district heating, as mentioned above, and the
air supply temperature is often set to the dimensioned indoor temperature in
residential buildings in order not to increase the heating demand [5].
All non-central ventilation methods could in a way be described as decen-
tralized (DV), but the definition of DV used in this context is a mechanically
driven permanently installed system that is not connected to a large ducting
system common for the whole building. The purpose of a DV system is to pro-
vide fresh air to the local environment, e.g. by having one small ventilation
system for every apartment. An electric heating coil can be installed in the
local AHU to ensure that a proper supply air temperature can be provided at
all times, but it is generally not designed to provide large amounts of heat. In
a building with a significant heating demand, a DV system hence has to be
combined with a separate heating system. It can be designed with or with-
out ducts and can be equipped with a heat recovery unit. Some examples of
different DV designs are described below.
One possible DV setup is the bi-directional system. The devices are small
and no duct work has to be done. Air is supplied by a small fan installed in

3
the facade and exhaust air is sucked out at the same rate by another small fan
installed in another room. A heat recovery mechanism, consisting of aluminum
plates that pick up the heat from the passing air, is installed in both units.
By altering direction of the flow, heat recovered from the warm exhaust air
can be supplied to the cold incoming air. Several pairs of DV units can be
installed in one apartment. [10]
Another DV design is to install a small AHU, containing both supply and
exhaust fan in the same device. This can be used to service a confined space,
like an office room, or it could be connected to a local ducting system that
supplies air to bedrooms and living rooms and extracts air from wet rooms.
Also in this case it is possible to recover heat, e.g. by a rotary heat exchanger
inside the AHU. The air can also be heated by an electric or liquid heating
coil. This kind of system was installed in 400 rental apartments in Stockholm
in the 1980’s and is the kind of system that was evaluated in this thesis [11].

2.2 Operational energy of buildings

The operational phase of a building contribute to a large part of its life cycle
energy use because of the long lifetime. All energy that is needed to enable
the building to fulfill its purpose is included in the operational energy. In
this section the energy used for ventilation is presented within the context of
building energy performance and energy policy.

2.2.1 Policy of energy use in buildings

Energy use in buildings was responsible for nearly 40% of the supplied energy
in Sweden 2015 and the figures for EU are similar [12]. To address this is-
sue, the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive stipulated that every new
building in EU shall be a Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB) from 2021 [13].
The implementation of the NZEB-concept is regulated individually in each
EU-country. In Sweden, the concept has been gradually introduced within
the general building regulations and the current and upcoming requirements
are described in section 2.4.

2.2.2 Energy consumption in Swedish buildings

Heating energy demand is generally dominating the energy profile of a resi-

dential building in Sweden. In an assessment of 29 multifamily buildings in
Stockholm, built between 1995-2002, the average yearly heating demand was
124 kW h/m2 while facility electricity demand was 14 kW h/m2 [14]. Facility
electricity include all electricity for operation of the building, such as fans,
pumps and lighting in common areas, and domestic hot water is included in
heating demand. The energy performance of new buildings has been improved
since then, and according to official statistics multifamily houses built between

4
2011-2015 has an average heating demand of 94 kW h/m2 [8]. One reason be-
hind this improvement could be related to a shift in praxis from mechanical
exhaust ventilation to FTX (See 2.1)[9]. Also the growing trend of building
low energy and passive houses can contribute to the statistics [15].

2.2.3 Heat losses in buildings

Heat from the building is lost to the outside environment in four main ways;
by transmission through the building envelope (walls, windows, roof, ground)
(eq. 2.1), by radiation to the sky (eq. 2.2), by heated air leaving the building
through the ventilations system (eq. 2.3) and by infiltration of cold air or
exfiltration of warm air through cracks and openings in the envelope (eq. 2.4)
[6]. The losses can be estimated using the following equations:
Heat loss by transmission

Ht = U Ae (tindoor − toutdoor ) (2.1)

Heat loss by radiation

4 4
Hr = σAs (Tsurf ace − Tsky ) (2.2)

Heat loss by ventilation

Hv = cp ρqv (texhaust − tintake ) (2.3)

Heat loss by infiltration

Hi = cp ρqi (tindoor − toutdoor ) (2.4)

where
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/(m2 K)
Ae is the envelope area in m2
t is temperature in ◦ C
 is the emissivity of the surface 0 6  6 1
σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67E − 8 W m−2 K −4
As is the area of the radiating surface, e.g. the roof, in m2
T is temperature in K
cp is the heat capacity of air at constant pressure in J/K
ρ is the density of air in kg/m3
qv is the ventilation flow rate in m3 /s
qi is the infiltration flow rate in m3 /s

When calculating the transmission losses, corrections should be made for

losses to the ground which normally has a different temperature than the
surrounding air.

5
 In passive houses, very thick walls and insulation layers reduce the amount
of heat lost by transmission by increasing the value of U . This also reduces
the radiation losses by lowering Tsurf ace . As mentioned earlier, heat recov-
ery is a common way to reduce the heat losses through ventilation since this
lowers the temperature of the air leaving the building, texhaust . New build-
ings tend to have high air tightness, which reduces the heat losses through
infiltration/exfiltration by reducing qi . Air tight buildings therefore require
a mechanical ventilation system of some kind, which in itself has an energy
demand.
In a Swedish report from 2006 it was stated that implementing an FTX
system saved about 12 kW h/m2 in heating energy but increased facility elec-
tricity demand with 19 kW h/m2 in an average multifamily building due to the
double ducting system required [16]. These findings were confirmed in 2009 by
Svensk Fjärrvärme in a report that concluded that the heat recovery efficiency
was much poorer in reality than in estimations [17]. However, a more recent
field study performed in Netherlands concluded that buildings with FTX had
significantly lower total primary energy consumption than buildings without
heat recovery [18].

2.2.4 Energy performance of ventilation systems

There are several parameters that have an impact on the energy performance
of a ventilation system. One important parameter is the ventilation system
pressure drop that the fans have to overcome. The outdoor air usually passes
filters and heat exchangers in the AHU before entering the occupied areas, and
this cause so-called single pressure losses. Pressure is also lost in the ducts due
to friction between the air and the duct surface. High pressure losses require
much fan power and noise is also more likely to be generated. Equation 2.5 to
2.10 show how the pressure losses are calculated. [6]
The total pressure loss of a system is defined by

∆ptot = ∆pf riction + ∆psingle (2.5)

L ρ · v2
∆pf riction = f · · (2.6)
dh 2

ρ · v2
∆psingle = K · (2.7)
2
where
f is the friction loss coefficient, e.g. as defined in eq. 2.8
L is the duct length [m]
dh is the hydraulic diameter as defined in eq. 2.10
v is the air velocity [m/s]
ρ is the air density [kg/m3 ]

6
K is a single loss coefficient

Several correlations can be used for calculating the friction loss coefficient.
The Churchill correlation is valid for both laminar and turbulent air flows and
is defined as follows:

1
 !!16 !−1.5  12
 12 16
8 1 37530

f = 8· + 2.457 · ln +  (2.8)
Re 7 0.9 Re


Re
+ 0.27 · dh

where
 is the surface roughness [m], dh is the hydraulic diameter [m] and Re is
Reynolds number as defined below [6].

ρ · dh · v
Re = (2.9)
µ

where ρ is the density of air [kg/m3 ], v is the air velocity [m/s], µ is the
dynamic viscosity of the air [P a · s] and
4 · Ac
dh = (2.10)
P

where Ac is the cross-sectional flow area [m2 ] and P is the perimeter of the
duct [m] [6].
Frictional pressure loss is hence related both to the friction loss coeffi-
cient and to geometry. Pressure drop decreases with larger duct diameter,
but large ducts require more space and material. Long ducts also give higher
pressure losses than short ducts of a certain diameter. The loss coefficient
for single losses can be minimized if the system is designed properly. Bends,
components, etc should be installed sufficiently far away from the closest up-
stream disturbance, because the pressure loss becomes the lowest possible if
the air flow is undisturbed, i.e. fully developed, when it encounters the new
disturbance. [6]
Another crucial parameter is the efficiency of the fans, that is to what
extent the fans are able to push and pull the air stream given the electricity
input to the motor. The fan static efficiency is defined as follows:

∆p qv
ηf an = (2.11)
Pel
where ∆p equals the static pressure drop in the system including internal AHU
pressure losses, qv is the ventilation flow rate and Pel is the power required for
the motor that drives the fan. The efficiency generally increases with impeller
diameter in a logarithmic pattern, and efficiency also increases with fan speed
[19]. The international air movement and control association, AMCA, has

7
proposed a fan efficiency grade classification, FEG, as a tool to define energy
efficiency limits that takes impeller size into account [19].
Another way of measuring ventilation system energy performance is the
specific fan power (SFP) concept. SFP is defined as

ΣP
SF P = (2.12)
qv

where ΣP [kW ] equals the sum of all fan powers required in the system and qv
[m3 /s] is the gross amount of circulated air [6]. To achieve a low SFP, high fan
efficiency and/or low pressure drop is required. The Swedish building regula-
tions has recommendations of maximum SFP between 0.6 and 2.0, depending
on type of ventilation system. This is further explained in section 2.4.
Each fan has an optimal point of operation, where the efficiency has the
highest value. It is therefore important to choose a fan suitable for the system
flow and pressure drop. In a DV system, both flows and pressure drops tend
to be low, and small fans are hence installed in these systems. For flows below
0.2 m3 /s, higher SFP values can be accepted [20].

2.3 Environmental impact related to ventilation systems

Based on experiences from previous studies, production and operation of ven-

tilation systems are the two most contributing phases when it comes to envi-
ronmental impact from ventilation systems [4, 21]. The processes within each
phase, and their associated risks, are first described in this section and the
possible environmental effects from these activities are outlined in the end.

2.3.1 Steel production

Galvanized steel, i.e. steel with a protective layer of zinc coating on the sur-
face, is the dominating material in a ventilation system. Mining, steel produc-
tion and galvanizing are resource intensive processes and their environmental
impact can vary depending on methods and locations.
Steel is produced from iron (Fe) extracted from iron ore broken in e.g.
Kiruna in Sweden. Zinc (Zn) is often extracted together with lead (Pb) and
there are seven active lead-zinc mines in Sweden today [22]. Both iron and
zinc are extracted from mines in many places, with China as leading producer
of zinc and Australia as main producer of iron [23]. Sweden delivered about
2% of the world zinc and 1% of the iron in the world in 2016 [23].
About 1% of the total supplied energy in Sweden is used for mining
[24, 25]. Nevertheless, 83% of the total amount of waste in Sweden is generated
in the mining industry, whereof all is taken care of locally by the mining com-
panies [26]. These numbers witness about the physical impact that the mining
industry has on the local environment. The solid waste contains hazardous

8
substances, such as heavy metals, that contaminate earth and water through
leaching if the disposal sites are not thoroughly sealed, and the amount of
waste from mining is likely to increase when the findings of high graded ore
are depleted and lower quality ore will be mined instead [27, 28].
75% of the world steel is manufactured through the Blast Furnace - Basic
Oxygen Furnace route (BF-BOF) that uses iron ore, recycled steel and coal
as input materials in the process, while 25% is produced with the Electric Arc
Furnace route (EAF) that mainly uses recycled steel and electricity [29]. The
Swedish steel production covers 0.3% of the world demand and about 1/3 is
produced by EAF [30]. The iron and steel industry in Sweden is the second
most energy consuming industry in the country, accounting for about 3% of
the total primary energy in Sweden, whereof 36% was electricity and 64%
fossil fuel (40% coke) [24, 25].
According to the Worldsteel Association, China is the leading world pro-
ducer of steel, accounting for almost half of the world steel, and the production
has been growing rapidly for the last decade. About 95% of the Chinese steel
is produced with the energy intensive and coal consuming BF-BOF route. Al-
most all of the production is used within the nation and the largest part of
the export goes to other Asian countries. [30]

2.3.2 Zinc production and coating

To produce zinc from zinc ore, the ore is heated to over 900◦ C to form zinc
oxide (ZnO) from which pure zinc is produced in electrolytic plants. About
73% of the primary energy used for these processes comes from non-renewable
sources, according to data from members of the International Zinc Association
2014. [31]
Hot dip galvanizing is a common method used for protecting steel from
corrosion. According to the American Galvanizers Association [32], the pro-
cess involves two crucial steps: surface preparation and molten zinc bath.
During preparation the steel is cleaned from dirt and oxides in several steps
using alkalic and acid solutions and blasting. Then a protective layer of zinc
ammonium chloride is put upon the steel surface, so that oxidation do not
occur before the final step. Finally, the now prepared steel is immersed in a
bath of > 98% zinc at a temperature of about 450◦ C. The iron in the steel
reacts with the zinc and form an alloy layer, protected by a layer of pure zinc
on top. The heat for melting the zinc is normally provided by either electricity
or gas, depending on availability and price [33].

2.3.3 Other production processes

Other parts of the system require other materials for production. Motors are
usually made of cast iron while fans and heat exchangers are made of alu-
minium. In a large building with a central system, the production of these

9
products are of little significance since the amount of material is relatively
small. It might however have a larger economical and environmental impact
in a decentralized system with many small AHU:s. Aluminium production is
a very energy intensive process, but it is also possible to recycle to a large
extent. Insulation materials are, on the other hand, not yet so often recycled.
Mineral wool made out of either recycled glass or stone are often employed in
large quantities in central ventilation systems for fire protection and insula-
tion to avoid condensation. In decentralized systems, fire insulation is seldom
necessary since each system operates within one fire compartment and no duct
passages through garages or attics are made. Condensation insulation is how-
ever still needed in small systems, and it is common to use styrofoam for this
[5].

2.3.4 Energy for operation

Electricity is needed to operate the fans in the system. Electricity generation

always has an environmental impact, although it varies greatly depending on
energy source and method used. The environmental impact from operating
a ventilation system in Sweden would be highly dependent on the ecological
footprint from the electricity that is exchanged on the Nord Pool market, as-
suming that all electricity is bought from the grid. In an assessment from
2016, performed in accordance with the international standardized GHG Pro-
tocol, nordic electricity mix was associated with 0.056 kgCO2eq /kW h in a
location-based calculation [34].

100

80

60
%

40

20

Electricity generation

Conv heat (fossil) Conv heat (renewable) Wind Nuclear Hydro

Figure 2.1: The energy mix in Swedish electricity generation 2016.

In year 2016 the Swedish electricity generation was produced mainly by

hydro power and nuclear, as can be seen in figure 2.1. During 2016 Sweden im-
ported a few percent of the supplied electricity from Denmark and Norway and

10
exported electricity to Finland, Polen, Lithuania and Germany. Norwegian
electricity is to 96% produced by hydropower and in Denmark conventional
thermal power and wind are the two dominating energy sources. [35]
There are also other potential environmental impacts from electricity gen-
eration and transmission, besides GHG-emissions. Hydropower and biofuel
production are commonly associated with effects on biodiversity and land use,
and a lot of energy and material resources are embedded in construction work
like power plants, wind mills and grid. Nuclear power render radioactive waste
and fine particulate matters are released from combustion and transports.
Also, the fresh water consumption in power plants should be remembered. [36]

100

80

60
%

40

20

District heating production

Other Fossil Renewable Recovered

Figure 2.2: The energy mix in Swedish district heating production 2016.

Swedish district heating is produced from several energy sources. Figure

2.2 illustrates the proportions of energy from renewable, recovered and other
sources in 2016. The dominating fuels are 41% biofuels and 24.5% waste [35].
The GHG-emission from 1 kW h of delivered Swedish district heating has been
recently estimated to 0.070 kgCO2eq [37].

2.3.5 Maintenance

Maintenance of a ventilation system should be performed on a regular ba-

sis and would then be associated with production of filters and components
that need replacement, cleaning of the system and transport of material and
technicians. When compared to the other activities during the lifespan of a
ventilation system, maintenance has a relatively small environmental impact
according to previous studies [4, 21]. Poor maintenance can however have an

11
impact on the indoor environment and the energy performance of the ventila-
tion system. If the fans are regulated to deliver a certain air flow, more power
will be needed to do so when filters and coils are fouled and a higher pressure
is required in order for the air to pass. This is often the case in a centralized
system, while in small systems the air flow is reduced and the air quality drops
instead, since the presence of pressure sensors are rare [38].

2.3.6 End-of-life

If properly managed, the majority of the parts in a ventilation system would

be recycled at end-of-life. Galvanized steel can be recycled together with other
steel scrap in the EAF dust treatment process, enabling both steel and zinc
to be recycled separately [39]. It has been shown in an LCA-study that the
benefits from recovering the zinc are questionable and depend very much on
the primary energy source used in the process [40]. Mineral wool insulation is
often not recycled today, but efforts are being made in order to increase the
recyclability of these materials [41].

2.3.7 Environmental effects

It is well known that burning of fossil fuels causes emissions that lead to
climate change. Combustion is also associated with emissions of sulphur and
nitrogen oxides, SOx and N Ox , that induces acidification and eutrophication.
Depending on technology and fuel input, electricity production cause more or
less emissions of these combustion products.
In a review of LCA studies performed on electricity production technolo-
gies, it was shown that infrastructure was the most contributing part for hydro,
solar and wind power while fuel provision was the critical phase for biomass
and nuclear. For fossil fueled power plants the operational phase contributes
the most, and the total emissions of GHG far exceeded those of all other tech-
nologies. The results for SOx and N Ox were generally higher for fossil fueled
power plants but some modern power plants showed similar results as some
biomass fueled plants. When the total GHG, SOx and N Ox emissions were
considered, hydro, nuclear and wind power had the best results in these LCA
studies. [42]
Construction work, road transport, combustion, industrial processes and
products can cause release of fine particulate matters, PM. These are small
particles of chemical substances or organic compounds and some of them can
lead to serious health issues if inhaled. [43]
Iron and steel production has been associated with emissions of heavy
metals, both in terms of solid waste and released to air and water [44]. Modern
techniques of cleaning flue gases have however diminished the air pollutions
considerably since the 1980s’ and most of the heavy metals end up in landfills
instead [45]. If leaching of contaminants from landfills is not hindered, the

12
heavy metals will still be a problem.
The heavy metals released during the iron and steel production are cad-
mium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and nickel (Ni) [44].
Four of these, all but nickel, are considered highly toxic and able to cause
severe damage to organs even in very small amounts [46]. In an assessment of
abandoned mine tailings from Swedish mines where copper (Cu), zinc (Zn),
silver (Ag) and gold (Au) where excavated during the 20th century, high levels
of arsenic (As), copper and zinc where found in soil and sediment [28]. The
same study also found that arsenic, aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn)
and zinc had bioaccumulated in the plants, in some cases far above the level
considered tolerable for crops. Arsenic is considered as highly toxic already
in low concentrations and has been associated with several serious diseases
including various forms of cancer [46].
The impact categories that can be associated with producing and operat-
ing a ventilation system are listed in table 1.

Table 1: Possible impact during the life cycle of a ventilation system

Activity Pollution Impact category

Mining of metal ore Heavy metals, Eco-toxicity,

Solid waste Land use

Steel production & CO2 , Climate change,

Galvanizing Heavy metals Eco-toxicity

Fossil fuel use & CO2 , Climate change,

Electricity production & SOx , Acidification,
District heating production N Ox Eutrophication,
PM Human toxicity

2.4 Swedish building regulations

The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket in Swedish)

is the Swedish authority responsible for building regulations, both regarding
indoor environment and energy performance. Building regulations are docu-
mented in Boverkets författningssamling and the documents are named BFS
year:number.

2.4.1 Regulations for indoor environment

It is stipulated by the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning

in BFS 2017:5 that dwellings must be continuously supplied with fresh air
to a minimum of 0.35 l/(sm2 ), or 0.10 l/(sm2 ) at times when no one is in

13
the dwelling. The ventilation system shall be designed so that it is capable
of removing pollutants, like carbon dioxide, particles, radon, moisture and
emissions from materials, so that the indoor environment is not hazardous or
has a bad odor. This means also that air pollutants generated from kitchen and
bathroom activities should not flow into other rooms, but rather be extracted
directly. [20]
BFS 2017:5 also stipulates that noise from installations in buildings, such
as ventilation, shall be dampened so that they do not disturb the residents.
If the recommendations in BFS 2014:3 is followed the noise reduction require-
ment is considered to be fulfilled. This means a maximum A-weighted sound
pressure level, LpAF eq,nT , of 30 dB in bedrooms and living rooms and 35 dB in
kitchen and bathroom, measured according to the ISO 16032:2004 standard.
[20] A building constructor may however choose an even higher sound classifi-
cation level (class B or A, instead of class C which equals the BFS-regulations)
according to the SIS-standard SS 25267 [47].
According to recommendations from the National Board of Health and
Welfare the operative temperature in dwellings should be 20◦ − 23◦ C and the
air velocity should not exceed 0.15 m/s in the occupied zone [48]. The opera-
tive temperature is defined as the average between air temperature and mean
radiant temperature of the surrounding surfaces. The relevant regulations are
summarized in table 2.
Table 2: Swedish building regulations for dwellings

Criteria BFS 2017:5 SOSFS 2005:15

Min air supply [l/(sm2 )] 0.35
Max noise, LpAF eq,nT [dB] 30 − 35
Operative temperature [◦ C] 20 − 23
Max air velocity [m/s] 0.15

2.4.2 Regulations for energy performance

The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning recommends upper

limits of SFP for ventilation systems in BFS 2017:5. Table 3 shows the max-
imum SFP values valid for constant air flow systems with > 0.2 m3 /s and
> 800 h of operation per year. [20]

Table 3: Recommended max SFP according to BFS 2017:5

Ventilation system SFP [kW/(m3 /s)]

Supply and exhaust ventilation with heat recovery (FTX) 2.0
Supply and exhaust ventilation without heat recovery 1.5
Exhaust ventilation with heat recovery 1.0
Exhaust ventilation without heat recovery 0.6

The first step of implementing the NZEB-regulations in Sweden was taken

14
during 2017 and in January 1st 2021 the requirements will be further sharp-
ened, according to the BFS 2018:xx proposal written for referral [49]. The
current regulations are described in BFS 2017:5 and stipulate limits for en-
ergy performance measured in bought primary energy per heated area and
year (EPpet is the Swedish abbreviation), average overall heat transfer coef-
ficient, maximum installed electric capacity for heating and maximum infil-
tration rate. The energy performance shall take into account all the energy
that is bought in order to operate the building, such as heating and cooling,
fans, pumps, lighting in common areas etc. and primary energy factors are
defined for all relevant energy sources. The current and proposed energy regu-
lations for multifamily houses are listed in table 4 and the definition of energy
performance expressed in EPpet is explained in equation 2.13. [20, 50]

Table 4: Energy performance requirements for multifamily buildings in Sweden

Criteria BFS 2017:5 BFS 2018:xx

Energy performance EPpet 85 kW h/m2Atemp 78 kW h/m2Atemp
Installed electr heating capacity 4.5 + 1.7 · (Fgeo − 1) kW 4.5 + 1.5 · (Fgeo − 1) kW
Average overall heat transf coeff 0.40 W/(m2 K) 0.35 W/(m2 K)
Max infiltration rate at 50 P a N/A N/A

An addition of (0.025 + 0.02(Fgeo − 1)) · (Atemp − 130) is allowed to the installed electric
capacity for buildings with Atemp > 130m2 for BFS 2017:5. The corresponding addition for
BFS 2018:xx is (0.020 + 0.02(Fgeo − 1)) · (Atemp − 130).

The definition of energy performance used in the regulations is

 
P6 Eheat,i
i=1 Fgeo + Ecool,i + Etapw,i + Ef ac,i P Ei
EPpet = (2.13)
Aheated
where P Ei is the primary energy factor for the six different kinds of energy that
could be purchased for the building’s heating, cooling, tap water and facility
energy. Atemp symbolizes the area of the building that is heated to at least
10◦ C. The primary energy factors for different energy sources are listed in
table 5 for both current and proposed building regulations. The geographical
correction factor differs between 0.8 in the southern parts of Sweden to 1.8 in
the coldest regions and equals 1.0 in Stockholm with surroundings. [20]

Table 5: Primary energy factors

Energy BFS 2017:5 BFS 2018:xx

Electricity 1.6 1.85
District heating 1.0 0.95
District cooling 1.0 0.62
Biofuel 1.0 1.05
Oil 1.0 1.11
Gas 1.0 1.09

The Swedish NZEB-implementation has been criticized by Energiföreta-

gen, a branch organization gathering 400 Swedish companies within the energy

15
sector. The criticism concerns that the regulations focus too much on mini-
mizing bought energy instead of energy demand, an approach that does not
encourage the development of energy efficient thermal envelopes according to
Energiföretagen. [51]

2.5 Sustainable building certificates

Sustainable building is also partly consumer driven, since the demand for
dwellings with some kind of green building certificate seem to increase in
Sweden [1, 2]. Miljöbyggnad, Svanen, LEED and BREAM are examples of
certification schemes available for buildings. A few of these certificates focus
on energy performance only, while several include other requirements as well,
e.g. regarding use of materials and chemicals.

2.6 Costs

From the view of a building constructor that are selling the building imme-
diately after finishing the construction, low production cost and high selling
price are of great importance for short-term profitability. Parameters that
have an impact here are the price per salable square meter in the area and the
initial costs of the building construction. A green building certificate of some
kind can render a higher price, just as an attractive location. If the salable
area can be enlarged, by e.g. employing local ventilation systems, this too will
render more gains to the construction firm.
If the constructor will keep the building, the operational costs will be
of much greater interest for the economical calculation. It is likely that the
economical incentives for designing a long-term sustainable building are higher
in these cases, compared to when the building is sold directly. In an interview
with a manager at a large rental property owner in Stockholm, who installed
over 400 DV-systems in the 1980’s, the maintenance costs were high, but he
could still consider installing similar systems in new buildings [11].

2.7 An introduction to LCA

Life Cycle Analysis, LCA, is a standardized tool consisting of several method-

ological steps that are briefly introduced in this section. A short historical
review is also presented.

2.7.1 Purpose and standardization

The aim of performing an LCA is to capture the environmental impact from

the whole life cycle of a product or service, from acquisition of raw material
via production and use and all the way to disposal or recycling. Acquisition

16
and production are sometimes called upstream activities, while disposal or re-
cycling are called downstream, in relation to the use phase. LCA methodology
has the ability to decrease the risk of creating new environmental problems
while mitigating an existing one, which has made LCA to a useful tool within
the development of sustainable products, systems and services.
In the 1990’s an international standard for LCA methodology started to
develop within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Since
2006 ISO 14040 defines principles and framework of LCA and ISO 14044 con-
tains requirements and guidelines. [52]

2.7.2 Attributional or consequential LCA

LCA was developed in an industrial context to evaluate processes of different

kinds. The LCA methodology was created in a way were the environmental
impact was allocated to each step in the process. This is nowadays referred to
as Attributional LCA. Recently another approach, the Consequential LCA has
developed as a way to include or specifically assess the environmental impact
from changes on a higher systematic level. Consequential LCA is suitable for
assessing activities that by themselves change the system they are a part of,
e.g. consumption of marginal electricity or other commodities that have a
significant impact on the market. In attributional LCA, market and system
effects are neglected. [53]

2.7.3 Conventional or dynamic LCA

Also the time perspective in LCA can be handled using different approaches.
In Conventional LCA, as proposed by Levasseur et al. (2010), all environ-
mental impacts are assumed to appear in the first year of the lifespan under
investigation. For short lifespans this method can be appropriate, but when
assessing e.g. buildings with a lifespan of 50-75 years, the results can be some-
what misleading when it comes to the estimation of longterm effects from
GHG-emissions. The global warming impact from a long operational phase
can be overestimated with conventional LCA since the emissions produced in
the later years of the life span will include global warming potential during
perhaps the coming 100 years, although the assessment time span only re-
garded a much shorter period [54]. When comparing global warming results
from LCA studies it is therefore important to consider if a conventional or
dynamic approach was employed.

2.7.4 Levels of LCA

An LCA study can be performed on several levels of depth and be communi-

cated in different ways. A shallow screening may be done, using rough esti-
mations and predefined data, to quickly estimate what products or processes

17
that seem to be contributing the most to the environmental impact. A deeper
analysis can then be done, using more thoroughly gathered data, with the aim
of communicating the results internally within a company or externally to the
public. The different levels of detail and communication have different stan-
dards specified in ISO 14040. The requirements for externally communicated
LCA are higher than for internally communicated LCA. [52]

2.7.5 Methodological steps

The four crucial methodological steps in an LCA are goal and scope defini-
tion, inventory, impact assessment and interpretation [55]. LCA Software, like
SimaPro and GaBi, are commonly used when performing an LCA.
In the goal and scope phase, the system boundaries are clearly defined,
along with the purpose and depth of the study. A functional unit is defined,
describing the product, system or service that is to be assessed. The flow
of materials and resources necessary to deliver the product/system/service is
then defined and scaled to fit the functional unit. If an LCA of milk production
is to be done the natural functional unit would be 1 liter of milk with or
without a specified package. Also, the limitations regarding life time, life
cycle parts and impact categories is to be defined in this phase. [55]
The life cycle inventory phase, the LCI, is usually made with the help of
databases containing information of emissions associated with activities like
raw material extraction, industrial processes, energy usage etc [55]. Ecoinvent
3 and U.S. LCI database are two examples that are included in LCA software
like SimaPro and GaBi.
When the life cycle inventory of the flow of materials and resources has
been done, the impact assessment begins. Here the environmental impact from
the emissions are assessed, using some kind of impact assessment tool. There
are several impact categories, such as global warming, acidification, land use
etc. Each impact category can be evaluated using either midpoint or end-
point indicators. Midpoint indicators deliver results in terms of CO2eq , H + -
concentration etc while endpoint indicators give results in terms of disability-
adjusted loss of human life years (DALY), loss of species during a year (species.yr)
and increased societal cost due to extraction of material resources (USD). [56]
EDIP 2003, CML 2001, Eco-indicator 99, Impact 2002+, ReCiPe and TRACI
2 are examples of impact assessment methodologies/tools that are available.
A number of these methods are also included in SimaPro and GaBi.
There are differences between LCI and LCIA tools that sometimes have
the ability to affect the outcome of the result, and possibly also the decisions
that are to be based upon the LCA. Several researchers have adressed this
issue recently, and some of them are presented in section 3.2. When compar-
ing products or systems that mainly are made of the same material, an LCA
comparison using the same databases and LCIA methods might however be
more reliable than if two totally differently produced systems are to be com-

18
pared. The allocation of environmental impact might however differ between
methods.

2.8 Problem statement

It is increasingly common within the Swedish building sector to consider in-

stalling decentralized ventilation systems in multifamily buildings instead of
the usual centralized balanced ventilation. It is well known that smaller fans
have lower efficiency, and they may also generate more sound [19]. Also, many
small units might need more maintenance and have shorter lifetime when
compared to a few large units. On the other hand, large ducts require much
material in the installation phase and long ducts introduce more pressure
losses.
In a building with a significant heating demand, it is important that the
heat recovery is well designed and efficient, and the method for heating the air
may also have an effect on the environmental impact. In small air handling
units, an electric battery heater is generally used, while district heating is the
most common heat source in central systems in Sweden. Another important
difference between the systems is that the local units can be controlled by
the residents, which may lead to higher or lower energy use depending on the
behavior. There is also a risk that the air quality is negatively affected if the
residents are responsible for cleaning and changing filters.
Based on the complexity described above, it is assumed that a life cy-
cle analysis regarding energy use and environmental impact could help clarify
what system is more sustainable. This thesis aims to contribute to the knowl-
edge within this topic, using LCA as a tool.

2.9 Objective

In this thesis, the goal is to perform an LCA comparison of centralized and

decentralized ventilation systems for a multifamily building in the context of
Swedish climate and building regulations, with an extended system boundary
that includes primary energy for heating the supply air. The environmental
impact on Resources, Human health and Ecosystems from producing, using
and disposal of the two different ventilation schemes will be compared. The
life time considered is 50 years. The energy performance during operation
will be evaluated and discussed in relation to current and proposed Swedish
building regulations, BFS 2017:5 and BFS 2018:xx. The initial costs of the
systems will also be compared.
In a wider perspective the aim with this work is to provide an extended
basis for decisions within the building sector, regarding choice of ventilation
system in new energy efficient multifamily buildings in a nordic climate.

19
2.10 Thesis outline

The following chapters in this report contain a brief literature review of recent
research related to the topic, description of the methods used and a presenta-
tion of the results obtained. In the discussion, the reliability of the results are
discussed along with other aspects of the topic. Finally some conclusions from
this work are drawn and recommendations for further research are made.

20
3 Literature review

In this section relevant recent research within the topic are reviewed, and
studies regarding LCA methodology and software are also presented.

3.1 Previous research on decentralized ventilation

In a study by Kim and Baldini (2016) a decentralized system showed better

energy performance regarding fan power, mostly due to very short air ducts,
when compared to a central system. The scope was non-residential buildings in
different European cities, with Copenhagen as the one closest to Sweden, and
a case study was performed in one room with 9 m2 floor area [57]. The indoor
air quality and thermal comfort in residential buildings with decentralized
ventilation has been evaluated in at least two European studies, both with
positive results [58, 59].
A field study by Merzkirch et al (2016) concluded that decentralized units
were more energy efficient than a central system in terms of SFP, even if the
efficiencies of the smaller fans were lower. It should however be noticed that
the DV in the study had no duct work at all. Merzkirch et al also found
that units installed in the facade were sensitive to the differential pressure
caused by wind. This created imbalance between supply and exhaust which
can cause increased thermal losses through ex- or infiltration and decreased
heat recovery. Also, the recirculation rates were higher in decentralized units
than in central systems due to the proximity between air intake and outlet,
which will lead to lower indoor air quality. Lastly, Merzkirch et al found
that decentralized systems were noisier than central systems, given a certain
volume flow rate. [10]
LCA-comparisons between several combinations of heating and ventilation
systems in dutch residential buildings was performed by Blom et al (2010),
although none of the systems were fully decentralized. Among other combi-
nations, the authors compared mechanical exhaust ventilation and balanced
ventilation with heat recovery, in combination with heating by individual gas
boilers. Both ventilation systems had collective ducts with roof ventilators,
but the balanced system had local fan units and double duct length. It was
concluded that the positive effects due to heat recovery was reduced by the
negative effects of a higher fan power demand and increased material demand
for ducts and local units. It was also further concluded that the environmental
effects from maintenance during operation were insignificant compared to pro-
duction and operational energy use, regardless of system. Gas and electricity
consumption were the far most important factors in terms of impact on global
warming and human toxicity. [21]

21
3.2 The impact of LCA methodology

Speck et al (2015) and Herrmann and Moltesen (2015) evaluated the potential
effect that the choice of LCA-software can have on the outcome [60, 61]. Both
studies compared LCA-results from SimaPro and GaBi, and they both claim
that the choice of software and impact assessment tool affect the result, but it
is not possible to draw general conclusions about the differences in the result.
Herrmann and Moltesen (2015) assessed 100 random processes and found
that many results were similar in SimaPro and GaBi, while some varied a lot.
A few processes were inventoried very differently, with a highest comparative
ratio of 109 . Three impact assessment methodologies were compared within
each software, namely EDIP 2003, CML 2001 and Eco-indicator 99, Hierarchist
version. [61]
In the study by Speck et al (2015) LCA-results from SimaPro and GaBi
for 1 kg of aluminum, glass, corrugated board and PET were compared. The
impact assessment tools were Impact 2002+, ReCiPe and TRACI 2 and the
differing results were caused by differences in characterization factors in GABI
and SimaPro. Inventory and calculations were however performed similarly
in the two pieces of software. The variations in results between SimaPro and
GABI were slightly smaller when ReCiPe were used. [60]

3.3 Summary

Previous research indicate that decentralized ventilation systems are promising

in terms of fan energy consumption, but there is still room for more research
where air heating is included and a life cycle perspective is added. LCA results
can be affected by the choice of LCA software and impact assessment tool. In
this thesis, the choice was limited to the classroom version of SimaPro, since
this was provided by KTH. The choice of impact assessment tool was thereby
restricted, and ReCiPe Endpoint 2016 Hierarchist version was chosen since it
is a commonly used impact assessment tool.

22
4 Method

4.1 Case building

The building project Kvarteret Tårpilen is an eight story building complex

planned to be built by Bonava in Sollentuna, north of Stockholm. The build-
ing has a total floor area of 9,680 m2 and contains 109 apartments, stairwells,
garage, storages and other facilities. Floor level 9 consists of garage and stor-
ages and level 10 is the street level containing facilities and a few apartments.
Floor level 11 to 13 contain apartments only and are identically designed,
while level 14 to 16 partly resemble level 11 but also contain apartments that
are unique.
Heat is to be supplied by district heating and distributed with a radi-
ator system. Electrical floor heating will be supplied in bathrooms. There
are several central AHU:s, all located in the basement, and one AHU named
LB01 will serve all apartments and storage facilities. The ventilation air flow
rates are based on requirements from the client specified in table 6 and fulfill
the requirement of > 0.35 l/(sm2 ) in BFS 2017:5. The suggested supply air
temperature was 21◦ C in the beginning of the project, which equals the set
point for room air temperature, and no cooling of the ventilation air is em-
ployed. The client also required sound class B in apartments. Sound class B
requirements according to Swedish Standard SS 25267:2015 are presented in
table 7 [47].

Table 6: Air flow requirements from client

Space Supply air Extract air

Bedroom > 4 l/s and bed

Bathroom (with washing machine) 20 l/s
Bathroom if Aapartment < 50 m2 16 l/s
Separate shower 15 l/s
WC 0.35 l/(sm2 ) but > 2 l/s
Closet> 1 m2 10 l/s
Kitchen, base flow 10 l/s
Kitchen, forced flow 30 min/day 20 l/s

Table 7: A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level requirements for noise

from installations

Space Class B [dB]

Bedroom, living room 26

Bathroom, kitchen 35
Living room with cooking facility 30

All local supply air ducts within the apartments will be cast in the pre-
fabricated concrete ceiling. This means that these ducts will not be exchanged

23
during the lifetime of the concrete structure, and it also limits the dimension
of the ducts to a diameter of 125 mm. All other ducts will be designed so that
they are accessible for cleaning and exchange. The top floor apartments have
a sloping ceiling, so the supply ducts are cast inside the concrete floor instead
and supply diffusers are placed in the floor beneath every window. The AHU
LB01 is located in the basement, on floor level 9, while air intake and outlet
are made on the roof. Because of fire safety regulations, a fire gas fan is to be
installed alongside LB01 so that it can be bypassed in case of fire. Also, the
pressure drop over exhaust diffusers are designed to be approximately 70 P a
for fire security reasons. [5, 38]

4.2 Ventilation system design

The centralized ventilation in Tårpilen was designed by Structor Installation-

steknik AB in 2017 using the software MagiCAD for AutoCAD 2017. All nec-
essary data regarding products and design were retrieved from MagiCAD-files
made available by Structor. To enable comparison, the original MagiCAD-
model was reduced to only contain apartments served by AHU LB01, result-
ing in a total area of 6,728 m2 . LB is the term for AHU in Swedish. The
decentralized ventilation system that could have been installed in Tårpilen
was designed in MagiCAD during this thesis.

4.2.1 Duct design principles

The principles that governed the design of the CV system were mimicked
during the design of the DV system. This means that, besides supplying the
same flow rate and temperature at approximately the same sound pressure
level, the same kind of compromises between pressure drop, esthetics and price
were made when designing the decentralized system. The principles employed
were the following:

• Duct dimensions chosen so that pressure drop < 1 P a/m duct length
• Max 125 mm in diameter for supply ducts cast in prefab concrete ceiling
• Ducts in bathrooms hidden in the ceiling
• Ducts in other rooms placed in roof channels along walls
• Duct passages through shafts and bathroom are avoided
• Bends with 45◦ preferred over 90◦ when possible
• Bends with other angles than 45◦ or 90◦ avoided
• Sharp bends avoided in extract and exhaust ducts to enable cleaning
• Access panels for cleaning installed in extract and exhaust ducts > 10 m
and in supply and outdoor ducts > 20 m

24
 • Diffusers chosen so that the correct flow rate are delivered at a tolerable
sound pressure level

4.2.2 Choice of products

The products for the CV system were already chosen at the beginning of
this thesis. The same general methods for selecting products was used when
designing the DV system, which included consulting suppliers (Swegon and
Fläkt Woods) for recommendations regarding choice of suitable AHU. The
suppliers were given preliminary data regarding pressure drop in ducts and
flow rates in the systems, which resulted in choosing Swegon GOLD PX F 40
for the CV system and Minimaster RDKS for the DV system.
Swegon GOLD PX F 40 is an AHU with counterflow plate heat exchangers
for heat recovery, capable of handling air flow rates of up to 4 m3 /s. Heating
of the air is provided with district heating supplied heating coils placed in
the supply air stream after the heat recovery unit. The SFP at 3.7 m3 /s and
615 P a is reported to be 1.88 kW/(m3 /s) with clean filters.
Minimaster RDKS is a small AHU with a rotating heat recovery wheel,
meant for villas or apartments of maximum 155 m2 and flow rates of up to
65 l/s. It has an electric heating battery placed after the heat recovery unit,
and can be delivered with an LCD control panel for managing. It is possible
to manually adjust the air flow rate between two settings; one normal and one
low where the lower flow is meant to be applied when not at home. The SFP
stated by the supplier is 1.25 kW/(m3 /s) to 1.40 kW/(m3 /s) for flows from
20 l/s to 40 l/s at a system pressure drop of 70 P a.
Ducts from Lindab were chosen for both systems, since this is a common
design choice at Structor Installationsteknik AB, although the building com-
pany later on might choose another brand. Air diffusers were chosen so that
they were able to deliver the correct air flow rate at a low noise level. Other
components, like dampers, silencers etc, were chosen from different suppliers
depending on availability and price. When possible and suitable, the same
products were chosen in both systems.
A detailed list of products and references to product documentation can
be found in Appendix A.

4.2.3 CV system pressure drop

The modified MagiCAD model of the centralized system estimated the dimen-
sioning pressure drop to be 898 P a. This included the internal pressure drops
across the AHU, i.e. across filters and heat exchangers, data for which were
retrieved from Swegon (See Appendix A). Table 8 shows how the dimensioning
pressure drop was distributed in the CV system. Since the AHU was placed
in the cellar of the case building, the required pressure drop across extract air
devices was 70 P a for fire security reasons. This meant that the dimensioning

25
pressure drop was constituted by the extract/exhaust part of the system, and
that the pressure drop in the supply/outdoor part was adjusted to match this
pressure. The maximum pressure drop across supply air diffusers was assumed
to be 70 P a, which rendered 3 m in throw length of air. This could be lower in
practice, but it would not affect the dimensioning pressure drop in the system.

Table 8: Distribution of pressure drop in the CV system

Filter Heat recovery Heating coil Duct system

122 P a 230 P a 38 P a 508 P a

4.2.4 DV system design

All local ducts for distributing the supply air within the apartment were also
in this case assumed to be cast in the concrete ceiling, while extract, outdoor
and exhaust ducts were placed in accessible channels along interior walls. The
same air flow rates were also used in the DV model, resulting in the same
average flow rate of 0.46 l/(sm2 ). The AHU was mounted on a wall inside the
bathroom.
14 different local ventilation systems were designed in MagiCAD based
on floor level 11. The systems are described in table 10 and the layouts can
be viewed in Appendix B. 82 apartments were covered by these 14 systems,
and the remaining 27 apartments were allocated to a system based on number
of rooms, location in the building and floor area. Table 9 shows how many
of each system were used in the building. Outdoor air intake was placed on
facades facing the courtyard and exhaust air outlet was placed on facades
facing the street, except in 40 small apartments (system LB2, LB8, LB11 and
LB12) with access to only one facade where intake and outlet were made next
to each other. In 5 other apartments (system LB7), exhaust air was designed
to go out through the roof via a shaft for practical and esthetic reasons.

Table 9: Quantity of DV systems in energy model

System Quantity System Quantity

LB1 7 LB8 10
LB2 17 LB9 6
LB3 12 LB10 4
LB4 6 LB11 4
LB5 13 LB12 3
LB6 8 LB13 10
LB7 5 LB14 4

The dimensioning pressure drop in the 14 systems was constituted by two

main portions, namely the internal pressure drop across the AHU and the

26
pressure drop in the supply/outdoor duct system including diffusers. Data
of AHU pressure drops for different air flow rates was retrieved by mail from
Fläkt Woods [62]. The maximum pressure drop across supply diffusers was at
first chosen to be the same as in the CV system (KTI 100 from Fläkt Woods
with ∆p = 70 P a), in order to deliver the same throw length of air (6 3 m).
Table 10 shows the dimensioning total pressures of the DV systems. To
cover for the possibility that a maximum throw length of 1.5 m is fully suffi-
cient, another supply diffuser and a lower differential pressure setting was also
tested in the models (ULA 100(R1/RW) with ∆p = 30 P a). This made it
possible to analyze the potential energy saving benefits of allowing lower dif-
ferential pressures in DV systems. The two different system pressure settings
are referred to as High DV and Low DV respectively.

Table 10: Pressure drops and flow rates in DV systems

System Flow rate ∆p AHU High DV ∆p Low DV ∆p

LB1 35 l/s 25 P a 130 P a 90 P a

LB2 21 l/s 6 Pa 92 P a 52 P a
LB3 30 l/s 16 P a 135 P a 95 P a
LB4 35 l/s 25 P a 134 P a 94 P a
LB5 30 l/s 16 P a 134 P a 94 P a
LB6 40 l/s 33 P a 146 P a 106 P a
LB7 30 l/s 16 P a 137 P a 97 P a
LB8 21 l/s 6 Pa 95 P a 55 P a
LB9 30 l/s 16 P a 134 P a 94 P a
LB10 30 l/s 16 P a 136 P a 96 P a
LB11 30 l/s 16 P a 135 P a 95 P a
LB12 21 l/s 6 Pa 93 P a 53 P a
LB13 26 l/s 12 P a 107 P a 67 P a
LB14 30 l/s 16 P a 141 P a 101 P a

4.2.5 Sound calculations

The highest sound pressure levels in the apartments were calculated using a
formula sheet available at Structor. Both A-weighted and C-weighted levels
were evaluated, and silencers were installed in the DV systems so that the
requirements for sound class B could be met.

4.3 Energy models and calculations

The methods for assessing the energy performance of the ventilation systems
are presented in this section.

27
4.3.1 Energy performance estimations

The annual energy performance of the two systems were estimated using the
building simulation software IDA ICE 4.7.1. The AHU energy results from
IDA ICE simulations were used to calculate the annual and life cycle final
energy demand for the ventilation systems.
The total installed electric effect for heating was calculated as described
in 4 in section 2.4.2. The electric battery in Minimaster RDKS has an effect
of 500 W and the electric floor heating was estimated with 60 W/m2 and an
average heating area of 8 m2 per bathroom.
The different ventilation systems effect on building EPpet was calculated,
using the CV system as baseline, with the indicator ∆EPpet as defined in
equation 4.1. ∆Eheat and ∆Ef ac is the change in building district heating and
electricity demand respectively and PE is the corresponding primary energy
factor. ∆EPpet when changing the supply air temperature from 21◦ C to 16◦ C
was calculated in both CV and DV models, with the CV model at 21◦ C as
baseline.

∆Eheat · P EDH + ∆Ef ac · P EEl

∆EPpet = (4.1)
Aheated

4.3.2 CV system energy model

The original IDA ICE model made by Structor was modified so that only the
109 apartments served by AHU LB01 were assessed. All other general settings
were kept, including wind and climate data for Sollentuna from 2016. Each
apartment was represented by a zone connected to the central AHU LB01.
Every zone had a specified constant air flow rate of 21 to 40 l/s, depending on
apartment size, and the supply air temperature was set to 21◦ constant. To
investigate the impact of supply air temperature, this was altered to 16◦ C in
one simulation. Data for dimensioning pressure drop, fan efficiencies and heat
recovery efficiencies were used as input in the IDA ICE models.
The total pressure drop in the LB01-system was retrieved from MagiCAD
and inserted in the model. Fan efficiencies, as defined in equation 4.2, were
set to 62.7% and 63.0% for supply and exhaust fans respectively and the heat
recovery efficiency was set to 82.6%, all according to data from the supplier
of the AHU Swegon Gold PX F 040 which can be found in Appendix A.
The equation used for static fan efficiency was

∆p · qv
ηf an = (4.2)
Pel
where ∆p equals the static pressure drop in the system including internal AHU
pressure losses, qv is the ventilation flow rate and Pel is the power required for
the motor that drives the fan.

28
4.3.3 DV system energy model

The CV system energy model was used as a basis to create a model for the
building with a DV system installed. The AHU LB01 was replaced by the 14
type systems LB1-LB14, and each apartment was connected to one of these
systems. The allocation of systems can be seen in table 9. The operational
energy for the High DV and Low DV systems were modeled, with there as-
sociated pressure drops from table 10 inserted in IDA ICE. The possibility
for residents to lower the ventilation flow rate when leaving the apartment
was neglected. Also in the DV models, the impact of lowering the supply air
temperature to 16◦ C was investigated.
Fan static efficiency was calculated from data retrieved from Fläkt Woods,
the producer of the small AHU Minimaster RDKS. Motor power data was
available for three different flow rates at a pressure drop of 70 P a, result-
ing in average fan efficiencies of 9.30% and 12.78% for supply and exhaust
fans respectively. Table 11 shows the data used in these calculations. The
average efficiency values were used in both DV energy models. The heat re-
covery efficiency of the rotary heat recovery wheel in the AHU was set to
81.7%, according to data retrieved from Fläkt Woods. See Appendix A for
documentation.
Table 11: Input data for Minimaster RDKS fan efficiency calculations

∆p [P a] qv [m3 /s] Pel,supply /Pel,exhaust [W ] ηf an,supply /ηf an,exhaust [%]

70 0.02 15/10 9.33/14.00

70 0.03 22/16 9.55/13.13
70 0.04 31/25 9.03/11.20

4.4 Cost estimations

The initial costs were assumed to be of greatest interest for the building com-
pany and for Structor Installationsteknik AB, since the case building is a
tenant-owned apartment building. Also, it was difficult to find a reliable way
of comparing the costs for maintenance, considering if the private apartment
owner are to be responsible for maintenance themselves in the DV case. A
comparison of operational costs between the CV and DV systems was therefore
regarded to be unreliable.
Initial costs for products in the systems were estimated with the software
Sektionsdata Luft, using price data updated in april 2018. The price for
Swegon GOLD PX F 40 was retrieved directly from Swegon by email, and
the price for Minimaster RDKS was retrieved from Luftbutiken.se [63]. Also
the cost for exchanging products with shorter life time than 50 years were
roughly estimated, without including any discount rate or price change. The
cost calculations can be found in Appendix D.

29
 Time required for installation was estimated by Sektionsdata Luft, for
all products available there. Time for installing Minimaster RDKS including
control panel was assumed to be 3 h per unit. Prices regarding insulation
materials were calculated as a subcontractor cost in Sektionsdata Luft, and
the recommended addition of 8% was added for overhead costs. The estimated
cost for installation was 188 SEK/h with an addition of 295% for overhead
costs for the contractor. [64]
The break even point for short term profitability of choosing a DV system,
from the building constructor point of view, was calculated using the following
equation:

∆Cinitial
∆Asale = (4.3)
Parea
where ∆Asale is the change in salable area, ∆Cinitial is the change in initial
cost compared with the corresponding values for a building with a centralized
ventilation system. Parea is the selling price per m2 at the location which for
the case building was estimated to 40,000 SEK/m2 at the time of this study
[65].

4.5 LCA Goal and scope

The LCA was performed with the software SimaPro 8.4.0.0 Classroom ver-
sion. The study is a comparison between two systems and the LCA-setup
was based on the requirements specified in ISO 14040:2006. The results were
communicated only internally at Structor Installationsteknik AB and KTH,
which is why no external reviewer was employed.
The intended outcome of the LCA comparison was to be able to dis-
tinguish if there are differences in sustainability between a centralized and
decentralized ventilation system in a new multifamily building in Stockholm
containing only apartments. The intention was that the knowledge from this
comparison could be used by the consultants at Structor Installationsteknik
AB, so that the more sustainable solution can be recommended to their clients.
Impact categories were chosen after a first screening LCA and are further
presented in section 4.5.8. Attributional LCA methodology was employed,
using a conventional approach regarding timeline.

4.5.1 Functional unit

The ventilation systems to be compared were modeled in detail as described

in section 4.2. The function of the systems is to continuously provide fresh
air to residents at a minimum rate of 0.35 l/(sm2 ) without causing draft or
unpleasant levels of noise. The flows were adapted to the requirements from
the client specified in table 6, which resulted in 0.46 l/(sm2 ) in average. The

30
supply air temperature was kept at 21◦ C and sound class B requirements were
met in both systems. The DV systems were designed so that approximately
the same air quality is likely to be delivered in all systems. This resulted in a
functional unit of 0.46 l/(sm2 ) of 21◦ C air supplied to a 6,728 m2 apartment
building during 50 years. The effects from lowering the supply air temperature
to 16◦ C was also investigated.

4.5.2 Reference flow

The reference flows in the systems are constituted by lists of product parts
and materials needed for the two different systems, scaled to match the func-
tional unit. One base scenario was examined, which included total exchange
of products according to minimum expected lifetime stated in environmental
product declarations (EPD). Table 12 presents the products in both system.
Detailed descriptions and data sources can be found in Appendix A.

Table 12: Reference flows in CV and DV systems

Product category Quantity in CV Quantity in DV

AHU 2p 327 p
AHU filter sets 50 p 5,450 p
Liquid crystal displays N/A 327 p
Bypass fan unit 1p N/A
Ducts and duct parts 16,500 kg 5,535 kg
Large outdoor grill 1p N/A
Large exhaust hood 1p N/A
Small exhaust air devices 8p 8p
Silencers for rectangular ducts 6p N/A
Silencers for circular ducts 252 p 252 p
Flow dampers for rectangular ducts 1p N/A
Flow dampers for circular ducts 150 p N/A
Fire dampers for circular ducts 112 p N/A
Stone wool fire insulation 88 m3 N/A
Stone wool condensation insulation 10 m3 N/A
Polyethylene condensation insulation N/A 10 m3
Supply air devices 263 p 263 p
Floor supply air devices 114 p 114 p
Bathroom extract air devices 134 p 134 p
Kitchen extract air devices 218 p 218 p

Products with life expectancies of >25 years were assumed to be ex-

changed once, while >15 years life time rendered three exchanges during 50
years. Kitchen extract hoods had an expected life time of >50 years, but it
was assumed that residents renovate their kitchen once during 50 years and
that the kitchen hood was exchanged at the same time.

31
4.5.3 Material data and assumptions

All products inserted in the MagiCAD models were automatically listed in

so-called Bills of materials. These bills were extracted from MagiCAD and
completed with parts that could not be modeled in MagiCAD.
Stone wool was assumed to be the standard insulation material in the
CV system, both for fire protection and heat/condensation insulation. In the
DV system styrofoam pipe insulation was chosen, as recommended by Fläkt
Woods. The area of galvanized steel products subjected to zinc coating process
was estimated from the bill of materials from MagiCAD, or calculated from
dimensions given in product data sheets.
The following raw materials were taken into account in the environmental
assessment: Steel, iron, zinc, aluminium, stone wool, glass wool, glass fibre,
polyethylene and polystyrene. Data regarding total weight and material com-
position were retrieved from product data sheets and EPD:s in all cases where
such data could be found. All material data and their corresponding references
can be found in Appendix A.
Some asssumptions regarding materials had to be made. The material
composition of galvanized steel was set to 98.1% steel and 1.9% zinc, based
on the EPD declaration of Swegon GOLD AHU [66]. Aluminium-zinc steel
material content was set to 98.0% steel, 1.1% aluminium and 0.9% zinc, also
based on the EPD declaration of Swegon GOLD AHU [66]. EPD for AHU
Minimaster could not be found, so the same relative composition of materials
as for Swegon Gold PX was assumed regarding filters, while the motors were
assumed to stand for 50% of the total weight and the weight ratio between
galvanized steel and aluminium was set to 3:1. EPD for aerofoil bypass fan
could not be found, but both total and motor weight was found. The weight
ratio between casing and fan was assumed to be 2:1. The LCD-screen in the
control panel for Minimaster AHU was assumed to be 7 times 8 cm.

4.5.4 Production processes

The production processes of the above mentioned raw materials were inven-
toried. Transport from raw material production sites to final product facility
was neglected, due to lack of reliable data and the assumption that it would
have a very small impact on the results. In the case of galvanized steel, the
process of zinc coating was combined with production of un-alloyed steel. The
amount of alu-zinc coated steel was very small and the alu-zinc-coating pro-
cess was therefore neglected. The amount of aluminium was however included,
since aluminium production is an energy intensive process.
Energy for production of products was not included, except for ducts
where medium voltage electricity from Swedish grid was assumed in SimaPro,
to the amount stated in the EPD from Lindab.
Transports from the final production sites to the building site were in-

32
cluded and assumed to take place with a 16-32 metric ton lorry [EURO6).
Products from Finland were assumed to travel also by sea with a transoceanic
ship. All product sites were located in northern Europe.
Estimations of transport distances from production sites and zinc coating
areas are presented in Appendix C.

4.5.5 Energy and maintenance processes

Electricity for operation during the 50 years of system life time was assessed
by low voltage electricity from Swedish grid. District heating was assessed
by combining data for different production methods, according to proportions
reported in the Swedish district heating network for 2016 []. Eight production
methods from the statistics were included, and the 4.5% of the total production
produced by other means were split in eight parts and added to the specified
production processes. The small amount of peat fuels used were included in
the natural gas assessment. Table 14 shows how electricity and district heating
were assessed in SimaPro.
Transport for maintenance technician was included in the assessment. In
the CV system, it was assumed that the technician travels from Stockholm
City to Sollentuna in a fossil fueled light-duty truck twice per year. In the DV
systems, the maintenance transport was roughly estimated to be the double
due to the large amount of AHU:s. Filters were assumed to be exchanged once
every year in all systems.

4.5.6 Waste scenario

Aluminium, steel and zinc materials were assumed to be recycled to 100%

at end of life. Stone and glass wool were assumed to be sent to a sorting
plant for waste mineral wool. All materials were allocated to a waste type
in SimaPro, and sent to the corresponding waste treatment. Waste transport
from Sollentuna to the nearest located recycling facility was estimated with a
16-32 metric ton lorry (EURO6), as in all other product transport estimations.

4.5.7 LCI - Inventory analysis

The LCI was done using a process chain analysis (PCA) using pre-defined ma-
terials and processes in SimaPro Ecoinvent 3 database. Most processes were
assessed using market data in Ecoinvent 3 database. In market data, all en-
vironmental impact all the way from raw material extraction, transport from
extraction to production site, production energy etc, is included. Transforma-
tion data sets were used when no market data was available in Ecoinvent 3.
Nordic electricity mix was not available in Ecoinvent 3, which is why Swedish
electricity mix was chosen instead.
Table 13 presents the datasets that were chosen to represent materials and

33
transport associated with the products needed for the ventilation systems and
table 14 displays the corresponding data for electricity and district heating
processes. The waste treatment processes are presented in table 15.

Table 13: Products and transport assessment in SimaPro

Process Dataset in SimaPro Ecoinvent 3 Data type

Galvanized steel Steel, unalloyed(GLO)|market for| Material

Zinc(GLO)|market for| Material
Zinc coat, pieces(GLO)|market for| Processing
Alu-zinc Steel, unalloyed(GLO)|market for| Material
Aluminium, primary, ingot Material
(IAI Area, EU27 & EFTA)|market for| Material
Zinc(GLO)|market for|
Aluminium, plates Aluminium, wrought alloy(GLO)|market for| Material
Aluminium, mesh Aluminium, primary, cast alloy slab Material
from continuous casting(GLO)|market for|
Non-galvanized steel Steel, low-alloyed(GLO)|market for| Material
Cast iron Cast iron(GLO)|market for| Material
LCD screen Display, liquid crystal, 17 inches(GLO)|market for| Material
Stone wool Stone wool(GLO)|market for| Material
Glass wool Glass wool mat(GLO)|market for| Material
Glass fibre Glass fibre(GLO)|market for| Material
Polyethylene Polyehtylene, linear low density, granulate Material
(GLO)|market for|
Polystyrene Polystyrene, general purpose(GLO)|market for| Material
Tube insulation Tube insulation, elastomere(GLO)|market for| Material
Road transport Transport, freight, lorry 16-32 metric ton, Transport
EUR6(GLO)|market for|
Sea transport Transport, freight, sea, transoceanic ship Transport
(GLO)|market for|

Table 14: Operational energy assessment in SimaPro

Process Dataset in SimaPro Ecoinvent 3 Percent

Electricity Electricity, low voltage (SE)|market for| 100.0%

DH Biofuel Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas 41.5%
(SE)|heat and power co-generation, wood chips, 6667 kW|
DH Mun. waste Heat, for reuse in municipal waste incineration only 25.1%
(SE)|market for|
DH Waste heat Heat, in chemical industry (RER) |market for| 8.5%
DH Heat pumps Heat, central or small-scale, other than natural gas 7.9%
(Europe without Switzerland)
|heat production, at heat pump 30kW, allocation exergi|
DH Natural gas Heat, central or small-scale, natural gas 6.3%
(Europe without Switzerland)
|market for heat, central or small-scale, natural gas|
DH El. boiler Electricity, medium voltage (SE)|market for| 4.5%
DH Coal Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas 3.4%
(SE)|heat and power co-generation, hard coal|
DH Oil Heat, district or industrial, other than natural gas 2.8%
(SE)|heat and power co-generation, oil|

34
 Table 15: Waste recycling assessment in SimaPro

Waste type Ecoinvent 3 dataset Data type

Steel Steel and iron(waste treatment)(GLO) Waste

|recycling of steel and iron|
Aluminium Aluminium (waste treatment)(GLO) Waste
|recycling of aluminium|
Zincs Steel and iron(waste treatment)(GLO) Waste
|recycling of steel and iron|
Glass Waste mineral wool(Europe without Switzerland) Waste
|treatment of waste mineral wool, sorting plant|
Other (Stone wool) Waste mineral wool(Europe without Switzerland) Waste
|treatment of waste mineral wool, sorting plant|

4.5.8 LCIA - Impact assessment tools and software

ReCiPe 2016 Endpoint (Hierarchist version) V1.00 was used as impact as-
sessment tool in SimaPro. A time horizon of 100 years is considered in the
Hierarchist version regarding global warming, ozone depletion and ionizing
radiation. This version is the default setting in SimaPro and is based on "the
scientific consensus with regard to the time frame and plausibility of impact
mechanisms" according to the RIVM report. [56]
The four human impact categories and the four ecosystem impact cate-
gories that were most affected in the first screening LCA was further assessed
in the study. Also the two resource impact categories were assessed. Table 16
displays the included categories and there associated units when assessed with
the endpoint method. The unit USD 2013 was used for resource depletion,
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) for assessing the impact on human
health and loss of species during a year was the unit for ecosystem effects.

Table 16: Assessed impact categories

Impact category Endpoint unit

Fossil resource scarcity USD 2013

Mineral resource scarcity USD 2013
Fine particulate matter formation DALY
Global warming human health DALY
Human non-carcinogenic toxicity DALY
Human carcinogenic toxicity DALY
Land use species.yr
Global warming terrestrial ecosystems species.yr
Water consumption terrestrial ecosystems species.yr
Terrestrial acidification species.yr

35
4.5.9 Interpretation of results

The results were interpreted in terms of endpoint values. No weighting of

impact categories were made. The system results were not normalized, only
compared in relation to each other. A 2% cutoff was made when analyzing
the process contributions to the environmental impact, meaning that the pro-
cesses with an impact of less than 2% were lumped together under Remaining
processes, but still were included in the total impact assessment.

4.5.10 Sensitivity analysis

The Classroom version of SimaPro does not include any uncertainty analysis
tools. A sensitivity analysis was instead performed manually, by altering the
input values for the most critical processes. Since operational energy and the
relative use of district heating and electricity turned out to be crucial for the
environmental impact, the following alterations were investigated:
Changing supply air temperature from 21◦ C to 16◦ C
This change lowered the air heating demand in the systems dramatically, and
the potential impact from savings in fan power was more visible. The con-
sequential impact from the increase in total building heating demand was
included.
Using district heating for air heating in both CV and DV systems
Some AHU:s for DV systems can use water for heating the air. The effects
from such a design was investigated here.
Omitting industrial waste heat from the assessment
In some evaluations of district heating generation, industrial waste heat is
assumed to have no environmental impact since it is excess heat that otherwise
not would have been of any use. By omitting the industrial waste heat from
assessment, the impact on the results were controlled.
Reducing district heating and electricity demand in all systems with 50%
The impact of errors in the energy modeling was assessed here, and the change
in relative impact from the different phases in the life cycle was observed.
Increasing fan energy in the DV system to match that of the CV system
In the case of a poor installation of a DV system, the potential energy savings
might be lost. This scenario was investigated here.
Using European electricity mix instead of Swedish
Swedish electricity was exchanged for the dataset Electricity, low voltage (Eu-
rope without Switzerland)|market for| in order to find out the impact of elec-
tricity generation and/or location.

36
5 Results

Here the results regarding energy performance, building regulation compliance,

cost and LCA are presented.

5.1 Operational energy

Annual and life cycle energy consumption for the ventilation systems are re-
ported in this section, along with their effects on building EPpet . Figure 5.1
to 5.2 present the results graphically.

140 135
119 119
120
Annual Energy [M W h]

100 100
100

80 75 75
605858 61 60
60
42
40

20
0 0
0
g

ity
ns

U
tin

tin

H
Fa

ic

lA
a

tr
he

he

ec

ta
ir

El

To
ric
A

ist
D

CV System High DV System Low DV System

Figure 5.1: Annual energy consumption for fans and air heating in the CV and DV
systems at 21◦ C supply air temperature, separated by energy source.

5.1.1 Energy consumption for fans

At 21◦ C supply air temperature the energy demand for fans in the High and
Low DV systems were 19% and 44% less respectively than in the CV system.
At a supply air temperature of 16◦ C the energy for fans increased with about
1% in all systems due to higher density of the air.

37
5.1.2 Energy consumption for air heating

There was no significant difference between the heating energy demand in the
systems. The difference lies instead in the heating method. A total amount
of 402 M W h/year was recovered through the plate heat exchanger in the CV
system. The heat recovered in each DV system was 404 M W h/year. In the
High DV system, air heating energy was about the same amount as fan energy,
while in the Low DV case fan energy was 18% lower than air heating energy.
When the supply air temperature was altered to 16◦ C, the annual heating
energy in the AHU:s decreased with 85% (50 M W h) while the total heating
energy in the building (AHU heating + radiator system) increased with 5%
(22 M W h). This is probably due to the fact that it is more efficient from a
heat transfer perspective to heat the air directly than indirectly. An optimal
supply air temperature could most likely be found somewhere between the two
temperatures evaluated here.

5.1.3 Life cycle energy

When looking at the bought energy during the whole life cycle, the DV sys-
tems had 12% and 26% lower AHU energy consumption than the CV system
at a supply air temperature of 21◦ C. See figure 5.2. At 16◦ C supply air tem-
perature the corresponding results were 17% and 40% lower consumption for
the High and Low DV systems respectively, when compared to the CV system
at the same temperature.

5.2 Compliance with Swedish building regulations

The energy performance of the ventilations systems are here presented in re-
lation to building regulations.

5.2.1 Installed electric capacity

The maximum allowance of installed electric capacity for heating in the case
building was 169.4 kW according to the current regulations in BFS 2017:5 and
136.4 kW according to the BFS 2018:xx proposal. The total effect of electric
heaters in 109 units of Minimaster RDKS was 54.5 kW , which is well beneath
these limits. When including the electric effect installed for floor heating in
bathrooms the total installed capacity became 106.8 kW .

5.2.2 Effects on building EPpet

From a regulation perspective it is beneficial to avoid grid electricity, which is

why the Low DV system with 16◦ C had the best impact on building EPpet .

38
 6.76
5.93 5.93
6

Life Cycle Energy [GW h]

4.99 4.99

4 3.74
3.02

0 0
0
g

ty

U
tin

H
i
ic

A
a

tr
he

ec

al
t
t

El

To
ric
ist
D

CV System High DV System Low DV System

Figure 5.2: Bought operational energy for fans and air heating in the different sys-
tems during a 50 years life cycle at 21◦ C supply air temperature.

The results for High DV 16◦ C and Low DV 21◦ C in figure 5.3 shows
that it was more powerful to lower the supply air temperature than to reduce
the pressure drop with 40 P a. The increase in building heating energy that
occurred when lowering the air supply temperature was included, which is why
∆EPpet is positive for the CV system 16◦ C. The High DV 21◦ C system also
had positive values. The data behind the calculations is listed in table 17.

Table 17: Input data for ∆EPpet calculations

System 21◦ C 16◦ C

CV Reference ∆Eheat = 22.425 M W h

∆Ef ac = 0.643 M W h

High DV ∆Eheat = −60.376 M W h ∆Eheat = −37.951 M W h

∆Ef ac = 44.628 M W h ∆Ef ac = −4.428 M W h

Low DV ∆Eheat = −60.376 M W h ∆Eheat = −37.951 M W h

∆Ef ac = 25.142 M W h ∆Ef ac = −23.991 M W h

39
 10

5 3.5 3.3 3.8

∆EPpet [kW h/m2 ] 1.6
0
−1.6
−3
−5
−6.7 −6.6
−10
−11.4 −12
−15
:5

x
:x
17

18
20

20
E

E
P

P
CV 16◦ High DV 21◦ High DV 16◦ Low DV 21◦ Low DV 16◦

Figure 5.3: Effects on building energy performance at different air supply tempera-
tures, with the CV system at 21◦ C as reference, in relation to current and proposed
primary energy factors (BFS 2017:5 and BFS 2018:xx).

5.3 Costs

The estimated initial costs for the different ventilation systems are presented
in table 18. The DV system was approximately 990,000 SEK (27%) more
expensive to install compared to the CV system. The main reason is that the
cost for 109 small AHU:s is about 10 times the cost of one large AHU, which
overshoot the savings from the lower demand for duct work and fire protection
products. Assuming that the selling price is 40,000 SEK/m2 , at least 25 m2
of extra salable area must be enabled if the increased initial costs are to be
overcome in this case.
Table 18: Estimated initial costs [T housand SEK 2018]

Item CV DV

Materials excl. CV insulation 2,650 3,950

Installation 630 680
Subcontracting (CV insulation) 360 -
Total initial costs 3,640 4,630

If costs for exchanging products during the life cycle of 50 years are in-
cluded, the total costs for the CV and DV systems are raised with 13% and

40
112% respectively. Note that costs for maintenance were not included, only
purchase and installation of products that needed replacement after 17 or 25
years. Neither price changes nor discount rate were taken into account. The
replacement costs can be reduced if only parts of the AHU:s are exchanged,
instead of the whole units. Nevertheless it is probable that the total invest-
ment costs during 50 years of operation would be considerably higher for the
DV system, considering the large amount of AHU:s that need maintenance.
For a complete life cycle cost analysis, maintenance and potential savings from
lower energy costs should be included.

5.4 LCA results

The results from the LCA are presented here, first in terms of damage to
the three lumped impact areas; Resources, Human health and Ecosystems.
Then the results for the chosen impact categories are revealed, whereafter
the detailed results of process contributions within each impact category are
presented. The impact of supply air temperature are taken into account in the
figures for damage assessment of Resources, Human health and Ecosystems,
while the other graphical and tabulated results are valid only for 21◦ C. The
system with the highest damage value in each category scored 100% and the
results should only be compared within each damage category.

5.4.1 Damage assessment at 21◦ C supply air

When looking at figure 5.4 it can be seen that the results regarding resource
scarcity clearly favors the DV systems. The results for damage on ecosystems
also indicated that the DV systems were better, while the human health results
showed more modest differences between the systems with Low DV as the best.
The process contribution results and the sensitivity analysis will show that the
main reason behind these results is that the district heating in the CV system
was exchanged with electricity in the DV systems.

5.4.2 Damage assessment at 16◦ C supply air

Figure 5.5 shows that the differences between the systems grew smaller when
the supply air temperature was lowered and the main heating task was al-
located to the district heating supplied radiator system instead. Especially
regarding Resources the big differences were erased. The lower fan energy in
the DV systems still made them more environmentally friendly in this assess-
ment than the CV system. The increase in total building heating demand that
followed from lowering the supply air temperature was included in all systems.

41
 100 100 100
100 90

Relative damage %
79 78
80
62 66
60 54

40

20

s
es

th

em
rc

al

st
ou

he

y
es

os
an
R

Ec
um
H

CV System 21◦ High DV System 21◦ Low DV System 21◦

Figure 5.4: Damage assessment comparison between the CV and the DV systems in
terms of Resource scarcity, Human health and Ecosystems.

100 100 100

100 92
87 87
Relative damage %

80 76 78
72
60

40

20

0
s
es

th

em
rc

al

st
ou

he

y
es

os
an
R

Ec
um
H

CV System 16◦ High DV System 16◦ Low DV System 16◦

Figure 5.5: Damage assessment comparison between the CV and the DV systems in
terms of Resource scarcity, Human health and Ecosystems.

5.4.3 Impact categories

Figure 5.6 to 5.8 displays the results per impact category at 21◦ C supply air.
First, the resource scarcity results indicate that the DV systems are much
better in terms of Fossil resource scarcity, while the differences in Mineral

42
resource scarcity are quite small between the systems. Different minerals are
depleted to different extents in the DV and CV systems, as will be shown later
on.

100 100
100 94 89
Relative damage % 80
61
60 53
40
20
0
S

S
R

R
sil

al
er
s
Fo

in
M

CV System High DV System Low DV System

Figure 5.6: Relative damage on the two resource impact categories Fossil resource
scarcity and Mineral resource scarcity.

100 100 100 100

100 89 90
84 83
Relative damage %

80 77 73
67 63
60

40

20

0
rt

an

rc

rc
pa

ca

ca
m

n-
hu
ne

an
no
Fi

um
W

an
G

H
um
H

CV System High DV System Low DV System

Figure 5.7: Relative damage on the four human health impact categories Fine par-
ticulate matter formation, Global warming human health, Human non-carcinogenic
toxicity and Human carcinogenic toxicity.

When looking at figure 5.7 we see that the DV systems perform bet-

43
ter regarding Fine particulate matter formation and Global warming human
health while the High DV system is the worst when it comes to Human non-
carcinogenic toxicity and Human carcinogenic toxicity. In terms of human
toxicity, the CV system seem to be better, although it is not clear if the
differences are significant if all uncertainties were taken into account.
In the impact assessment of damages on the ecosystem, the CV system
scores highest for the categories Land use, Global warming terrestrial ecosys-
tems and Terrestrial acidification and lowest for Water consumption terrestrial
ecosystems. The main reason behind these results are the district heating pro-
duction embedded in the CV system, and the greater usage of electricity in
the DV systems. Figure 5.8 shows the results graphically.

100 100 100 100

100
84
Relative damage %

80 73 77 77
72
63 67
60
60

40

20

0
e

rr

id

rr
us

te

te
ac
nd

ns
rr
La

Te

co
G

er
at
W

CV System High DV System Low DV System

Figure 5.8: Relative damage on the four ecosystem impact categories Land use,
Global warming terrestrial ecosystems, Terrestrial acidification and Water consump-
tion terrestrial ecosystems.

44
5.4.4 Process contributions - Resources

In this section the results at 21◦ C supply air are presented in tables showing the
values in USD. This enables the impact results to be compared also between
categories, although it is important to remember the limitations of this study
when doing so.
The fossil resources that were inventoried for Fossil resource scarcity are
crude oil, natural gas and hard coal, according to the inventory result file in
SimaPro. These resources are related to energy consumption and the back-
ground processes associated with this such as infrastructure, transport and
combustion. Table 19 displays the results for the evaluated systems. The re-
sults were quite dependent on the impact of district heating production, and
the industrial waste heat process could be omitted if the heat is considered
to be dumped unless used for district heating. The large differences between
the CV system and the DV systems would then be somewhat reduced, and
the High DV and Low DV would score 71% and %61 respectively of the CV
system, instead of 62% and 54%.

Table 19: Fossil resource scarcity by process [USD 2013]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 16,380 26,162 21,891

Heat, waste incineration 12,562 - -
Heat, from industry 7,431 - -
Heat, from natural gas 5,966 - -
Zinc coat, pieces 2,368 1,123 1,123
Heat, from oil 1,961 - -
Heat, from wood chips 1,568 - -
Steel, unalloyed 1,543 769 769
Display, liquid crystal - 1,528 1,528
Aluminium, wrought alloy 297 1,287 1,287
Heat, from heat pump 1,180 - -
Polystyrene 455 953 953
Polyethylene - 677 677
Remaining processes 3,081 1,828 1,828
Aluminium recycling -372 -1,334 -1,334
Steel and iron recycling -1,255 -628 -628
Total of all processes 53,166 32,366 28,095

The results in table 20 show that the minerals used in the electricity pro-
cess dominated in terms of Mineral resource scarcity and that the galvanized
steel production came second. Since more electricity was used in the DV sys-
tems and more galvanized steel was needed for the CV system, the total results
were in the same range. The inventory result file in SimaPro revealed that
the values for uranium, iron and copper were much higher in the DV systems

45
 Table 20: Mineral resource scarcity by process [USD 2013]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 689 1,101 921

Zinc coat, pieces 693 328 328
Steel, unalloyed 407 202 202
Display, liquid crystal - 120 120
Aluminium, wrought alloy 24 104 104
Cast iron 4 81 81
Heat, waste incineration 69 - -
Zinc 41 22 22
Remaining processes 76 15 15
Aluminium recycling -32 -114 -114
Steel and iron recycling -410 -205 -205
Total of all processes 1,560 1,655 1,475

because of the higher electricity generation and transmission and the need for
more cast iron for all fan motors. In the CV system the depletion of Lead,
Zinc and Silver were higher than in the DV systems, mostly due to the high
demand for galvanized steel. The high value of remaining CV processes came
from other district heating processes and medium voltage electricity. The recy-
cling values for aluminium, steel and iron were higher than the demand visible
in the table. The reason behind this is that Remaining processes contain other
steel and aluminium processes. The relatively high turnover of aluminium in
the DV systems came from the large amount of fans.

5.4.5 Process contributions - Human health

In this section the results at 21◦ C supply air are presented in tables showing
the values in DALY. This enables the impact results to be compared also
between categories, although it is important to remember the limitations of
this study when doing so.
Sulfur dioxide and particulates with a size of < 2.5 µm (PM 2.5) are
the dominating substances that were inventoried for Fine particulate matter
formation and table 21 displays how the different processes contributed to
these emissions. Electricity was the single process that generates the most,
followed by district heating processes with waste incineration on top and metal
processes next. If the process waste heat from industry is set to zero, the score
for High DV and Low DV would be raised to 83% and 72% of the CV system
score.
The main GHG-emissions that were evaluated for Global warming human
health in this LCA study were fossil CO2 and CH4 , N2 O, CO2 from land
transformation and SF6 . Electricity contributes the most to the results in all

46
 Table 21: Fine particulate matter formation by process [DALY]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.232 0.370 0.310

Heat, waste incineration 0.103 - -
Zinc coat, pieces 0.087 0.041 0.041
Heat, from wood chips 0.064 - -
Steel, unalloyed 0.048 0.024 0.024
Display, liquid crystal - 0.039 0.039
Heat, from industry 0.041 - -
Cast iron 0.001 0.015 0.015
Heat, from heat pump 0.023 - -
Heat, from natural gas 0.022 - -
Aluminium, wrought alloy 0.014 0.062 0.062
Remaining processes 0.045 0.015 0.015
Aluminium recycling -0.019 -0.067 -0.067
Steel and iron recycling -0.045 -0.022 -0.022
Total of all processes 0.617 0.477 0.417

Table 22: Global warming human health by process [DALY]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.211 0.337 0.282

Heat, waste incineration 0.082 - -
Heat, from industry 0.071 - -
Zinc coat, pieces 0.048 0.023 0.023
Heat, from natural gas 0.047 - -
Steel, unalloyed 0.042 0.021 0.021
Aluminium, wrought alloy 0.009 0.039 0.039
Heat, from heat pump 0.026 - -
Display, liquid crystal - 0.025 0.025
Heat, from hard coal 0.025 - -
Heat, from wood chips 0.013 - -
Heat, from oil 0.012 - -
Cast iron 0.002 0.011 0.011
Remaining processes 0.026 0.017 0.017
Aluminium recycling -0.012 -0.042 -0.042
Steel and iron recycling -0.039 -0.019 -0.019
Total of all processes 0.563 0.412 0.357

systems, but the impact of district heating generation and galvanized steel
production led to larger emissions from the CV system. The sum of impacts
from all district heating processes exceeded the impact from electricity in the
CV system. This can be seen in table 22. The differences were partially

47
dependent on the input data for industrial waste heat, which could have been
excluded if it was considered as heat that otherwise would have been dumped.
The general result would still hold, although the High and Low DV systems
would have scored 84% and 73% respectively compared to the CV system,
instead of 73% and 63%.
Emissions of zinc to water, air and soil and emissions of lead to air were
inventoried for Human non-carcinogenic toxicity. Also here, electricity was
the dominating process, this time followed by the zinc coating process and
LCD screen production. The clear dominance of electricity made the DV
systems score higher than the CV system. The environmental benefit from
lower demand for galvanized steel in the DV systems was overtrumped by
the load from the LCD screen production. Table 23 shows the results for all
systems.

Table 23: Human non-carcinogenic toxicity by process [DALY]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.143 0.229 0.191

Zinc coat, pieces 0.098 0.047 0.047
Display, liquid crystal - 0.060 0.060
Heat, from wood chips 0.017 - -
Heat, waste incineration 0.007 - -
Heat, from heat pump 0.006 - -
Remaining processes 0.018 0.008 0.008
Total of all processes 0.289 0.343 0.306

Table 24: Human carcinogenic toxicity by process [DALY]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.085 0.136 0.114

Zinc coat, pieces 0.047 0.022 0.022
Cast iron 0.002 0.042 0.042
Steel, unalloyed 0.023 0.011 0.011
Aluminium, wrought alloy 0.004 0.018 0.018
Heat, waste incineration 0.017 - -
Display, liquid crystal - 0.009 0.009
Heat, from heat pump 0.005 - -
Remaining processes 0.010 0.001 0.001
Aluminium recycling -0.006 -0.020 -0.020
Total of all processes 0.183 0.220 0.198

The impact on Human carcinogenic toxicity was related to emissions of

chromium IV to water and soil. Electricity was again the most contributing
process, followed by the processes associated with galvanized steel and cast

48
iron, as can be seen in table 24. Also in this case, the CV system showed
better results than the DV systems, although the differences were not that
large.

5.4.6 Process contributions - Ecosystems

In this section the results at 21◦ C supply air are presented in tables showing
the values in species.yr. This enables the impact results to be compared also
between categories, although it is important to consider the limitations of this
study when doing so.

Table 25: Land use by process [species.yr]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Heat, from wood chips 0.00189 - -

Electricity, low voltage 0.00173 0.00276 0.00231
Heat, waste incineration 0.00015 - -
Remaining processes 0.00010 0.00002 0.00002
Total of all processes 0.00387 0.00278 0.00233

Table 26: Global warming terrestrial ecosystems by process [species.yr]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.00064 0.00102 0.00085

Heat, waste incineration 0.00025 - -
Heat, from industry 0.00022 - -
Zinc coat, pieces 0.00015 0.00007 0.00007
Heat, from natural gas 0.00014 - -
Steel, unalloyed 0.00013 0.00006 0.00006
Aluminium, wrought alloy 0.00003 0.00012 0.00012
Heat, from heat pump 0.00008 - -
Display, liquid crystal - 0.00008 0.00008
Heat, from hard coal 0.00008 - -
Heat, from wood chips 0.00004 - -
Heat, from oil 0.00004 - -
Cast iron 0.00000 0.00003 0.00003
Remaining processes 0.00008 0.00005 0.00005
Aluminium recycling -0.00004 -0.00013 -0.00013
Steel and iron recycling -0.00012 -0.00006 -0.00006
Total of all processes 0.00170 0.00124 0.00108

Table 25 shows the results for process contributions to the impact category
Land use. According to the inventory file in SimaPro, occupation of land for
intensive foresting and traffic areas was estimated. The production of biomass

49
for district heating generation contributed the most in the CV system, but
not as much as electricity in the DV systems. The combined use of electricity
and district heating led to higher values for the CV system.
The results for process contribution to Global warming terrestrial ecosys-
tems showed the same pattern as for the global warming effects on human
health. Electricity was the process with the largest impact. Also here, district
heating based on waste heat from industry played a prominent role, and if it
is removed the total results for High DV and Low DV becomes 84% and 73%
respectively, instead of 73% and 63% in relation to the CV system results.
Table 26 displays the results in detail.
After electricity, waste incineration and zinc coating were the main contri-
butions to Terrestrial acidification, as can be seen in table 27. The substances
that were inventoried are SO2 , N Ox and N H3 . If the industrial waste heat is
set to zero, the total results for High DV and Low DV becomes 83% and 72%
respectively, instead of 77% and 67% in relation to the CV system results.

Table 27: Terrestrial acidification by process [species.yr]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.00026 0.00041 0.00034

Heat, waste incineration 0.00012 - -
Zinc coat, pieces 0.00008 0.00004 0.00004
Heat, from wood chips 0.00005 - -
Heat, from industry 0.00005 - -
Aluminium, wrought alloy 0.00001 0.00004 0.00004
Display, liquid crystal - 0.00003 0.00003
Steel, unalloyed 0.00003 0.00002 0.00002
Heat, from natural gas 0.00003 - -
Heat, from heat pump 0.00002 - -
Remaining processes 0.00005 0.00001 0.00001
Steel and iron recycling -0.00003 -0.00001 -0.00001
Aluminium recycling -0.00001 -0.00005 -0.00005
Total of all processes 0.00065 0.00050 0.00043

The results for process contributions to Water consumption terrestrial

ecosystem was totally dominated by the electricity process, which stood for
80% in the CV system and 98% in both DV systems. Water consumption
was predominantly related to turbine use in power plants. Table 28 shows the
results.

5.5 Sensitivity analysis results

The sensitivity analysis was performed on the systems with 21◦ C supply air
temperature, if nothing else is stated. The results are presented in this section.

50
 Table 28: Water consumption terrestrial ecosystems by process [species.yr]

Process CV High DV Low DV

Electricity, low voltage 0.00036 0.00057 0.00048

Heat, waste incineration 0.00003 - -
Heat, from hard coal 0.00002 - -
Heat, from oil 0.00001 - -
Electricity, medium voltage 0.00001 - -
Remaining processes 0.00005 0.00001 0.00001
Total of all processes 0.00045 0.00058 0.00049

Changing supply air temperature from 21◦ C to 16◦ C

This change lowered the air heating demand in the AHU:s dramatically, but
the savings in fan power proved to be large enough for both High and Low
DV systems to have a smaller environmental impact than the CV system.
This was presented already in the damage assessment results in section 5.4.2.
The relative difference between the systems grew smaller at 16◦ C compared
to 21◦ C, since the main heating task was allocated to the district heating
connected radiator system. This also increased the total building heating
demand with 5%. In order to secure an environmental benefit of a DV system
when supplying air at 16◦ C, keeping the pressure drop low in the DV systems
seem to be even more important.
Using district heating for air heating in both CV and DV systems
The results from this simulation rendered the same results as when changing
supply air temperature since the demand for district heating and electricity
were similar.
Omitting industrial waste heat from the assessment
Omitting industrial waste heat in district heating LCI decreased the difference
between the CV and the DV systems with 5 to 11 percentage points in five
impact categories, but not enough to overthrow the general outcome. The
impact on process contribution results is presented also in section 5.4.4 to 5.4.6.
The inclusion of industrial waste heat affected Global warming human health
and Global warming terrestrial ecosystems most, followed by Fine particulate
matter formation and Terrestrial acidification. In these four categories, the
High DV system scored 83 − 84% when industrial waste heat was omitted,
which still is significantly lower than the CV system. The corresponding scores
for the Low DV system were 72 − 73%. Fossil resource scarcity results were
also affected, although not as much and the differences between CV and DV
systems were still very large when the process was deleted. To summarize,
it can be concluded that the result for the lumped impact category Human
health is the most sensitive, and the difference between the High DV and CV
systems was almost erased when industrial waste heat was omitted. See table
29 for details. The importance of keeping the pressure drop low in the DV
system is once again emphasized.

51
Table 29: Damage assessment results with and without industrial waste heat

CV High DV Low DV

Resources
With industrial waste heat 100% 62% 54%
Without industrial waste heat 100% 72% 63%
Human health
With industrial waste heat 100% 90% 79%
Without industrial waste heat 100% 94% 83%
Ecosystems
With industrial waste heat 100% 78% 66%
Without industrial waste heat 100% 80% 68%

Reducing district heating and electricity demand in all systems with 50%
Cutting the operational energy consumption with 50% did not change the rel-
ative impact from the different phases in the life cycle much. The operational
phase was still by far the dominating phase and the DV systems were still in
favor. The relative difference between the systems was however decreased due
to the larger impact of upstream activities, which is in favor of the CV system
because of the large amount of AHU:s in the DV systems.
Increasing fan energy in the DV system to match that of the CV system
In the case of a poor installation of a DV system, with no fan energy savings
in the DV system, the difference in Human health impact between the systems
is insignificant. The DV system still shows better results for Resources and
Ecosystems, although the differences are decreased.
Using European electricity instead of Swedish electricity
When Swedish electricity was exchanged for the dataset Electricity, low volt-
age (Europe without Switzerland)|market for|, the results were almost reversed.
The Low DV and CV system scored equally high on Resources and Ecosys-
tems while the High DV system was the worst in all three lumped categories
due to its high electricity consumption. The CV system was clearly the best
alternative when considering Human health. This emphasizes the importance
of a correct assessment of electricity generation. There was no dataset for
Nordic electricity mix in Ecoinvent 3. The import of electricity to Sweden is
however only a few percent and mainly taken from Norway and Denmark, as
mentioned earlier, and the Swedish electricity mix is thereby much closer to
the truth than European average electricity.

52
6 Discussion

The results and experiences from this study are discussed from different per-
spectives in this section.

6.1 The impact of system pressure drop

Just as in previous studies, the low system pressure drop of DV system turned
out to be a key factor for good energy performance [10, 57]. This thesis also
added the life cycle perspective and aimed to compare systems with equal
functionality.
The differential pressure across exhaust air devices need to be 70 P a
in a centralized system for fire security reasons, when the AHU is placed
in the cellar [38]. This is not necessary in a system serving only one fire
compartment, which enables the DV system to use lower pressure differences
across the diffusers. However, the throw length of the air supplied through
the supply diffuser is related to the pressure difference, so the pressure drop
can not be set too low if a good air circulation in the room is to be achieved.
When DV systems are installed in practice, low pressure drops across diffusers
are prioritized before throw length [38], which indicates that low fan energy
actually will occur in reality. If the AHU in a centralized system is placed in
the attic instead, the required pressure drop across exhaust diffusers is lower
due to buoyancy effects, which would lead to a small decrease in fan energy
consumption for the CV system in this case study [38]. In summary, the
results depending on fan energy savings in DV systems should hold very well
in reality, although it is unclear if exactly the same functionality is delivered
by the systems.
It is important to remember that a too low pressure drop in the ducts
means risking functionality, as was shown in the study by Merzkirch et al
(2016) [10]. At a wind speed of 10 m/s, a calculation using standard estima-
tions of wind pressure coefficients shows that the wind pressure against the
facade could be 36 P a on one side of the building and −39 P a on another
side, in the worst case scenario [67]. This would severly affect the flow in the
system, if air intake and outlet are located on these facades.
It is also so that the energy consumption in the DV systems is much more
sensitive to the system pressure drop. A 40 P a higher pressure drop in the
DV system increases the fan energy considerably due to the low efficiencies of
the small fans. The same increase in dimensioning pressure of the CV system
will not affect the energy consumption much since the efficiencies of the large
fans are so much higher.
When a ventilation system is installed, the pressure difference across sup-
ply diffusers are adjusted so that the correct air flow rate is supplied. A
systematic error of ±5% can be assumed in these flow measurements, which
would render a maximum error of about ±5 P a across the supply diffusers

53
[68]. This possible error is assumed not to have any impact on the general
results in this study. It is also possible that ducts and components are not
installed exactly as it was described in the drawing. This could perhaps lead
to somewhat higher pressure drops than estimated, but the significance of this
has not been possible to evaluate during this thesis. According to experienced
staff at Structor Installationsteknik AB, it is not likely that significant pressure
drops would be added at installation of a DV system [38].

6.2 The impact of fan efficiency

There is also a theoretical upper limit for pressure drop, at which the fan
energy consumption of the DV system reaches that of the CV system. This
upper limit can be increased if the fan efficiencies are improved. Small fans
have lower efficiencies for aerodynamic reasons, and will never achieve the
levels of large fans. But since the fan efficiencies are crucial here, it would be
interesting to investigate other small AHU:s of different sizes, to evaluate if
there is an optimal size for the kind of solution that this case study has been
investigating.

6.3 Swedish building regulations

Electricity as heating source can be troublesome since there is a limit for

maximum installed electric capacity for heating according to the building reg-
ulations. Some small AHU:s have heating batteries that are meant to be con-
nected to district heating or to the radiator system, but the installation of such
a heating device might be more difficult with regard to space and requires that
the heating system is dimensioned for this already from the beginning [38].
When allocating the operation of the ventilation system to the tenants
one might think that the electricity for the AHU should be excluded when
calculating the facility electricity in PET. The regulations in BFS 2017:5 is
however clear about that all the energy used for fans and other equipment that
uphold the indoor climate should be included, regardless of the placement. A
DV system can therefore not be used in that way for facilitating the fulfilling
of energy performance regulations.
Both current and proposed building regulations discourage the use of
bought electricity in favor of e.g. district heating. The environmental im-
pact from Swedish electricity is however lower than the impact from district
heating, which led to a discrepancy between ∆EPpet and LCA results in this
study. The aim of Swedish energy performance regulations is only to decrease
primary energy consumption, while overall environmental effects seem to be
neglected. A wider perspective could be useful, albeit it is a complicated issue
since energy regulations also has to co-exist with the national energy system.
One could argue that the energy system needs reforming and that constant
updates of building regulations is one way to do it. The potential conse-

54
quences from large systematic changes of course need to be carefully assessed.
However, it would most likely be foolish to abandon district heating for grid
electricity on a large scale, especially since it often is co-produced in combined
heat and power plants. The systematic change could in this case focus on less
polluting district heating generation and minimal heating demand in buildings
instead.
There are also requirements for building air tightness in the building reg-
ulations, in order to prevent heat losses and moisture in the building structure
[20]. A DV system causes many penetrations of the building envelope, which
increases the risk of air leakages, and this has not been taken into account in
this study.

6.4 System functionality and reliability

A centralized system in a large multifamily building might be more stable

in terms of maintaining air quality, since the fans are speed controlled, the
system pressure is less sensitive to wind pressure. Maintenance is most likely
regularly performed by a professional service technician. The drawback is that
the whole building is stricken if the system goes down.
In the decentralized system the situation is quite the opposite. If the
tenants themselves are responsible for changing air filters and calling for service
technicians at malfunction, there is a greater risk for poor air quality since the
system lack pressure sensors and variable speed drive of the fans. On the other
hand, the separation of concern gives that no other apartment is affected if
one AHU fails. The sensitivity for wind pressure is higher in a DV system due
to the low pressure in the system. This is exaggerated if exhaust and outdoor
air grill are located at opposite sides of the building. In a Swedish building
project with DV systems from the 1980’s, the exhaust air grills are instead
located on the roof top and according to the district manager there has not
been any complaints regarding the functionality of DV systems [11].
Another difference between the systems is the adjustment of proper flow
rates and the need for flow dampers in the system. A CV system can be
cumbersome to adjust properly, while a DV system should be easy to adjust,
although it has to be made separately for every apartment. No flow dampers
are necessary for adjusting the DV system. However, the DV system is sen-
sitive for changes over time, and any increase in system pressure losses will
lower the air flow rate.
In general, the flow is kept constant in multifamily buildings since instal-
lation of presence sensors and digitally controlled dampers are both expensive
and troublesome to install properly. In office buildings, with fewer ventilated
zones and also higher flow rates, the potential energy savings from presence-
controlled ventilation are higher and are also installed more frequently. [69]
In a DV system, the flow can be manually controlled by the tenants, so
that the flow rate is set to a lower value when not at home. This is an easy way

55
of saving fan energy when going away for a holiday, but the method is maybe
not so reliable otherwise. It takes some discipline to remember to switch the
ventilation to the right setting, if it is to be used every time you go in and
out. A better way of controlling the air flow rate might however be easier to
find for a DV system, since only one apartment is considered per system.

6.5 Air quality and noise

To install a well functioning DV system, many things need to be thought of

in advance. The air intake in the facade should not be located too close to
the exhaust air or a balcony in order not to risk poor air quality. This means
that the outdoor and exhaust ducts can become quite long and that the effects
from saving material and costs compared with a CV system with large main
ducts might be reduced. As mentioned before, the wind pressure might also
be able to completely stop the ventilation from functioning, if the air passages
through the facade are located at different sides of the building. In this study,
different locations of air intake and outlet were employed and the potential
effects on air quality were not assessed.
Special arrangements might be necessary in order to attenuate the noise
from a DV system. The Minimaster RDKS used in this study had quite high
noise levels in the lower frequency bands (64 Hz) that could not be attenuated
by the flexible ducts normally installed directly at the AHU. An additional
silencer of another kind had to be inserted, which required more space than
was available from the beginning. This must be thought of at an early stage of
design, so that the space required is available. Previous studies has reported
higher noise levels from DV systems [10].
According to the manager of the Swedish rental apartments from the
1980’s, no complaints regarding noise from the DV systems has been reported.
The AHU:s were placed in the kitchen, and neither has any complaints about
air quality been recorded. [11]

6.6 Fire security aspects

In a multifamily building, every single apartment is a fire compartment. From

this perspective, a DV system is more safe since no ventilation connections
between fire compartments exist. A CV system require a large by-pass fan
by the AHU, smoke detectors in the exhaust system, fire dampers and fire
insulation materials, in order to prevent fire from spreading. Nothing of this
is needed in a DV system, which saves money and material. As mentioned
earlier, also there are no requirements of a certain pressure drop over exhaust
diffusers in DV systems, which helps keeping the dimensioning system pressure
low.

56
6.7 Cost aspects

In a long term investment, not only initial costs are important, but also the
operational costs. The incentive for investing in long-term energy efficiency
is generally higher if the constructor will continue to operate the building,
and higher initial costs can more easily be accepted if the life cycle cost is
acceptable. Further research could be done where life cycle costs are compared,
with better accuracy regarding initial costs for the DV systems.
In the Swedish example from the 1980’s, Bacho Minimaster, the prede-
cessor of Minimaster RDKS, was installed in over 400 rental apartments. The
main drawback with the DV systems has been the maintenance cost. Every
year, a technician visits all apartments to clean the heat recovery wheel and
exchange the filters. According to the district manager, this is what is needed
in order for the Minimasters to function properly. [11]
In the case of Tårpilen, the building will be sold to private tenants that
will form a cooperative with responsibility of the building as a whole. The
operational costs, and also the air quality, associated with a DV system would
then depend on what the cooperative decides regarding allocation of mainte-
nance and energy costs.
Another interesting aspect for a constructor that will sell the building is
that a DV system enable a larger salable area, partly due to the lack of a large
fan room and also because some of the shafts can be considerably smaller. If
the exhaust ducts for functionality reasons need to be drawn to the roof, as in
the example from the 1980’s, the shafts may still be quite large. In the case
of high prices per salable area, a higher installation cost could be covered by
the increase in profit from selling more space. For a high rise building it is
not convenient to place a central AHU in the cellar or attic, which means that
mechanical equipment rooms often are located somewhere in the middle of the
building, sometimes on every floor, which then occupies a considerable amount
of salable area [70]. This makes high rise buildings in expensive areas the most
attractive projects for DV installations from a short-term cost perspective.

6.8 Weaknesses in the modeling

Data for the Swedish electricity mix was used in Ecoinvent 3 database. This
have most probably caused the environmental impact from electricity use to
be underestimated compared to if marginal electricity purchases would have
been included. However, according to statistics from 2016, only 8.6% of the
supplied electricity was imported with the main part coming from Norway.
This means that the environmental impact from the real electricity mix cannot
be too far away from that of the Swedish electricity mix, and the results
are probably only slightly underestimated. The sensitivity analysis clearly
showed the importance of assessing the electricity generation correctly, and
future studies would benefit from a more thorough analysis since this process
dominated all results.

57
 The conventional LCA approach used here has an ability to overestimate
long-term emission impacts, as mentioned in section 2.7.3. This may have
overestimated the global warming impacts from both electricity and district
heating and made the operational phase a greater importance than it perhaps
should have. Even with a dynamic time frame, it is plausible that the relative
difference in impact between the systems would be roughly the same.
The databases used for assessing the impact of district heating are not
entirely correct since Swedish data were not available for all fuel types. The
most incorrect one is probably the LCA inventory regarding waste heat from
industries, where heat from chemical industry from Europe was chosen. 8.5%
of the district heating in the CV system was modeled as waste heat, and this
could have been assessed as a zero impact if regarded as heat that otherwise
would have been dumped. The impact on the results was assessed in the
sensitivity analysis and alternative results were presented in section 5.4. The
results for global warming impact from district heating seem reasonable when
compared to available GHG-data for Swedish district heating and electricity
presented in section 2.3.4. A better accuracy in modeling data would still be
needed in future studies.
Fan efficiencies for Minimaster RDKS were quite low in this study, and
they were calculated from a few operation points that were close to the evalu-
ated operation points tested in the models. If in fact another AHU would have
been more suitable, and have higher fan efficiencies, the results from this study
would be emphasized, meaning that this potential flaw in the thesis method-
ology do not compromise the outcome. The efficiency of the large AHU was
also derived from an operation point with a lower pressure drop and flow rate
than the modeled operation point, but these fan efficiencies had reasonable
values and it is not likely that the real values differ much from the used ones.
A small change in fan efficiencies for the CV system would only render an
equivalent change in the system energy performance.
The AHU:s were replaced after 25 and 17 years respectively, without im-
proving the efficiencies in the units. In reality only parts of the large AHU
would have been replaced, and 30 years life time of Minimaster AHU has been
reported in a real case [11]. The results have been affected from this by in-
creased investment costs and a few percent higher energy consumption over
the years in the DV systems. By choosing to model this way, the importance
of material production and waste were increased. The results still showed that
energy consumption by far was the most important factor in terms of environ-
mental impact. On the other hand, some steps in the production chain were
not assessed of which e.i. the infrastructure of productions sites could have
had an impact. This could be more thoroughly investigated in further studies.
The architectural design of the apartments was decided at the start of
this project. If the building in fact would have been designed with a DV
system, architects would have been involved in the decisions regarding choice
of placement of the AHU, drawing of ducts and shafts, etc. This could have

58
rendered a different design and affected the amount of materials and pressure
losses somewhat. The impact on the results would probably not be significant,
as long as the same general ventilation design were kept.
When ducts are cast in concrete the heat in the air will to some extent
be lost to the concrete, leading to inefficiencies. This should be thought of if
the heat is to be supplied only by air. The models used in this work has not
accounted for these potential losses, meaning that the heating energy most
likely would be higher in the real case. This is true for both systems, so the
impact on the comparative LCA-results should not be significant. During the
work with this thesis, Bonava decided to supply air with 16◦ C in the Tårpilen
building, although they early on considered 21◦ C of supply air temperature.

59
7 Conclusions

The conclusions from this study regarding energy performance, compliance

with building regulations, costs and environmental impact from the evaluated
ventilation systems are presented in this section. Finally, a summary of the
crucial findings are formulated along with proposals for further research.

7.1 Energy performance during operation

The DV system with a lower pressure drop had the lowest energy consumption
during operation. The energy performance of the DV system depended on the
choice of pressure drop across supply diffusers, since the supply/outdoor part
of the system was constituting the dimensioning pressure. The DV system
with the higher pressure drop, and the same assumption of throw length as in
the CV system, consumed 19% less energy for fans than the CV system, while
the Low DV system with the shorter throw length consumed 44% less. The
differences in air heating energy demand were insignificant.

7.2 Compliance with Swedish building regulations

The CV system with 16◦ C supply air temperature rendered the highest build-
ing EPpet while the Low DV system with 16◦ C supply air temperature ren-
dered the lowest. A DV system can hence be beneficial from a building reg-
ulation perspective due to the savings in electricity for fans, provided that
heating is predominantly supplied by district heating.
The total installed electric capacity for heating doubled in the case build-
ing when a DV system was employed, but the limits stipulated in the regu-
lations were not exceeded. It should however be remembered that the case
building only contained apartments and that a real building may need addi-
tional installations in other areas.

7.3 Costs

The investment and installation costs were 27% higher for the decentralized
system in this case study, and a rough estimation revealed that approximately
25 m2 of extra salable area would be required to cover for this. Attractive
residential areas with high selling prices make it easier to overcome the higher
initial costs of a DV system.

7.4 Environmental impact

The environmental impact of the DV systems were significantly smaller than

that of the CV system when looking at the lumped impact categories Re-
sources, Human health and Ecosystems. The results depended on the relative

60
demand of district heating and electricity in the systems. The differences
therefore grew smaller when the supply air temperature was lowered and air
heating demand was decreased by 85%, but the lower electricity demand for
fans in the DV systems still made them the more environmentally friendly
choice.
The operational energy proved to be the overall most contributing pro-
cesses for all impact categories in all systems. District heating processes had
higher environmental impact than Swedish electricity in the impact categories
Fossil resource scarcity, Fine particulate matter formation, Land use, Terres-
trial acidification and the two Global warming categories.
Mineral resource scarcity was the only impact category where the products
played an important part. Electricity still dominated the impact, followed by
zinc coating and production of steel, LCD screens and aluminium.
In terms of Human carcinogenic toxicity and Human non-carcinogenic
toxicity, the DV systems had the highest impact results at 21◦ C air supply
temperature. In these categories, electricity contributed far more than district
heating.
The impact category Water consumption terrestrial ecosystems was totally
dominated by the water used in turbines for electricity generation.

7.5 Summary

The results from this study showed that the DV system clearly had a lower life
cycle environmental impact than the CV system when the maximum pressure
drop across supply air diffusers was 30 P a. This rendered a significantly lower
fan energy consumption in the DV system, which was the main reason behind
the environmental impact results.
Since electricity rendered lower environmental impact than district heat-
ing, it was better from an environmental perspective to heat the air to 21◦ C
with electricity. The lowest building EPpet value was however achieved by
the decentralized system with the lowest pressure drop and 16◦ C air supply
temperature, since electricity has a higher primary energy factor than district
heating. In reality an optimal supply temperature probably exists somewhere
between the two temperatures evaluated here.
The higher initial costs of a DV system might be able to compensate for
if a larger salable area can be accomplished.
Further research regarding functionality of DV systems, including different
aspects of maintenance, would be highly interesting. A deeper analysis of the
environmental impact from all product stages and a more thorough impact
assessment of electricity and district heating would be valuable in order to fully
understand the differences in long-term sustainability between the systems.

61
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor Joachim Claesson at the department of

Energy Technology at KTH whose experience, knowledge and belief in my
capabilities have been of great value during this work. Thank you Structor
Installationsteknik AB, especially my contact Mook Changrachang, whom pro-
vided me with an interesting research question, software tools, useful design
principles and other means that enabled my studies. Thanks also to many
other consultants at Structor, for sharing your knowledge with me. I would
also like to thank Bonava for allowing me to use Tårpilen as case building.

62
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APPENDIX A

1. Product data metal materials centralized system

AHU and FANS
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % cast iron kg cast iron % alum ingot kg alum ingot % zinc kg zinc
AHU SWEGON GOLD PX 040 F (25 years) 2 2070 7,2 298,08 0,483 20,00 0,83 34,36
% unalloyed steel kg unalloyed steel % alum alloy kg alum alloy
72,61 3006,05 11,8 488,52

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20handling%20units/GOLD%20version%20F/General/_sv/GOLD-bd.pdf

Quantity Weight per p (kg) % cast iron kg cast iron % zinc kg zinc % unalloyed steel kg unalloyed steel % alum alloy kg alum alloy
Smoke security fan 63JMv/25/2/633 Aerofoil
Fan blades 633 mm diameter 1 13,7 100 13,70
Casing, galvanized steel 1 27,4 1,9 0,52 98,1 26,88
Motor L122M IE2 Pad 7.5 kW 3 ph 1 50,9 100 50,90
Total weight fan + motor: 92
Assumption: fan and casing weight ratio =1/3

Sources: http://resources.flaktwoods.com/Perfion/File.aspx?id=45e3bc02-2cf7-4be6-a845-b495b2432a0c
https://www.soliduct.se/minimaster-rdks-flakt-woods/p-3310.htm
https://www.weg.net/catalog/weg/DK/en/Electric-Motors/Low-Voltage-IEC-Motors/General-Purpose-ODP-TEFC/Cast-Iron-TEFC-General-Purpose/W22---Cast-Iron-TEFC-General-
Purpose/W22-IE2/W22-IE2-7-5-kW-2P-L112M-3Ph-380-415-660-440-460-V-50-Hz-IC411---TEFC---B3T/p/11681209
Exhaust devices
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % alum kg alum wrought alloy % zinc kg zinc % unalloyed steel kg unalloyed steel
Outdoor grill BRYH 1000x2200 (2000x1200) aluzinc 1 59,4 1,25 0,74 1,25 0,7425 97,5 57,92
EKO-HRK-100-1 aluzinc 6 0,5 1,1 0,03 0,9 0,027 98 2,94
Exhaust hood BRTH galvanized steel 1 43 1,9 0,817 98,1 42,18
Exhaust hood BRTG 9 galvanized steel 1 64,8 1,9 1,2312 98,1 63,57

Sources: http://bevent-rasch.se/wp-content/uploads/BRYH_produktblad.pdf
http://www.ekovent.se/media/16479/eko-hrk_2014.pdf
http://bevent-rasch.se/produkter/takhuvar-galler/brth/
Silencers
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % cast iron kg cast iron % galv steel kg galv steel kg unalloyed steel m2 surface area
FACILE a-1620-1600-900-1350 (25 years) 2 194,4 73 283,82 278,43 13,6
FACILE a-2220-2200-900-1350 (25 years) 2 267,3 73 390,26 382,84 16,8
CADENZA a-1836-1800-900-1850 (25 years) 2 299,7 73,2 438,76 430,42 20
Weight = 100 kg/m3

CLA-A 100-500 (25 years) 2 3,2 4,2 0,27 46,8 3,00 2,94 0,4
CLA-A 125-500 (25 years) 176 3,9 4,2 28,83 46,8 321,24 315,13 34,6
CLA-A 160-500 (25 years) 34 5 4,2 7,14 46,8 79,56 78,05 8,6
Sum surface area silencers: 94,00

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Acoustics/_sv/Rekt.d%C3%A4mp-m.pdf
https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Acoustics/_sv/CLA-A-bd.pdf
AIR DEVICES
Quantity kg galv steel kg alum kg unalloyed steel
Supply air device (17 years) MAXHOME-100 InventiAir 114 153,90 102,60 150,98
Assumed weight (kg) as Swegon ALG 3
Assumed tot weight (kg) 342
% galv steel 45
% alum 30

Extract air device (25 years) Swegon CASA salsa silver-600 218 1373,40 1347,31
Assummed weight (kg) as Siemens LI64MA520 9
Assumed % galv steel 70

Sources: http://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20diffusers/Grille%20diffusers/_sv/ALGc.pdf
https://inventiair.se/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ByggvarudeklarationMaximus.pdf
https://www.elgiganten.se/product/vitvaror/koksflakt-spiskapa/LI64MA520/siemens-flaktkapa-li64ma520#tab-specs-trigger
Quantity Weight per p (kg) kg galv steel kg unalloyed steel kg zinc
Extract air device KGEB-100-C+KGEZ-01-100 28 0,4 11,20 10,99 0,21
Extract air device KGEB-125-C+KGEZ-01-125 106 0,5 53,00 51,99 1,01
Supply air device KTI-100-C 255 0,4 102,00 100,06 1,94
Supply air device STI-100-C 8 0,4 3,20 3,14 0,06
Assumption: weight of supply air dev = weight of KGEB+KGEZ

Sources: http://www.flaktwoods.se/products/air-management-/air-valves/exhaust-air-valves/kgeb/
http://resources.flaktwoods.com/Perfion/File.aspx?id=93640dd7-69a6-4fc3-835a-8d6e47c8436e
FLOW DAMPERS
Quantity Weight per p (kg) kg aluzinc kg galvanized steel kg zinc kg alum ingot kg unalloyed steel m2 surface area
SIRIa 100 (17 years) 9 0,6 2,59 2,61 0,07 0,03 5,10 0.1 m²*3
SIRIa 125 (17 years) 6 0,8 2,30 2,32 0,06 0,03 4,54 0 m²*3
SIRIa 160 (17 years) 9 1,1 4,75 4,79 0,13 0,05 9,36 0.1 m²*3
SIRIa 200 (17 years) 12 1,5 8,64 8,71 0,24 0,10 17,01 0.2 m²*3
SIRIa 250 (17 years) 39 2,2 41,18 41,53 1,16 0,45 81,10 0.7 m²*3
SIRIa 315 (17 years) 75 3 108,00 108,90 3,04 1,19 212,67 1.7 m²*3
% aluzinc 48
% galv steel 48,4

Source: http://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Flow%20control/Commissioning%20dampers/_sv/SIRI-bd.pdf
Quantity Weight per p (kg) kg aluzinc kg galvanized steel kg zinc kg alum ingot kg unalloyed steel m2 surface area
Flow damper UTT/R-1000x800 (assumed 50 years) 1 30 28,65 0,54435 28,10565 0.8 m²
% galv steel 95,5

Source: Data appr from http://bevent-rasch.se/wp-content/uploads/BRJB_produktblad.pdf?hash=689f3c891f62f1488a2f31639d785189935d0af354e2

FIRE DAMPERS
Quantity Weight per p (kg) kg galv steel kg unalloyed steel kg zinc m2 surface area
FIDi-100 6 2,6 15,60 15,30 0,30 0,5
FIDi-125 88 3 264,00 258,98 5,02 8,6
FIDi-160 18 3,9 70,20 68,87 1,33 2,3

Source: http://bevent-rasch.se/wp-content/uploads/FIDi-Varmforzinkad_Stalplat.pdf?hash=76ef830d373be902d13e6b09678219c776610f0bf3d9

DUCTS from Lindab

Rectangular ducts Size Quantity Length m kg galv steel/m kg galv steel m2 surface area kg/m2
Plug 900x900 (1000x800) 2 12,56 1,62
Plug 500x350 (500x400) 2 2,71 0,35
Plug 500x500 1 1,94 0,25
Plug 600x350 (600x400) 2 3,26 0,42
Plug 1800x900 (1800x800) 1 12,56 1,62
Plug 1000x800 1 6,20 0,8
Duct 900x900 (1000x800) 32,2 28 901,60 116,1 7,765719208
Duct 1200x700 (1200x600) 19,5 29 565,50 74 7,641891892
Duct 1200x900 (1200x800) 3,5 32,5 113,75 14,9 7,634228188
Duct 1600x900 (1600x800) 1,7 42,5 72,25 8,4 8,601190476
Duct 500x350 (600x400) 29,7 12 356,40 50,5 7,057425743
Duct 500x500 (600x400) 19,9 14 278,60 39,9 6,98245614
Duct 600x350 (600x400) 27,8 13,5 375,30 52,8 7,107954545
Duct 700x350 (800x400) 4,8 15,25 73,20 10,1 7,247524752
Duct 900x900 (1000x800) 2,8 28 78,40 10 7,84
Duct 1000x800 0,1 28 2,80 0,4 7
Duct 1100x500 (1000x600) 110,3 23,5 2592,05 352,9 7,344998583
Duct 1600x800 1,2 41 49,20 5,6 8,785714286
Duct 1800x500 (1600x800) 1,1 38 41,80 4,9 8,530612245
Duct 1800x900 (1600x1000) 2,2 45,5 100,10 11,9 8,411764706
Duct 2200x900 (2000x1200) 2 50 100,00 12,2 8,196721311
Duct 1200x1000 (1200x800) 3,4 34 115,60 15 7,706666667
Duct 800x600 59,2 21 1243,20 165,6 7,507246377
Duct 1000x800 3,6 28 100,80 12,9 7,813953488
Duct 1400x800 (1200x800) 17,2 34 584,80 75,9 7,704874835
Duct 1600x800 1,3 41 53,30 6,5 8,2
Reducer/Expander 900x900/630 (1000x800) 2 4,65 0,6 7,754047172
Reducer/Expander 500x500/400 (600x400) 1 0,78 0,1
Bend-30 800x600 (bend 45) 2 12,41 1,6
Bend-30 1200x1000 (bend 45 12x8) 1 13,18 1,7
Bend-30 1400x800 (bend 45 16x8) 1 14,73 1,9
Bend-30 1200x900 (bend 45 12x8) 1 12,41 1,6
APPENDIX A
2. Product data non-metal materials centralized system
AHU-filters
Filter materials Percentages % Weight kg Filter changes Total material weight
Polystyren 0,58 12,006 50 600,30 kg
Polyester 0,55 11,385 50 569,25 kg
Glasfiber 0,02 0,414 50 20,70 kg

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20handling%20units/GOLD%20version%20F/General/_sv/GOLD-bd.pdf
AHU insulation
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % rock wool kg rock wool
AHU SWEGON GOLD PX 040 F (Exchanged after 25 years) 2 2070 2,7 111,78

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20handling%20units/GOLD%20version%20F/General/_sv/GOLD-bd.pdf
Silencer insulation
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % glass wool kg glass wool % glass fibre kg glass fibre
FACILE a-1620-1600-900-1350 (25 years) 2 194,4 27 104,98
FACILE a-2220-2200-900-1350 (25 years) 2 267,3 27 144,34
CADENZA a-1836-1800-900-1850 (25 years) 2 299,7 11,6 69,53 11,8 70,73
Weight = 100 kg/m3
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % rock wool kg rock wool
CLA-A 100-500 (25 years) 2 3,2 41,1 2,63
CLA-A 125-500 (25 years) 176 3,9 41,1 282,11
CLA-A 160-500 (25 years) 34 5 41,1 69,87

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Acoustics/_sv/Rekt.d%C3%A4mp-m.pdf
https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Acoustics/_sv/CLA-A-bd.pdf
Exhaust hood insulation
Quantity Weight per p (kg) % rock wool kg rock wool
Exhaust hood BRTG 9 galvanized steel 1 64,8 10 6,48

Source: http://bevent-rasch.se/produkter/takhuvar-galler/brth/
Duct insulation
Rectangular ducts Size Product Quantity Length m Insulation area Thickness mm Insulation volume [m3]
Insulation/Duct 500x500 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 2,2 5.1 m² 40 0,204
Insulation/Duct 600x350 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 24,4 54.2 m² 40 2,168
Insulation/Duct 700x350 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 2,7 6.6 m² 40 0,264
Insulation/Reducer/Expander 500x500/400 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 1 40 0,004
Insulation/Bend-90 600x350 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 2 40 0,128
Insulation/Reducer/Expander 600x350/700x350 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 1 40 0,004

Insulation/Duct 500x350 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 29,7 74.3 m² 100 7,43

Insulation/Duct 500x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 17,7 49.7 m² 100 4,97
Summa meter: 47,4
Insulation/Duct 1100x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 110,3 441.1 m² 100 44,11
Insulation/Bend-30 500x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 2 100 0,08
Insulation/Bend-90 500x350 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 4 100 0,51
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (3) 500x500/500x350 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 2 100 0,11
Summa detaljer: 8
Insulation/Bend-30 500x1100 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,06
Insulation/Bend-30 1100x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 3 100 0,34
Insulation/Bend-90 500x1100 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,24
Insulation/Bend-90 1100x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,43
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (1) 500x500/1100x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,36
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (1) 500x500/1100x500 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,36
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (3) 500x500/500x1100 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,13
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (3) 500x500/500x1100 Brandisolering EI60 80/100mm 1 100 0,36
Summa detaljer: 10
Insulation/Duct 600x350 (EI60 price) Brandisolering EI90 100/100mm 3,4 9.1 m² 100 0,91
Insulation/Duct 700x350 (EI60 price) Brandisolering EI90 100/100mm 2,1 6.1 m² 100 0,61
Insulation/Bend-45 350x600 (EI60 price) Brandisolering EI90 100/100mm 1 100 0,05
Insulation/Bend-45 350x600 (EI60 price) Brandisolering EI90 100/100mm 1 100 0,05
Summa detaljer: 2
Partsum Fire insulation rectangular m3 63,882
Insulation/Duct 1200x700 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 19,5 74.1 m² 50 3,705
Insulation/Duct 1200x900 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 3,5 14.9 m² 50 0,745
Insulation/Duct 900x900 (1000) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 8,2 32.9 m² 50 1,645
Summa längd: 31,2
Insulation/Duct 1600x800 (1500) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1,2 6 m² 50 0,3
Insulation/Duct 1600x800 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 0,1 0.5 m² 50 0,025
Insulation/Duct 1600x900 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1,7 9.1 m² 50 0,455
Insulation/Duct 1600x800 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 0,5 2.6 m² 50 0,13
Summa längd: 3,5
Insulation/Bend-30 1200x900 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,08
Insulation/Bend-90 900x1200/700x1200 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,21
Insulation/Bend-90 1200x900 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,305
Insulation/Bend-90 900x900 (1000) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 2 50 0,415
Insulation/Reducer/Expander (Special) 1200x700/1200x700 (1000) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,175
Summa detaljer: 6
Insulation/Bend-90 1600x800 (1500) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,445
Insulation/Reducer/Expander 1200x900/1600x800 (1500) Inv. värmeisolering 50mm 1 50 0,03
Insulation/Bend-30 1600x900 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1 50 0,12
Insulation/Bend-90 1600x800 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1 50 0,445
Insulation/Reducer/Expander 1600x900/900x900 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1 50 0,05
Insulation/Reducer/Expander 1600x900/1600x800 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1 50 0,005
Insulation/Silencer 1600x900 (1500) Utv. kondensisolering 50mm 1 50 0,34
Summa detaljer: 7
Circular ducts
Insulation/Duct 100 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 5,9 3 m² 30 0,09
Insulation/Duct 125 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 2,9 1.7 m² 30 0,051
Insulation/Duct 160 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 20,3 14 m² 30 0,42
Insulation/Duct 200 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 5,1 4.2 m² 30 0,126
Insulation/Duct 250 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 20,2 19.6 m² 30 0,588
Insulation/Duct 315 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 77,7 91.5 m² 30 2,745
Insulation/Duct 400 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 10,6 15.4 m² 30 0,462
Insulation/Bend-90 100 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 4 30 0,009
Insulation/Flow damper 100 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 2 30 0
Insulation/Silencer 100 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 1 30 0,006
Insulation/Fire damper 100 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 1 30 0,003
Summa detaljer: 8
Insulation/Bend-45 125 Brandisolering EI15 30/40mm 1 30 0
 APPENDIX A
3. Product data decentralized system
AHU and SILENCERS
Quantity Total weight kg cast iron/p kg cast iron kg galv steel/p kg galv steel kg unalloyed steel kg zinc kg alum/p kg alum wrought alloy
AHU Minimaster RKDS (Exchanged after 17 years) 327 40 20 6540,00 13,33333333 4360,00 4277,16 82,84 6,666666667 2180,00
Ass: motor=50%, al/galv steel ratio = 1/3.
Front cover 600x600 mm (Exchanged after 17 years) 327 2,808 918,22 900,77 17,45
Ass: 7.8 kg/m2, 100% galv steel
Silencer (Exchanged after 25 years) BDER 70, 125 mm 327 3,6 3,24 1059,48 1039,35 20,13
Ass: 90% galv steel, cost assumed as BDER 38-012-050

Sources: http://resources.flaktwoods.com/Perfion/File.aspx?id=45e3bc02-2cf7-4be6-a845-b495b2432a0c
https://www.soliduct.se/minimaster-rdks-flakt-woods/p-3310.htm
Control panel estimations
Control Panel Curo Touch (Exchanged after 17 years)
Size assumption: 0,07 x 0,08 m
Diagonal: 0,1063 m wich is 0,1063/0,4318 of one 17 inch screen
Control panel display assump: 80,50 pieces of 17 inch LCD per 327 AHU

Source: https://www.delat.ws/download/RDKZ-41-3%20Curo%20Touch%20Instruktion.pdf
AHU-filters
Filter materials Percentages % Weight kg Filter changes Total material weight
Polystyren 0,58 0,232 50 3793,20 kg
Polyester 0,55 0,22 50 3597,00 kg
Glasfiber 0,02 0,008 50 130,80 kg

Sources: https://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20handling%20units/GOLD%20version%20F/General/_sv/GOLD-bd.pdf
http://www.flaktbutiken.se/flaktwoods-rdkr-rdks-filtersats
DUCTS from Lindab
Size Quantity kg galv steel/p Length (m) kg galv steel/m kg galv steel m2 surface area
Duct Spiro Lindab Safe 100 536,1 1,14 611,15 168,421
Duct Spiro Lindab Safe 125 2665,5 1,41 3758,36 1046,739
Duct Spiro Lindab Safe 160 300,4 2,02 606,81 150,998
Bend-15 Spiro Lindab Safe 125 10 0,18 1,80 0,494
Bend-45 Spiro Lindab Safe 100 71 0,2 14,20 3,898
Bend-45 Spiro Lindab Safe 125 455 0,28 127,40 34,975
Bend-45 Spiro Lindab Safe 160 49 0,45 22,05 6,053
Bend-60 Spiro Lindab Safe 100 8 0,33 2,64 0,725
Bend-60 Spiro Lindab Safe 125 28 0,33 9,24 2,537
Bend-90 Spiro Lindab Safe 100 246 0,2 49,20 13,507
Bend-90 Spiro Lindab Safe 125 823 0,28 230,44 63,263
Bend-90 Spiro Lindab Safe 160 77 0,45 34,65 9,513
Reducer/Expander Spiro Lindab 125/100 362 0,14 50,68 13,913
Reducer/Expander Spiro Lindab 160/100 21 0,16 3,36 0,922
Reducer/Expander Spiro Lindab 160/125 21 0,2 4,20 1,153
S-part Spiro Lindab 125 11 0,56 6,16 1,691
Access panel Spiro Lindab 125 16 0,19 3,04 0,835
Lindab DUCTS unalloyed steel kg 5430,20
Lindab DUCTS zinc kg 105,17
Lindab DUCTS total weight 5535,38

Average kg/m2 for circular ducts 100-160 mm 3,642564122

Used to estimate surface area of bends etc

Outlets and joint parts has been excluded from the list of materials.
S-part is approximated with two Bend-90
The ducts are assumed to be made of 100% galvanazied steel

Source: https://itsolution.lindab.com/LindabWebProductsDoc/PDF/Documentation/ADS/se/Technical/03-Safe-ads.pdf
DUCTS from REC
Quantity Length (m) kg galv steel
AKU-COMP P Duct (25 years) 125 218 132,2 23,44
tot weight (kg) 99,73
% galv steel 23,50
% alum 30,50
% glass wool 34,50
% polyeten 10,00
AKU unalloyed steel kg 22,99
AKU zinc kg 0,45
AKU alum kg 30,42
AKU glass wool kg 34,41
AKU polyeten kg 9,97

Sources: http://www.rec-indovent.se/wp-content/uploads/AKUcomp50.pdf
http://www.rec-indovent.se/wp-content/uploads/BVD-AKU-Comp-25-P.nov17.pdf
AIR DEVICES
Quantity kg galv steel kg alum kg unalloyed steel
Supply air device (17 years) MAXHOME-100 InventiAir 114 153,90 102,60 150,98
Assumed weight (kg) as Swegon ALG 3
Assumed tot weight (kg) 342
% galv steel 45
% alum 30

Extract air device (25 years) Swegon CASA salsa silver-600 218 1373,40 1347,31
Assummed weight (kg) as Siemens LI64MA520 9
Assumed % galv steel 70

Sources: http://www.swegon.com/Global/PDFs/Air%20diffusers/Grille%20diffusers/_sv/ALGc.pdf
https://inventiair.se/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ByggvarudeklarationMaximus.pdf
https://www.elgiganten.se/product/vitvaror/koksflakt-spiskapa/LI64MA520/siemens-flaktkapa-li64ma520#tab-specs-trigger

AIR DEVICES from Bevent Rasch and EKO-vent Quantity weight per p kg alu-zinc
Outdoor/Exhaust air BRVHA-125 40 2 80,00
Outdoor air device BRYJ-2-125-* 52 0,2 10,4
Outdoor air device BRYJ-2-160-* 21 0,3 6,3
Exhaust air device BRYJ-2-125-* 41 0,2 8,2
Exhaust air device BRYJ-2-160-* 21 0,3 6,3
Exhaust air device EKO-HJ-12-1-*-8 11 4 44
Assumed content 100% aluzinc
Sum aluzinc (kg) 155,20
Sum unalloyed steel (kg) 152,10
Aluminum (kg) 1,71
Zinc (kg) 1,40

Sources: http://bevent-rasch.se/wp-content/uploads/BRYJ_produktblad.pdf
http://bevent-rasch.se/wp-content/uploads/BRVHA_produktblad.pdf
http://www.ekovent.se/media/16560/eko-hj_2014.pdf

AIR DEVICES from Halton Quantity weight per p kg epoxi steel

Extract air device URH/A-100 21 0,29 6,09
Extract air device URH/A-125 109 0,4 43,6
Extract air device ULA/N-100(R1) 184 0,37 68,08
Extract air device ULA/N-125(R1) 10 0,47 4,7
Assumption: epoxi steel = unalloyed steel
Unalloyed steel (kg) 122,47

Sources: https://www.halton.com/sv_SE/marine/products/-/product/ULA#technical-tab-1
https://www.halton.com/sv_SE/halton/products/-/product/URH#technical-tab-1=
INSULATION
Polyethylene foam 15 mm thick
Sum insulation area LB1-14 from MagiCAD 500,7 m2
Sum insulation volume 7,5105 m3
Assumed polyethylene foam density (metrofoam) 30 kg/m3
Sum insulation weight 225,32 kg
APPENDIX B
1. System layout LB1-LB3

2. System layout LB4-LB5

 APPENDIX C
Transport assumptions km road tonne tkm lorry 16-32 tonne km ferry tonne tkm ferry
CV system
For products produced by Halton (Flow damper HTT/R) 336,8 0,03 10,104 206 0,03 6,18
from Lahtis in Ginland to Sollentuna
https://www.halton.com/sv_SE/about/halton-in-brief/halton-in-brief
https://www.google.se/maps

For AHU Swegon GOLD

from Kvänum to Sollentuna 361,3 2,07 747,891
https://kartor.eniro.se
http://www.swegon.com/sv/Om-Swegon/Informacje-o-Swegon-AB/Zakady-produkcyjne/Kvanum-fabriken/

For Silencers from Swegon (Cadenza, CLA-A, Facile)

from Fallebergsvägen in Arvika to Sollentuna 365,7 0,75 274,275
http://www.swegon.com/sv/Om-Swegon/Informacje-o-Swegon-AB/Zakady-produkcyjne/Arvika-fabriken/
https://www.hitta.se

For Aerofoil Jvm fire fan

from Fläktwoods in Herne in Germany to sollentuna 1330 0,092 122,36
https://www.google.se/maps
https://www.flaktgroup.com/en/products/air-movement-/fire-safety-fans/ht-axial-fans/ht-jmv-aerofoil-/

For air devices from Swegon (Casa Salsa Silver)

from Industrigatan inTomelilla to Sollentuna 618 0,981 606,258
http://www.swegon.com/sv/Om-Swegon/Informacje-o-Swegon-AB/Zakady-produkcyjne/Tomelilla-fabriken/
https://www.google.se/maps

For air devices from Swegon (Flow damper Siri)

from Industrigatan inTomelilla to Sollentuna 618 0,113 69,834
http://www.swegon.com/sv/Om-Swegon/Informacje-o-Swegon-AB/Zakady-produkcyjne/Tomelilla-fabriken/
https://www.google.se/maps

For products from Bevent-Rasch (Fire damper Fidi and exhaust hood BRTH/BRTG)
from Motala to Sollentuna 260 0,46 119,6
https://www.google.se/maps

For products from Bevent-Rasch (BRYH)

from Motala to Sollentuna 260 0,0594 15,444
https://www.google.se/maps

For air devices from Fläkt Woods (KGEB, KTI, STI) 64,7 0,17 10,999
from Järna to Sollentuna
https://www.google.se/maps

For exhaust air device from Ekovent (EKO-HRK)

Transport neglected due to insignificant weight

For rectangular ducts and parts from Lindab 563 9,10 5125,1838
from Grevie Båstad to Sollentuna
https://www.google.se/maps

For circular ducts and parts from Lindab 563 7,34 4134,7686
from Grevie Båstad to Sollentuna
https://www.google.se/maps

For air device MAXHOME from InventiAir

from Nälden to Sollentuna 572,6 0,0855 48,9573
https://inventiair.se
https://www.google.se/maps

For Rockwool 686 2,843769 1950,8255

From Rockwoolvej in Copenhagen to Sollentuna
https://www.google.se/maps

Maintenance transports km road tonne tkm light commercial vechicle Total service tkm
For service technician from central Stockholm
from Kungsgatan in Stockholm to Sollentuna 16,6 0,05 0,83 per service visit every 6 months 83
https://www.hitta.se

For filters from factory to service firm 375,6 0,023805 8,941158

from Kvänum to Stockholm Kungsgatan
http://www.swegon.com/sv/Om-Swegon/Informacje-o-Swegon-AB/Zakady-produkcyjne/Kvanum-fabriken/
https://kartor.eniro.se

Transport assumptions km road tonne tkm lorry 16-32 tonne km ferry tonne tkm ferry
DV system
For products from Halton (URH/ULA) 336,8 0,15 50,52 206 0,15 30,9
from Lahtis to Sollentuna
https://www.halton.com/sv_SE/about/halton-in-brief/halton-in-brief
https://www.google.se/maps

For AHU from Fläkt woods (Minimaster) 341 4,666072 1591,1306

from Jönköping to Sollentuna
https://www.google.se/maps
 APPENDIX D
1. CV system initial costs
Identitet ArtikelNr Benämning Mängd Enhet Material Tid UE Rabatt Spill Totalpris material Totalpris UE Totaltid
Maxhome Rough assumption, no data available 38,00 st 600,00 -
Silencer Facile Rough assumption, no data available 2,00 st 5 000,00 -
Swegon Casa Salsa Silver Assumption based on Casa Premium Luftbutiken.se 109,00 st 4 000,00 -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612108h1 LindabRekt LKR-400-200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612117h1 LindabRekt LKR-600-400 kanal 77,40 m 770,00 0,58 - - 1,00 59 598,00 - 44,89
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612122h1 LindabRekt LKR-800-400 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612124h1 LindabRekt LKR-800-600 kanal 59,20 m 1 078,00 0,78 - - 1,00 63 817,60 - 46,18
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612127h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-400 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612129h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-600 kanal 110,30 m 1 478,40 0,87 - - 1,00 163 067,52 - 95,96
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612130h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-800 kanal 38,70 m 1 663,20 0,97 - - 1,00 64 365,84 - 37,54
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612135h1 LindabRekt LKR-1200-600 kanal 19,50 m 1 663,20 0,97 - - 1,00 32 432,40 - 18,92
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612136h1 LindabRekt LKR-1200-800 kanal 24,10 m 1 848,00 1,06 - - 1,00 44 536,80 - 25,55
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612149h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-800 kanal 5,30 m 2 625,60 1,26 - - 1,00 13 915,68 - 6,68
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612150h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-1000 kanal 2,20 m 2 844,40 1,35 - - 1,00 6 257,68 - 2,97
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612151h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-1200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612158h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612160h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1600 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612161h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1800 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612166h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-1200 kanal 2,00 m 3 500,80 1,64 - - 1,00 7 001,60 - 3,28
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612168h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-1600 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612170h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-2000 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613108h1 LindabRekt LBR-400-200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613117h1 LindabRekt LBR-600-400-90 böj 6,00 st 1 040,50 0,24 - - 1,00 6 243,00 - 1,44
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613122h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-400-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613124h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-600-90 böj 6,00 st 1 517,90 0,34 - - 1,00 9 107,40 - 2,04
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613127h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-400-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613129h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-600-90 böj 2,00 st 2 523,50 0,39 - - 1,00 5 047,00 - 0,78
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613130h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-800-90 böj 4,00 st 2 754,50 0,44 - - 1,00 11 018,00 - 1,76
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613135h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613136h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-800-90 böj 6,00 st 3 355,10 0,48 - - 1,00 20 130,60 - 2,88
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613149h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-800-90 böj 2,00 st 5 629,36 0,58 - - 1,00 11 258,72 - 1,16
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613150h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1000-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613151h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613158h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613160h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613161h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1800-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613166h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1200-90 böj 1,00 st 8 648,80 0,77 - - 1,00 8 648,80 - 0,77
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613168h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613170h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-2000-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613208h1 LindabRekt LBR-400-200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613217h1 LindabRekt LBR-600-400-45 böj 4,00 st 1 040,50 0,24 - - 1,00 4 162,00 - 0,96
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613222h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-400-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613224h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-600-45 böj 2,00 st 1 517,90 0,34 - - 1,00 3 035,80 - 0,68
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613227h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-400-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613229h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-600-45 böj 4,00 st 2 523,50 0,39 - - 1,00 10 094,00 - 1,56
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613230h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-800-45 böj 2,00 st 2 754,50 0,44 - - 1,00 5 509,00 - 0,88
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613235h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613236h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-800-45 böj 2,00 st 3 355,10 0,48 - - 1,00 6 710,20 - 0,96
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613249h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-800-45 böj 1,00 st 5 629,36 0,58 - - 1,00 5 629,36 - 0,58
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613250h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1000-45 böj 1,00 st 6 034,14 0,63 - - 1,00 6 034,14 - 0,63
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613251h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613258h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613260h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613261h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1800-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613266h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613268h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613270h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-2000-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613708h1 LindabRekt LTTR-400-200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613717h1 LindabRekt LTTR-600-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613722h1 LindabRekt LTTR-800-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613724h1 LindabRekt LTTR-800-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613727h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613729h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613730h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613735h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1200-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613736h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1200-800 T-rör 2,00 st 3 217,48 0,52 - - 1,00 6 434,96 - 1,04
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613749h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613750h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-1000 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613751h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613758h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613760h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613761h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613766h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613768h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-1600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613770h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-2000 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613507h1 LindabRekt LDR-400-200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613516h1 LindabRekt LDR-600-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 10,00 st 925,50 0,24 - - 1,00 9 255,00 - 2,40
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613521h1 LindabRekt LDR-800-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613523h1 LindabRekt LDR-800-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613526h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613528h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613529h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 2,00 st 1 713,44 0,44 - - 1,00 3 426,88 - 0,88
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613534h1 LindabRekt LDR-1200-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613535h1 LindabRekt LDR-1200-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 3,00 st 1 796,60 0,48 - - 1,00 5 389,80 - 1,44
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613548h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 5,00 st 2 339,52 0,58 - - 1,00 11 697,60 - 2,90
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613549h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-1000-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613550h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613557h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613559h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613560h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613565h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613567h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-1600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613569h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-2000-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
V9899991 Cadenza Ljuddämpare för rektangulära kanaler 1,00 st 34 427,00 - - - 1,00 34 427,00 - -
CLA-A ljuddämpare 160-500 V9899991 1,00 st - - - - 1,00 - - -
CLA-A ljuddämpare 160-500 V2445105 Swe CLA-A 160-500 rekt ld 17,00 st 1 780,00 - - - 1,00 30 260,00 - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V9899991 1,00 st - - - - 1,00 - - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V2445105 Swe CLA-A 160-500 rekt ld 1,00 st 1 780,00 - - - 1,00 1 780,00 - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V2445101 Swe CLA-A 100-500 rekt ld 1,00 st 1 380,00 - - - 1,00 1 380,00 - -
Lindab SR kanaler V0112103h1 Lindab SR 100 kanal 739,70 m 104,33 0,19 - 0,40 1,00 77 172,90 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112104h1 Lindab SR 125 kanal 960,50 m 130,67 0,21 - 0,40 1,00 125 508,54 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112105h1 Lindab SR 160 kanal 135,50 m 157,33 0,22 - 0,40 1,00 21 318,22 - 29,81
Lindab SR kanaler V0112106h1 Lindab SR 200 kanal 113,90 m 221,33 0,24 - 0,40 1,00 25 209,49 - 27,34
Lindab SR kanaler V0112107h1 Lindab SR 250 kanal 249,60 m 271,00 0,26 - 0,40 1,00 67 641,60 - 64,90
Lindab SR kanaler V0112108h1 Lindab SR 315 kanal 539,10 m 355,67 0,33 - 0,40 1,00 191 741,70 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112109h1 Lindab SR 400 kanal 21,90 m 546,00 0,39 - 0,40 1,00 11 957,40 - 8,54
Lindab SR kanaler V0112111h1 Lindab SR 630 kanal 1,00 m 864,33 0,52 - 0,40 1,00 864,33 - 0,52
Lindab BU böjar V0113105h1 Lindab BU 63 90 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113106h1 Lindab BU 80 15 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113107h1 Lindab BU 80 30 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113108h1 Lindab BU 80 45 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113109h1 Lindab BU 80 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113110h1 Lindab BU 80 90 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113111h1 Lindab BU 100 15 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113112h1 Lindab BU 100 30 böj 5,00 st 106,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 530,00 - 0,40
Lindab BU böjar V0113113h1 Lindab BU 100 45 böj 245,00 st 110,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 26 950,00 - 19,60
Lindab BU böjar V0113114h1 Lindab BU 100 60 böj 4,00 st 127,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 508,00 - 0,32
Lindab BU böjar V0113115h1 Lindab BU 100 90 böj 225,00 st 127,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 28 575,00 - 18,00
Lindab BU böjar V0113116h1 Lindab BU 125 15 böj 16,00 st 145,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 2 320,00 - 1,28
Lindab BU böjar V0113117h1 Lindab BU 125 30 böj 16,00 st 119,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 1 904,00 - 1,28
Lindab BU böjar V0113118h1 Lindab BU 125 45 böj 134,00 st 126,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 16 884,00 - 10,72
Lindab BU böjar V0113119h1 Lindab BU 125 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113120h1 Lindab BU 125 90 böj 370,00 st 158,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 58 460,00 - 29,60
Lindab BU böjar V0113121h1 Lindab BU 160 15 böj 1,00 st 161,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 161,00 - 0,08
Lindab BU böjar V0113122h1 Lindab BU 160 30 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113123h1 Lindab BU 160 45 böj 6,00 st 159,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 954,00 - 0,48
Lindab BU böjar V0113124h1 Lindab BU 160 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113125h1 Lindab BU 160 90 böj 58,00 st 214,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 12 412,00 - 4,64
 APPENDIX D
2. CV system initial and replacement costs (50 years)
Identitet ArtikelNr Benämning Mängd Enhet Material Tid UE Rabatt Spill Totalpris material Totalpris UE Totaltid
Maxhome Rough assumption, no data available 114,00 st 600,00 -
Silencer Facile Rough assumption, no data available 4,00 st 5 000,00 -
Swegon Casa Salsa Silver Assumption based on Casa Premium Luftbutiken.se 218,00 st 4 000,00 -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612108h1 LindabRekt LKR-400-200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612117h1 LindabRekt LKR-600-400 kanal 77,40 m 770,00 0,58 - - 1,00 59 598,00 - 44,89
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612122h1 LindabRekt LKR-800-400 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612124h1 LindabRekt LKR-800-600 kanal 59,20 m 1 078,00 0,78 - - 1,00 63 817,60 - 46,18
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612127h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-400 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612129h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-600 kanal 110,30 m 1 478,40 0,87 - - 1,00 163 067,52 - 95,96
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612130h1 LindabRekt LKR-1000-800 kanal 38,70 m 1 663,20 0,97 - - 1,00 64 365,84 - 37,54
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612135h1 LindabRekt LKR-1200-600 kanal 19,50 m 1 663,20 0,97 - - 1,00 32 432,40 - 18,92
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612136h1 LindabRekt LKR-1200-800 kanal 24,10 m 1 848,00 1,06 - - 1,00 44 536,80 - 25,55
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612149h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-800 kanal 5,30 m 2 625,60 1,26 - - 1,00 13 915,68 - 6,68
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612150h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-1000 kanal 2,20 m 2 844,40 1,35 - - 1,00 6 257,68 - 2,97
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612151h1 LindabRekt LKR-1600-1200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612158h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1200 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612160h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1600 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612161h1 LindabRekt LKR-1800-1800 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612166h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-1200 kanal 2,00 m 3 500,80 1,64 - - 1,00 7 001,60 - 3,28
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612168h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-1600 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LKR kanaler V0612170h1 LindabRekt LKR-2000-2000 kanal - m - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613108h1 LindabRekt LBR-400-200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613117h1 LindabRekt LBR-600-400-90 böj 6,00 st 1 040,50 0,24 - - 1,00 6 243,00 - 1,44
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613122h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-400-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613124h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-600-90 böj 6,00 st 1 517,90 0,34 - - 1,00 9 107,40 - 2,04
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613127h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-400-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613129h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-600-90 böj 2,00 st 2 523,50 0,39 - - 1,00 5 047,00 - 0,78
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613130h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-800-90 böj 4,00 st 2 754,50 0,44 - - 1,00 11 018,00 - 1,76
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613135h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613136h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-800-90 böj 6,00 st 3 355,10 0,48 - - 1,00 20 130,60 - 2,88
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613149h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-800-90 böj 2,00 st 5 629,36 0,58 - - 1,00 11 258,72 - 1,16
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613150h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1000-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613151h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613158h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1200-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613160h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613161h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1800-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613166h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1200-90 böj 1,00 st 8 648,80 0,77 - - 1,00 8 648,80 - 0,77
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613168h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1600-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613170h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-2000-90 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613208h1 LindabRekt LBR-400-200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613217h1 LindabRekt LBR-600-400-45 böj 4,00 st 1 040,50 0,24 - - 1,00 4 162,00 - 0,96
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613222h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-400-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613224h1 LindabRekt LBR-800-600-45 böj 2,00 st 1 517,90 0,34 - - 1,00 3 035,80 - 0,68
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613227h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-400-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613229h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-600-45 böj 4,00 st 2 523,50 0,39 - - 1,00 10 094,00 - 1,56
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613230h1 LindabRekt LBR-1000-800-45 böj 2,00 st 2 754,50 0,44 - - 1,00 5 509,00 - 0,88
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613235h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613236h1 LindabRekt LBR-1200-800-45 böj 2,00 st 3 355,10 0,48 - - 1,00 6 710,20 - 0,96
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613249h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-800-45 böj 1,00 st 5 629,36 0,58 - - 1,00 5 629,36 - 0,58
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613250h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1000-45 böj 1,00 st 6 034,14 0,63 - - 1,00 6 034,14 - 0,63
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613251h1 LindabRekt LBR-1600-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613258h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613260h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613261h1 LindabRekt LBR-1800-1800-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613266h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1200-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613268h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-1600-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LBR böjar V0613270h1 LindabRekt LBR-2000-2000-45 böj - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613708h1 LindabRekt LTTR-400-200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613717h1 LindabRekt LTTR-600-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613722h1 LindabRekt LTTR-800-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613724h1 LindabRekt LTTR-800-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613727h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-400 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613729h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613730h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1000-800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613735h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1200-600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613736h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1200-800 T-rör 2,00 st 3 217,48 0,52 - - 1,00 6 434,96 - 1,04
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613749h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613750h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-1000 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613751h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1600-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613758h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613760h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613761h1 LindabRekt LTTR-1800-1800 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613766h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-1200 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613768h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-1600 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LTTR T-stycken V0613770h1 LindabRekt LTTR-2000-2000 T-rör - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613507h1 LindabRekt LDR-400-200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613516h1 LindabRekt LDR-600-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 10,00 st 925,50 0,24 - - 1,00 9 255,00 - 2,40
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613521h1 LindabRekt LDR-800-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613523h1 LindabRekt LDR-800-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613526h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-400-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613528h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613529h1 LindabRekt LDR-1000-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 2,00 st 1 713,44 0,44 - - 1,00 3 426,88 - 0,88
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613534h1 LindabRekt LDR-1200-600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613535h1 LindabRekt LDR-1200-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 3,00 st 1 796,60 0,48 - - 1,00 5 389,80 - 1,44
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613548h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. 5,00 st 2 339,52 0,58 - - 1,00 11 697,60 - 2,90
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613549h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-1000-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613550h1 LindabRekt LDR-1600-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613557h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613559h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613560h1 LindabRekt LDR-1800-1800-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613565h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-1200-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613567h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-1600-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
LindabRekt LDR reduktioner V0613569h1 LindabRekt LDR-2000-2000-c-d-1-450 dim-förändr. - st - - - - 1,00 - - -
Cadenza Ljuddämpare för rektangulära kanaler V9899991 2,00 st 34 427,00 - - - 1,00 68 854,00 - -
CLA-A ljuddämpare 160-500 V9899991 1,00 st - - - - 1,00 - - -
CLA-A ljuddämpare 160-500 V2445105 Swe CLA-A 160-500 rekt ld 34,00 st 1 780,00 - - - 1,00 60 520,00 - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V9899991 1,00 st - - - - 1,00 - - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V2445105 Swe CLA-A 160-500 rekt ld 1,00 st 1 780,00 - - - 1,00 1 780,00 - -
CLA-A Ljuddämpare 100-500 V2445101 Swe CLA-A 100-500 rekt ld 2,00 st 1 380,00 - - - 1,00 2 760,00 - -
Lindab SR kanaler V0112103h1 Lindab SR 100 kanal 739,70 m 104,33 0,19 - 0,40 1,00 77 172,90 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112104h1 Lindab SR 125 kanal 960,50 m 130,67 0,21 - 0,40 1,00 125 508,54 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112105h1 Lindab SR 160 kanal 135,50 m 157,33 0,22 - 0,40 1,00 21 318,22 - 29,81
Lindab SR kanaler V0112106h1 Lindab SR 200 kanal 113,90 m 221,33 0,24 - 0,40 1,00 25 209,49 - 27,34
Lindab SR kanaler V0112107h1 Lindab SR 250 kanal 249,60 m 271,00 0,26 - 0,40 1,00 67 641,60 - 64,90
Lindab SR kanaler V0112108h1 Lindab SR 315 kanal 539,10 m 355,67 0,33 - 0,40 1,00 191 741,70 - #######
Lindab SR kanaler V0112109h1 Lindab SR 400 kanal 21,90 m 546,00 0,39 - 0,40 1,00 11 957,40 - 8,54
Lindab SR kanaler V0112111h1 Lindab SR 630 kanal 1,00 m 864,33 0,52 - 0,40 1,00 864,33 - 0,52
Lindab BU böjar V0113105h1 Lindab BU 63 90 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113106h1 Lindab BU 80 15 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113107h1 Lindab BU 80 30 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113108h1 Lindab BU 80 45 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113109h1 Lindab BU 80 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113110h1 Lindab BU 80 90 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113111h1 Lindab BU 100 15 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113112h1 Lindab BU 100 30 böj 5,00 st 106,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 530,00 - 0,40
Lindab BU böjar V0113113h1 Lindab BU 100 45 böj 245,00 st 110,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 26 950,00 - 19,60
Lindab BU böjar V0113114h1 Lindab BU 100 60 böj 4,00 st 127,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 508,00 - 0,32
Lindab BU böjar V0113115h1 Lindab BU 100 90 böj 225,00 st 127,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 28 575,00 - 18,00
Lindab BU böjar V0113116h1 Lindab BU 125 15 böj 16,00 st 145,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 2 320,00 - 1,28
Lindab BU böjar V0113117h1 Lindab BU 125 30 böj 16,00 st 119,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 1 904,00 - 1,28
Lindab BU böjar V0113118h1 Lindab BU 125 45 böj 134,00 st 126,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 16 884,00 - 10,72
Lindab BU böjar V0113119h1 Lindab BU 125 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113120h1 Lindab BU 125 90 böj 370,00 st 158,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 58 460,00 - 29,60
Lindab BU böjar V0113121h1 Lindab BU 160 15 böj 1,00 st 161,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 161,00 - 0,08
Lindab BU böjar V0113122h1 Lindab BU 160 30 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113123h1 Lindab BU 160 45 böj 6,00 st 159,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 954,00 - 0,48
Lindab BU böjar V0113124h1 Lindab BU 160 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113125h1 Lindab BU 160 90 böj 58,00 st 214,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 12 412,00 - 4,64
Lindab BU böjar V0113126h1 Lindab BU 200 15 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113127h1 Lindab BU 200 30 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113128h1 Lindab BU 200 45 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113129h1 Lindab BU 200 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113130h1 Lindab BU 200 90 böj 13,00 st 282,00 0,08 - 0,40 1,00 3 666,00 - 1,04
Lindab BU böjar V0113132h1 Lindab BU 250 30 böj 3,00 st 299,00 0,09 - 0,40 1,00 897,00 - 0,27
Lindab BU böjar V0113133h1 Lindab BU 250 45 böj 21,00 st 301,00 0,09 - 0,40 1,00 6 321,00 - 1,89
Lindab BU böjar V0113134h1 Lindab BU 250 60 böj - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BU böjar V0113135h1 Lindab BU 250 90 böj 36,00 st 416,00 0,09 - 0,40 1,00 14 976,00 - 3,24
Lindab BFU böjar V0113201h1 Lindab BFU 250 15 böj segm - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
Lindab BFU böjar V0113202h1 Lindab BFU 250 30 böj segm - st - - - 0,40 1,00 - - -
3. DV system initial costs
Identitet ArtikelNr Benämning Mängd Enhet Material Tid Rabatt Spill Totalkostnad Totaltid
Minimaster RDKS Price from Luftbutiken.se 109,00 st 18000,00 3,00 1 962 000,00 327,00
Minimaster Curo Touch Price from Luftbutiken.se 109,00 st 1240,00 135 160,00
Maxhome Rough assumption, no data available 38,00 st 600,00 22 800,00 -
Swegon Casa Salsa Silver Assumption based on Casa Premium Luftbutiken.se 109,00 st 4000,00 436 000,00 -
Insulation RDKZ-45-16 Price from webshop.flaktwoods.com 170,00 m 196,00 33 320,00
Insulation RDKZ-45-12 Price from webshop.flaktwoods.com 699,00 m 148,80 104 011,20
Lindab SR kanaler V0112103h1 Lindab SR 100 kanal 536,10 m 104,33 0,19 40,00% 1,00 55 931,31 101,86
Lindab SR kanaler V0112104h1 Lindab SR 125 kanal 2665,50 m 130,67 0,21 40,00% 1,00 348 300,89 559,76
Lindab SR kanaler V0112105h1 Lindab SR 160 kanal 300,40 m 157,33 0,22 40,00% 1,00 47 261,93 66,09
Lindab BU böjar V0113113h1 Lindab BU 100 45 böj 71,00 st 110,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 7 810,00 5,68
Lindab BU böjar V0113114h1 Lindab BU 100 60 böj 8,00 st 127,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 1 016,00 0,64
Lindab BU böjar V0113115h1 Lindab BU 100 90 böj 246,00 st 127,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 31 242,00 19,68
Lindab BU böjar V0113116h1 Lindab BU 125 15 böj 10,00 st 145,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 1 450,00 0,80
Lindab BU böjar V0113118h1 Lindab BU 125 45 böj 455,00 st 126,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 57 330,00 36,40
Lindab BU böjar V0113119h1 Lindab BU 125 60 böj 28,00 st 158,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 4 424,00 2,24
Lindab BU böjar V0113120h1 Lindab BU 125 90 böj 834,00 st 158,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 131 772,00 66,72
Lindab BU böjar V0113123h1 Lindab BU 160 45 böj 49,00 st 159,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 7 791,00 3,92
Lindab BU böjar V0113125h1 Lindab BU 160 90 böj 77,00 st 214,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 16 478,00 6,16
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114605h1 Lindab RCU 125 100 reduktion 365,00 st 103,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 37 595,00 29,20
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114607h1 Lindab RCU 160 100 reduktion 21,00 st 105,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 2 205,00 1,68
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114608h1 Lindab RCU 160 125 reduktion 21,00 st 105,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 2 205,00 1,68
Flexibel ljuddämpande kanal V2490103 REC Aku-komp P 125 ljuddämpare L = 600 109,00 st 308,00 0,00 20,00% 1,00 33 572,00 -
Tilluftsdon Halton V6246101 Halton ULA 100 till/frånluftsdon 184,00 st 561,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 103 224,00 -
Tilluftsdon Halton V6246102 Halton ULA 125 till/frånluftsdon 10,00 st 604,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 6 040,00 -
Frånluftsdon Halton V6336011 Halton URH/A 100 kontrollventil 21,00 st 154,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 3 234,00 -
Frånluftsdon Halton V6336012 Halton URH/A 125 kontrollventil 109,00 st 198,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 21 582,00 -
Kombidon Yttervägg V1304302 Hagab KDHA 125 kombidon vägg 40,00 st 4170,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 166 800,00 -
Ytterväggsgaller V1003922 BR BRYJ-2-125-0 yvg 93,00 st 126,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 11 718,00 -
Ytterväggsgaller V1003923 BR BRYJ-2-160-0 yvg 42,00 st 164,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 6 888,00 -
Takhuv V1300681 EKO-HJ 12 jethuv 11,00 st 1067,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 11 737,00 -
Rensluckor V0115122 Lindab KC 125 renslucka 16,00 st 227,00 0,00 40,00% 1,00 3 632,00 -
Ljuddämpare V2460504 Velod BDER-38-012-050 ljudd 109,00 st 1215,00 0,00 20,00% 1,00 132 435,00 -

Summa material 3 946 965,33

Summa timmar 1 229,50

Timlön 188,00
Påslag 295% 2,95
Arbetskostnad 681 881,81

TOTALKOSTNAD DV 4 628 847,14

TOTALKOSTNAD CV 3 639 379,88

Ratio DV/CV 1,27
Difference DV-CV 989 467,26
DV more expensive - 27,19 %
Required extra A_sale at 40kkr/m2 24,74 m2
4. DV system initial and replacement costs (50 years)
Identitet ArtikelNr Benämning Mängd Enhet Material Tid Rabatt Spill Totalkostnad Totaltid
Minimaster RDKS Price from Luftbutiken.se 327,00 st 18000,00 3,00 5 886 000,00 981,00
Minimaster Curo Touch Price from Luftbutiken.se 327,00 st 1240,00 405 480,00
Maxhome Rough assumption, no data available 114,00 st 600,00 68 400,00 -
Swegon Casa Salsa Silver Assumption based on Casa Premium Luftbutiken.se 218,00 st 4000,00 872 000,00 -
Insulation RDKZ-45-16 Price from webshop.flaktwoods.com 170,00 m 196,00 33 320,00
Insulation RDKZ-45-12 Price from webshop.flaktwoods.com 699,00 m 148,80 104 011,20
Lindab SR kanaler V0112103h1 Lindab SR 100 kanal 536,10 m 104,33 0,19 40,00% 1,00 55 931,31 101,86
Lindab SR kanaler V0112104h1 Lindab SR 125 kanal 2665,50 m 130,67 0,21 40,00% 1,00 348 300,89 559,76
Lindab SR kanaler V0112105h1 Lindab SR 160 kanal 300,40 m 157,33 0,22 40,00% 1,00 47 261,93 66,09
Lindab BU böjar V0113113h1 Lindab BU 100 45 böj 71,00 st 110,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 7 810,00 5,68
Lindab BU böjar V0113114h1 Lindab BU 100 60 böj 8,00 st 127,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 1 016,00 0,64
Lindab BU böjar V0113115h1 Lindab BU 100 90 böj 246,00 st 127,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 31 242,00 19,68
Lindab BU böjar V0113116h1 Lindab BU 125 15 böj 10,00 st 145,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 1 450,00 0,80
Lindab BU böjar V0113118h1 Lindab BU 125 45 böj 455,00 st 126,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 57 330,00 36,40
Lindab BU böjar V0113119h1 Lindab BU 125 60 böj 28,00 st 158,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 4 424,00 2,24
Lindab BU böjar V0113120h1 Lindab BU 125 90 böj 834,00 st 158,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 131 772,00 66,72
Lindab BU böjar V0113123h1 Lindab BU 160 45 böj 49,00 st 159,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 7 791,00 3,92
Lindab BU böjar V0113125h1 Lindab BU 160 90 böj 77,00 st 214,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 16 478,00 6,16
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114605h1 Lindab RCU 125 100 reduktion 365,00 st 103,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 37 595,00 29,20
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114607h1 Lindab RCU 160 100 reduktion 21,00 st 105,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 2 205,00 1,68
Lindab RCU reduktioner V0114608h1 Lindab RCU 160 125 reduktion 21,00 st 105,00 0,08 40,00% 1,00 2 205,00 1,68
Flexibel ljuddämpande kanal V2490103 REC Aku-komp P 125 ljuddämpare L = 600 218,00 st 308,00 0,00 20,00% 1,00 67 144,00 -
Tilluftsdon Halton V6246101 Halton ULA 100 till/frånluftsdon 184,00 st 561,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 103 224,00 -
Tilluftsdon Halton V6246102 Halton ULA 125 till/frånluftsdon 10,00 st 604,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 6 040,00 -
Frånluftsdon Halton V6336011 Halton URH/A 100 kontrollventil 21,00 st 154,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 3 234,00 -
Frånluftsdon Halton V6336012 Halton URH/A 125 kontrollventil 109,00 st 198,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 21 582,00 -
Kombidon Yttervägg V1304302 Hagab KDHA 125 kombidon vägg 40,00 st 4170,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 166 800,00 -
Ytterväggsgaller V1003922 BR BRYJ-2-125-0 yvg 93,00 st 126,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 11 718,00 -
Ytterväggsgaller V1003923 BR BRYJ-2-160-0 yvg 42,00 st 164,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 6 888,00 -
Takhuv V1300681 EKO-HJ 12 jethuv 11,00 st 1067,00 0,00 0,00% 1,00 11 737,00 -
Rensluckor V0115122 Lindab KC 125 renslucka 16,00 st 227,00 0,00 40,00% 1,00 3 632,00 -
Ljuddämpare V2460504 Velod BDER-38-012-050 ljudd 218,00 st 1215,00 0,00 20,00% 1,00 264 870,00 -

Summa material 8 788 892,33

Summa timmar 1 883,50

Timlön 188,00
Påslag 295% 2,95
Arbetskostnad 1 044 590,21

TOTALKOSTNAD DV 9 833 482,54

DV initial costs 4 628 847,14 kr
Ratio DV total inv costs/initial 2,12 kr 112% increase compared to initial costs
TRITA -ITM-EX 2018:509

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