Module 2

EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.
Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
MODULE 2 – PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Module 2
Time domain analysis of control systems: Time domain specifications of transient and steady state
responses- Impulse and Step responses of first and second order systems Pole dominance for higher
order systems.
Error analysis: Steady state error analysis and error constants -Dynamic error coefficients.
Stability Analysis: Concept of BIBO stability and Asymptotic stability- Time response for various
pole locations- stability of feedback systems - Routh's stability criterion - Relative stability
TIME RESPONSE
When an excitation is applied at the input terminals of a system, an output c(t) is produced at the output
terminals. The output varies with time.
The time response of a system is the output of the system as a function of time, when subjected to a
known input.
The time response of a control system is divided into two parts:
i) Transient response
ii) Steady-state response
In control system, the transient response is defined as that part of the time response that goes to zero
as time becomes very large.
The steady-state response of the system is the response of the system for a given input that remains
after the transient has died out.
In steady-state, the output response settles to its final steady-state value or steady oscillations.
STANDARD TEST SIGNALS
The inputs to many practical control systems are not exactly known ahead of time. For the purpose of
analysis and design, it is necessary to assume some basic types of test inputs so that the performance of
a system can be evaluated. Most commonly used test inputs are i) step function ii) ramp function iii)
parabolic function and iv) impulse function. When the response of a linear time-invariant system is
analyzed in the frequency domain, a sinusoidal input with variable frequency is used.
STEP FUNCTION RAMP FUNCTION

r (t )  0; t  0 For unit step, r (t )  0; t  0 For unit ramp,
r (t )  A; t  0 A =1; r (t )  At; t  0 A =1;
1 1
A R (s)  A R(s) 
R (s)  s R(s)  s2
s s2
Page 39 of 187
EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G. Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur
PARABOLIC FUNCTION UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

r (t )  0; t  0 For unit parabolic,  (t )  0; t  0
At 2 A =1; 
r (t ) 
2
;t  0 1
R (s)  3
Lt
 0   (t )dt  1

s
A
R (s)  It is a pulse of width A and height 1/A where A is
s3
nearly zero. Area of the pulse is unity.
R(s)  1
The derivative of a parabolic function is a ramp function

The derivative of a ramp function is a step function
The derivative of a step function is an impulse function
Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.
C (s) G (s)

R (s) 1  G (s ) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = closed-loop transfer function and
R( s)
G ( s ) H ( s ) = open-loop transfer function of closed-
loop system
For a unity feedback system, H(s) = 1.
Here, c(t) is the time response.
TIME-RESPONSE FOR A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
For a first order system with unity feedback, G ( s )  1 and H (s )  1 .

sT
1
Closed loop transfer function, C ( s ) sT 1
 
R ( s ) 1  1 1  sT
sT
Page 40 of 187
RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT STEP INPUT
For a first order system, closed loop transfer function is given by,
C (s) 1

R ( s ) 1  sT
1
C (s)  R (s)
1  sT
For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

s
1 1
C (s)  
1  sT s
1
T A B 1 1
C (s)     
1 s s 1 s s 1
s(s  )
T T T
t

c (t )  1  e T
c (0)  0 and c ()  1
At t = T, c (t  T )  1  0.368  0.632 ; output reaches 63.2% of its final value.
Time constant is defined as the time required for the output response to attain 63.2% of its final or
steady-state value.
For t = 4T, the response reaches around 98.2% of final value. Time required for the response to settle
down and stay within a tolerance band of 2% is called settling time Ts. (Sometimes tolerance may be
5%).
Settling time, Ts  4T
Smaller the time constant, the faster the system response.
Page 41 of 187
RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT IMPULSE INPUT
For a first order system, closed loop transfer function is given by,
C (s) 1

R ( s ) 1  sT
1
C (s)  R (s)
1  sT
For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .
1 1 1
C (s)   
1  sT T s  1
T
1  Tt
c (t )  e
T
RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
Standard form of closed loop transfer function of a second order system is,
C (s) n2 n = undamped natural frequency

 2
R ( s ) s  2  n s   n 2  = damping ratio
n 2 n 2
s ( s  2n ) s 2  2n s  n 2
Characteristic equation is
s 2  2  n s   n 2  0
Roots of characteristics equation will be
 2 n  4  2  n 2  4 n 2
s1 , s 2     n   n  2  1
2
 0 s1 , s 2   j n Roots are purely imaginary; system is undamped

 1 s1 , s 2    n Roots are real and equal; system is critically damped
 1 s1 , s2   n   n  2  1 Roots are real and unequal; system is overdamped
Page 42 of 187
0   1 s1 , s2   n  j n 1   2 Roots are complex conjugate; system is underdamped

d = damped frequency of oscillations
d  n 1   2
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)
C (s) n2 ; 0   1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s  2  n s   n 2
2

s
n2 A Bs  C
C (s)    2
s ( s 2  2 n s   n 2 ) s s  2 n s   n 2
A  sC(s) s0  1
 n 2  ( s 2  2  n s   n 2 )  B s 2  C s
 n 2  (1  B ) s 2  (2  n  C ) s   n 2
1 B  0 B  1
2 n  C  0 C   2 n
1 s  2 n 1 s  2 n
C (s)   2  
s s  2 n s   n 2
s ( s   n ) 2   2 n 2   n 2
1 s  2 n
 
s ( s   n ) 2   n 2 (1   2 )
1 s   n  n
  
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
( s   n ) 2   d 2
1 s   n  n d
  
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
 d ( s   n ) 2   d 2
1 s  n  d
  
s ( s  n )  d
2 2
1   ( s  n )   d
2 2 2
 e   n t
c (t )  1  e   n t cos  d t  e  n t sin  d t  1  ( 1   2 cos  d t   sin  d t )
1  2
1  2
Let cos    ; sin   1   2
Page 43 of 187
e   n t e  n t
c (t )  1  (sin  cos  d t  cos  sin  d t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2 1  2
e   n t
c (t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2
c (0)  0
c ()  1
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY-DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 1)
C (s) n2 n2 ;  1

 2 
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2 ( s   n ) 2

s
n2 A B C
C (s)    
s(s  n ) 2
s (s  n ) 2
s  n
A  sC ( s ) s  0  1
B  (s  n )2 C (s)   n
s  n
d d n2  n 2
C  (s  n )2 C (s)    1
ds s  n ds s s  n
s2 s  n
n2 1 n 1
C (s)    
s(s  n ) 2
s (s  n ) 2
s  n
c ( t )  1   n te   n t  e   n t
Page 44 of 187
UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 0)
C (s)  2
 2 n 2 ;  0
R (s) s  n

s
n2 A Bs  C
C (s)   
s(s  n2 ) s s 2  n2
2
A  sC ( s ) s  0  1
 n 2  s 2   n 2  Bs 2  Cs
1 B  0
B = -1
C=0
n2 1 s
C (s)    2
s(s  n ) s s  n2
2 2
c (t )  1  cos  n t
This response does not die out with time.

UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF OVERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( > 1)
C (s) n2 ;  1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
Roots are, s1 , s2   n   n  2  1
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s  2  n s   n 2
2

s
n2 n2 A B C
C (s)     
s ( s  2 n s   n ) s ( s  s1 )( s  s 2 )
2 2
s s  s1 s  s 2
n2
A 1 since s1 s 2   2  n 2   n 2 ( 2  1)
s1 s 2
n 2 n 1
B   since s1  s 2  2 n  2  1
s1 ( s1  s2 ) 2  1 2 s1
n 2  n 1
C  
s2 ( s2  s1 ) 2  1
2 s2
1 n  1 1 
C ( s)     
s 2   1  s1 ( s  s1 ) s 2 ( s  s 2 ) 
2
Page 45 of 187
n  e s1t e s2 t 
c (t )  1     where s1   n   n  2  1 and s2   n   n  2  1
2  2  1  s1 s2 
No oscillations in the response; but takes longer time for the response to reach the final steady value.
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CASES OF STEP RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
UNIT IMPULSE RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)
C (s) n2 ; 0   1
 2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2
Page 46 of 187
n2
C (s)  R (s)
s 2  2  n s   n 2
For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .
n2 1  n 2 (1   2 ) 1 d 2
C (s)     
s  2 n s   n
2 2
(1   ) ( s   n )   n (1   )
2 2 2 2
(1   ) ( s   n ) 2   d 2
2
d d
C (s)  
(1   ) ( s   n ) 2   d 2
2
n
c (t )  e n t sin d t
1  2
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
The performance of a system in time domain is usually evaluated in terms of the following qualities
1. How fast it is able to respond to the input?

2. How fast it is reaching the desired output?
3. What is the error between the desired output and the actual output, once the transients die down
and steady state is achieved?
4. Does it oscillate around the desired value?
5. Is the output continuously increasing with time or is it bounded?
6. Our system is Stable or not?
Page 47 of 187
In specifying the transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step function, the
following quantities are commonly specified:
1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Peak time
4. Maximum overshoot
5. Settling time
Delay time td The time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value n first
attempt
Rise time tr The time required for the response to reach 100% if the final value in first
attempt (for overdamped system, the time required to rise from 10% to 90%
of its final value)
Peak time tp The time required to reach the first peak of the time response.
Settling time ts The time required for the response to reach and stay within the specified
range (2% to 5%) of its final value.
Peak overshoot Normalised difference between the peak of time response and steady
output.
c (t p )  c ( )
%M p   100
c ( )
Steady-state error Difference between the actual output and the desired output at steady state.
ess  Lt  r ( t )  c ( t ) 
t 
RISE TIME
e n tr
c (t r )  1  sin( d t r   )  1
1 2
sin( d t r   )  0
 d tr    
  ;
tr   d   n 1   2 ; cos   
d
PEAK TIME
e   n t
c (t )  1  sin( d t   )
1 2
When c(t) is maximum, d c ( t )  0

dt
  n t p
e  n   n t p
cos( d t p   )   d  sin( d t p   )  e 0
1 2
1 2
 d cos( d t p   )   n sin( d t p   )  0
Page 48 of 187
1   2  cos( d t p   )    sin( d t p   )  0
sin   co s( d t p   )  cos   sin( d t p   )  0
sin(   d t p   )  0
sin( d t p )  0
dtp  
 
tp  
d n 1   2
MAXIMUM OVERSHOOT Mp
  n t p
e
c (t p )  1  sin( d t p   )
1  2


1 2
e
 1 sin(   )
1  2
 
  
1  2 1  2 
e e 1  2
 1 sin   1   1   1 e2
1  2 1  2

c (t p )  c (  ) 
1  2
%M p   100  e  100
c ( )
SETTLING TIME Ts
For 2% tolerance,
e n ts
 0.02
1 2
e nts  0.02
 n t s   4
4 1
ts   4T where T  = time constant
 n  n
For 5% tolerance,
e   n ts
 0.05
1 2
e nts  0.05
 n t s   3
Page 49 of 187
3
ts   3T
 n
DELAY TIME
e   n td 1
c (t d )  1  sin( d t d   ) 
1 2 2
1  0.7
td 
n
TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

 
Rise time tr 
d
 
Peak time tp  
d n 1   2


Peak overshoot %M p  e 1 2
100
4
Settling time for 2% error ts 
 n
3
Settling time for 5% error ts 
 n
1  0.7
Delay time td 
n
4
Obtain the response of unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is G ( s ) 
s ( s  5)
and the input is unit step.
C (s) G (s) 4 4
  
R ( s ) 1  G ( s ) s 2  5 s  4 ( s  1)( s  4)
4 A B C
C (s)    
s ( s  1)( s  4) s s  1 s  4
1 4 1 1 1
C (s)     
s 3 s 1 3 s  4
4  t 1 4t
c (t )  1  e  e
3 3
Page 50 of 187
The closed loop transfer function of a second order unity feedback control system is
C (s) 8
 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R ( s ) s 2  3s  8
C (s) 8

R ( s ) s 2  3s  8
Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  8 and 2  n  3
 n  2.82 rad / s
3 3
   0.53
2 n 2  2.82
Since 0    1 , system is under damped.
C (s) 2
 2 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R( s) s  4s  2
C (s) 2
 2
R( s) s  4s  2

R (s) s  2 n s   n 2
2
Hence,  n 2  2 and 2  n  4
 n  1.414 rad / s
4 4
    1.41
2 n 2  1.414
Since   1 , system is over damped.
C (s) 2
 . Determine the type of the damping in the system.
R( s) s 2  2s  1
C (s) 2

R( s) s 2  2s  1
Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 . (n2 must be compared with
R (s) s  2 n s   n
2 2
denominator only)
Hence,  n 2  1 and 2  n  2
 n  1rad / s
Page 51 of 187
2 2
  1
2 n 2 1
Since   1 , system is critically damped.
C (s) 4
The closed loop transfer function of a second order unity feedback control system is  2
R ( s ) s  16
. Determine the type of the damping in the system.
Here,  n 2  1 and 2  n  0
 n  1rad / s
 0
Since   0 , system is undamped.
4
The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is G ( s )  . Determine the rise
s ( s  1)
time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling time.
C (s) G (s) 4
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) s 2  s  4

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1
 n  2 rad / s
4 4
   0.25
2 n 2  2
 d   n 1   2  2  1  0.252  1.936rad / s
  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad
Rise time, t r        1.31  0.945 s

d 1.936
Peak time, t p 
 
  1.622 s
 d 1.936
  0.25
 
1 2
% Maximum overshoot, % M p  e  100  e 1 0.252
100  43.26%
4 4
Settling time for 2% error, t s    8s
 n 0.25  2
Page 52 of 187
Settling time for 5% error, t s  3  3

 6s
 n 0.25  2
If r(t) is input and c(t) is the output of the system described by a differential equation
d 2 c (t ) dc (t )
  4c (t )  4 r (t ) . Determine the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling
dt 2 dt
time.
C (s) G (s) 4
 
R(s) 1  G (s) s 2  s  4

R(s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1
 n  2 rad / s
4 4
   0.25
2 n 2  2
 d   n 1   2  2  1  0.252  1.936 rad / s
  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad
Rise time, t r 
     1.31
  0.945 s
d 1.936
Peak time, t p      1.622 s

 d 1.936
  0.25
 
1 2
% Maximum overshoot, % M p  e  100  e 1 0.252
100  43.26%
Settling time for 2% error, t s  4  4

 8s
 n 0.25  2
3 3
Settling time for 5% error, t s    6s
 n 0.25  2
A unity-feedback second order system has  n  4 rad / s and   0.7 subjected to unit sept input.
Determine the open loop transfer function.
C (s) n2 16
 2  2
R ( s ) s  2 n s   n 2 s  5.6 s  16
The open-loop transfer function is
n2 16
G (s)  
s ( s  2 n ) s ( s  5.6)
Page 53 of 187
K
The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is G ( s )  where K and T are
s (1  sT )
constants. Determine the factor by which K should be multiplied to reduce the overshoot from 85%
to 35%.
K K
C (s) G (s) s (1  sT ) K T
   2 
R ( s) 1  G ( s) 1  K s T  s  K s2  1 s  K
s (1  sT ) T T
Here,  n 2  K and 2 n  1

T
K
n  rad / s
T
1 1
 
2nT 2 KT


1 2
Peak overshoot, % M p  e 100
For 85% peak overshoot,

1

1 12
e  0.85
1
   0.1625
112
1  0.0515
For 35% peak overshoot,

 2

1  2 2
e  0.35
 2
   1.05
1 2 2
 2  0.317
1 K2

2 K1
K 2  0.0264 K1
STEADY STATE ERROR
A steady-state error is defined as the difference between the desired value and the actual value of a
system when the response has reached the steady state. It is a measure of system accuracy.
Page 54 of 187
STATIC ERROR CONSTANTS
Steady-state error for a control system is found during the steady-state period. Hence steady-state error
is also called static error.
Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.
C (s) G (s)

R ( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
C ( s)
Here, = closed-loop transfer function and
R( s)
G ( s ) H ( s ) = open-loop transfer function of closed-
loop system
E ( s)  R ( s )  C ( s ) H ( s )
R ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )
 R(s) 
1  G ( s) H (s)
R ( s )[1  G ( s ) H ( s )]  R ( s )G ( s ) H ( s )

1  G (s) H (s)
R( s)

1  G (s)H (s)
sR ( s )
Steady-state error, ess  Lt e(t )  Lt sE ( s ) = ess  Lt
t  s0 s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
sR ( s )
ess  Lt
s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
For step input, R ( s )  1
s
1 1 1
ess  Lt   where Kp = static position error constant
s 0 1  G ( s) H ( s) 1  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) 1  K p
s 0
1
K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) ess 
s0 1 K p
For type 0 system, K p  c o n s ta n t ; Note: General representation of open-loop transfer

1 function G(s)H(s) of a feedback system is given as
ess  K (1  sTz1 )(1  sTz 2 )........(1  sTzm )
1 K p G (s) H ( s)  N
s (1  sT p1 )(1  sT p 2 )........(1  sT pn )
For type 1 system, K p   ; ess  0
Here, N is the number of poles at the origin and it
For type 2 system, K p   ; ess  0 represents the type number of the system.
For type 1 and above; for unit step input, ess = 0
For ramp input, R ( s )  12

s
Page 55 of 187
1 1 1 1
ess  Lt  Lt   where Kv = static velocity error
s 0 s 1  G ( s ) H ( s )  s  0 sG ( s ) H ( s ) Lt sG ( s ) H ( s ) K v
s0
constant
For type 0 system, K v  0 ; ess 

For type 1 system, K v  constant ; e ss  constant
For type 2 system, K v   ; ess  0
For type 2 and above; for unit ramp input, ess = 0
For parabolic input, R ( s )  13

s
1 1 1 1
ess  Lt  Lt 2   where Ka = static acceleration
s0 s 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 
2 s  0 2
s G ( s ) H ( s ) Lt s G ( s ) H ( s ) K a
s0
error constant
For type 0 system, K a  0 ; ess 

For type 1 system, K a  0 ; ess 
For type 2 system, K a  constant ; e ss  constant
For type 3 system, K a  ; ess  0
For type 3 and above; for unit parabolic input, ess = 0
steady-state error ess

Type unit step unit ramp unit parabolic
K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s ) K v  Lt sG ( s ) H ( s ) K a  Lt s 2 G ( s ) H ( s )
s0 s0 s0
0 1  
1 K p
1 0 1 
Kv
2 0 0 1
Ka
3 0 0 0
DISADVANTAGES OF STATIC ERROR COEFFICIENT METHOD
1. They do not give any information on the steady-state error when the inputs are other than the
three standard test inputs – step, ramp and parabolic.
2. This method does not provide precise value of error. In most of the cases, the error found is
either zero or infinity.
3. This method is applicable only to stable system.
4. It does not provide variation of error with respect to time which may be needed for design
purposes.
Page 56 of 187
The open loop transfer function of a control system is G ( s ) H ( s )  2( s 2  3 s  20) .

s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10)
Determine the static error coefficients and steady state error for the input given as a) 5 b) 4t and c)
4t2/2.
(a) K p  Lt G ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 2( s 2  3 s  20) 1
 ess  5  0
s0 s  0 s ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) 1 K p
(b) K v  Lt sG ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 2( s 2  3 s  20) 1 1
2 ess  4   4  2
s0 s  0 ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) Kv 2
2 s ( s 2  3 s  20)
K a  Lt s 2 G ( s ) H ( s )  Lt 0
s0 s  0 ( s  2)( s 2  4 s  10) 1 1
(c) ess  4   4  
Ka 0
K ( s  2)
The open loop transfer function of a control system is G ( s ) H ( s )  . Determine a)
s ( s  7 s 2  12 s )
3
type of system b) error constants Kp, Kv, Ka and c) steady-state error for unit parabolic input.
Ans: ess = 6/K
K (2 s  1)
A unity feedback system has the forward path transfer function G ( s )  . The input
s (5s  1)(1  s ) 2
r(t) = 1 + 6t is applied to the system. Determine the minimum value of K if the steady state error is
to be less than 0.1.
1 6
R (s)  
s s2
1 6 6 s6
sR ( s )    1 
s s2 s s
sR ( s )
ess  Lt
s0 1  G ( s) H ( s)
s6 6
ess  Lt 
s0 s  sG ( s ) H ( s ) K
6
e ss   0.1
K
K > 60
Minimum value of K = 60
C ( s) Ks  
The closed loop transfer function of a unity-feedback control system is  .
R(s) s 2   s  
Determine the steady-state error for unit ramp input.
C (s) G (s) Ks  
  2
R(s) 1  G (s) s   s  
Page 57 of 187
G ( s )( s 2   s   )  ( Ks   )(1  G ( s ))
G ( s )( s 2   s   )  ( Ks   ) G ( s )  Ks  
Ks  
G ( s) 
s  s (  K )
2
E (s) 1 1
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) 1  Ks  
s  s (  K )
2
1
R(s) 
s2
1
E (s) 
 Ks   
s 2 1  2 
 s  s (  K ) 
1  K
ess  Lt sE ( s )  Lt 
s0 s 0  Ks    
s 1  2 
 s  s (  K ) 
DYNAMIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS or GENERALIZED ERROR COEFFICIENTS
Static error coefficients do not give any information on the steady-state error when the inputs are other
than the three standard test inputs – step, ramp and parabolic
The dynamic error coefficients provide a simple way of estimating error signal e(t) to arbitrary inputs
and the steady sate error.
For unity feedback system,
E (s) 1
  F (s)
R( s) 1  G (s) H (s)
The function F(s) can be expanded as a power series in s by Taylor’s series expansion as
E (s) C C
F (s)   C o  C1 s  2 s 2  3 s 3  ......
R(s) 2! 3!
C2 2 C
E ( s )   C o R ( s )  C 1 sR ( s )  s R ( s )  3 s 3 R ( s )  ......
2! 3!
. C 2 .. C ...
e ( t )   C o r ( t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
Here, C o , C 1 , C 2 , C 3 ...... are called dynamic error coefficients or generalized error coefficients.
The generalized error coefficients can be evaluated as follows:
C o  Lt F ( s )
s0
dF (s)
C1  L t
s 0 ds
Page 58 of 187
d 2 F (s)
C2  Lt
s 0 ds 2
d 3 F (s)
C3  Lt
s0 ds 3
.
.
.
d n F (s )
Cn  Lt
s 0 ds n
CORRELATION BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC ERROR COEFFICIENTS
1
C0 
1 K p
1
C1 
Kv
1
C2 
Ka
1
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is G ( s )  . Determine
s ( s  2)
the steady-state error using the dynamic error coefficient method for input of r ( t )  2  3 t  2 t 3 .
1 1 s2  2s
F (s)    2
1  G (s) H (s) 1  1 s  2s  1
s  2s
2
s 2  2s
C o  Lt F ( s )  Lt 0
s0 s0 s 2  2 s  1
dF ( s ) d  s 2  2s   ( s 2  2 s  1)(2 s  2)  ( s 2  2 s )(2 s  2) 
C1  Lt  Lt   Lt
 s0  
s0 ds s  0 ds s 2  2 s  1 ( s 2  2 s  1) 2
   
 2( s  1)   2 
 Lt   Lt  2
s  0 ( s  1) 4  s  0 ( s  1) 4 
   
d 2 F (s) d  2  6
C 2  Lt  Lt  3 
 Lt  6
s 0 ds 2 s  0 ds  ( s  1)  s  0 ( s  1) 4
d 3F (s) d  6  24
C 3  Lt  Lt  ( s  1) 4   sLt  24
ds 3 s  0 ds  0 ( s  1) 5
s0
 
r (t )  2  3t  2 t 3

r (t )  3  6t 2
Page 59 of 187

r ( t )  12 t

r (t )  12
. C 2 .. C ...
e (t )   C o r (t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
e (t )  2(3  6 t 2 )  3  12 t  4  12  54  36 t  12 t 2
Alternative Method:
1 1 s2  2s 2s  s 2 (Note: Arrange both numerator &

F (s)    2 
1  G (s) H (s) 1  1 s  2s  1 1  2s  s2
s  2s
2
denominator in ascending powers of s)
1  2s  s 2  2s  s 2  2 s  3s 2  4 s 3
2s  4s2  2s3
 3s 2  2 s 3
 3s 2  6 s 3  3s 4
4 s 3  3s 4
F ( s )  2 s  3 s 2  4 s 3  ......
But, F ( s )  C o  C 1 s  C 2 s 2  C 3 s 3  ......
2! 3!
Comparing,
Co  0 C1  2 C 2  6 C3  24
r (t )  2  3t  2 t 3

r (t )  3  6t 2

r ( t )  12 t

r (t )  12
. C 2 .. C ...
e (t )   C o r (t )  C1 r (t )  r ( t )  3 r ( t )  ......
2! 3!
e (t )  2(3  6 t 2 )  3  12 t  4  12  54  36 t  12 t 2
50
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is G ( s )  . Determine
s ( s  10)
dynamic error and steady-state error using the dynamic error coefficient method for input of
r (t )  1  2 t  t 2 .
r (t )  1  2 t  t 2
Page 60 of 187

r (t )  2  2t

r (t )  2

r (t )  0
. C 2 ..
e (t )   C o r ( t )  C 1 r (t )  r (t )
2!
1 1 s 2  10 s 10 s  s 2
F (s)    2 
1  G (s)H (s) 1  50 s  10 s  50 50  10 s  s 2
s  10 s
2
 10 1 2
50  10 s  s 2 10 s  s 2  s s
 50 50
10 s  2 s 2  0.2 s 3
 s 2  0.2 s 3
 s 2  0.2 s 3  0.02 s 4
 0.02 s 4
F ( s )  0.2 s  0.02 s 2
C2 2 C3 3
F ( s )  C o  C1 s  s  s  ......
2! 3!
Comparing,
Co  0 C1  0.2 C 2   0.0 4 C3  0
e(t )  0.4(1  t )  0.08
ess  Lt e (t ) 
t 
A unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer function

1
G (s)  . Determine the steady state errors for unit-step, unit ramp and unit
s (0.5s  1)(0.2 s  1)
acceleration inputs.
1 1 1
Ans: e ss  0 ess  1 ess  
1 K p Kv Ka
POLE DOMINANCE FOR HIGHER ORDER SYSTEMS
For a standard 2nd order system, closed loop transfer function is given by C ( s )  n2 .
R (s) s 2  2 n s   n 2
The formulas describing percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time were derived only for a system
with two complex poles and no zeros. s. If a system has more than two poles or has zeros, we cannot
use the formulas to calculate the performance specifications that we derived. However, under certain
conditions, a system with more than two poles or with zeros can be approximated as a second-order
system that has just two complex dominant poles. Once we justify this approximation, the formulas for
Page 61 of 187
percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time can be applied to these higher-order systems by using
the location of the dominant poles.
Effect of an additional pole on the second order response: Consider a three-pole system with
complex poles and a third pole on the real axis. Assuming that the complex poles are at
 n  j n 1   2 and the real pole is at r , the step response of the system can be determined from
a partial-fraction expansion. Thus, the output transform is
A B ( s   n )  C  d D
C (s)   
s ( s   n )   d
2 2
s  r
c ( t )  A  e   n t ( B co s  d t  C sin  d t )  D e   r t
If r is much larger than  n , the pure exponential will die out much more rapidly than the second-
order underdamped step response. If the pure exponential term decays to an insignificant value at the
time of the first overshoot, such parameters as percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time will be
generated by the second-order underdamped step response component. Thus, the total response will
approach that of a pure second-order system.
If αr is not much greater than ζωn, the real pole’s transient response will not decay to insignificance at
the peak time or settling time generated by the second-order pair. In this case, the exponential decay is
significant, and the system cannot be represented as a second-order system.
Note: If the real pole is five times farther to the left than the dominant poles, we assume that the system
is represented by its dominant second-order pair of poles.
STABILITY
Stability of a system implies that small changes in input do not result in large effects on the system
response.
In an unstable system, any perturbation, no matter how small, will make states or outputs grow
unbounded or until the system disintegrates or saturates.
The response of a LTI system is composed of response to initial conditions and response to inputs.
BIBO Stability. A system is BIBO (bounded-input bounded-output) stable if every bounded input
produces a bounded output. BIBO stability is associated with the response of the system with zero initial
state.
Page 62 of 187
A single-input single output (SISO) system is BIBO stable if and only if its impulse response g(t) is

absolutely integrable in the interval [0, ∞). That is, if  g (t ) dt  M for some finite constant M
0
 0 .
Bounded and unbounded signals:

Unbounded signal has an infinite value at any Bounded signal has a finite value at all instants
instant of time. of time
Examples are i) ramp ii) parabolic iii) tan(t). Examples are i) step ii) sin(t) iii) cos(t).
(b) Bounded signal

(a) unbounded signal
Asymptotic stability: Asymptotic stability is associated with the response of the system with zero
input. A system is said to be asymptotically stable if its response to any initial conditions decays to zero
asymptotically in the steady state.
If y(t) is the response due to the initial conditions, the system is asymptotically stable if Lt y (t )  0
t 
LOCATION OF ROOTS ON THE S-PLANE FOR STABILITY
C (s) b s m  bm 1 s m 1  .......  b1 s  b0
 M (s)  m n
R (s) s  a n 1 s n 1  .......  a1 s  a 0
C (s) K '( s  z1 )( s  z 2 )........( s  z m )

 M (s) 
R(s) ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )........( s  p n )
z1, z2, z3 ….. zm = zeros (roots of numerator polynomial)
Page 63 of 187
p1, p2, p3 ….. pn = poles (roots of denominator polynomial) = roots of characteristic equation
A1 A1 An
M (s)    .......... 
( s  p1 ) ( s  p 2 ) ( s  pn )
1 If all the roots of the characteristic equation are on the left-hand side of the s-plane, i.e. all
the roots have negative real parts, then the system is stable.
2 If there is at least one root on the right-hand side of the s- plane or there are repeated poles
on the imaginary axis, then the system is unstable and the response will increase without
bounds with time.
3 If there is at least one root on the imaginary axis, and there are no unstable roots, the response
neither decreases to zero, nor increases without bounds. The system is called marginally
stable.
Page 64 of 187
The response for the following pole locations in s-plane are shown above.
i) Root real & negative – response is decaying exponential (bounded)
ii) Simple root at origin – response is constant (bounded)
iii) Repeated roots at origin – response is ramp (unbounded)
iv) Root real & positive – response is exponentially raising (unbounded)
v) Roots complex conjugate in LHS – response is decaying sine (bounded)
vi) Roots complex conjugate in RHS – response is exponentially raising sine (unbounded)
vii) Simple roots on imaginary axis – response is sinusoidal (marginally stable)
viii) Repeated poles on imaginary axis – response is raising sine (unbounded)
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR STABILITY (NOT SUFFICIENT)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation q(s) = 0 must be real and have the same sign. None
of the coefficients should be zero.
a 0 s n  a1 s n 1  .......  a n 1 s  a n  0; a0  0
Note: For first and second order systems, positiveness of the coefficients of characteristic equation is
necessary and sufficient condition for stability.
If some of the coefficients are zero or negative, the system is unstable.
If all the coefficients are positive, check for sufficient condition.
ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION
q ( s )  a 0 s n  a1 s n 1  .......  a n  1 s  a n  0
This criterion is based on ordering the coefficients of characteristic equation into an array, called
Routh array.
s n a o a 2 a4 a 6
s n 1 a1 a3 a5
s n  2 b1 b2 b3
. c1 c2
.
s2
s1
s0 an
a1a2  a0 a3 a a  a 0 a5
where b1  ; b2  1 4 ……..
a1 a1
b1a3  a1b2 b a  a3b3

c1  ; c1  2 5 …….
b1 b1
For a system to be stable, it is necessary and sufficient that each term of first column of Routh array be
positive if ao > 0. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and number of sign changes of the
terms of the first column corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right
half of the s-plane.
Page 65 of 187
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is s 4  8s 3  18s 2  16 s  5  0

.
s 4 1 18 5
s 3 8 16 0
s 2 16 5
s1 13.5 0
s0 5
The elements of the first column are all positive, hence the system is stable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is 3s 4  10s 3  5s 2  5s  2  0

.
s4 3 5 2
s 3 10 5
s 2 3.5 2
s  .714
1
0
s0 2
The elements of the first column have 2 sign changes, hence there are two roots in the right half of the
s-plane and the system is unstable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is s 5  2 s 3  2 s 2  11s  10  0

.
Coefficient of s4 is missing; hence the system is unstable.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is ( s  1)( s  2)( s  3)(s  4)  0
.
All the roots of the characteristic equation are on the left-half of the s-plane; hence the system is
stable.
SPECIAL CASE 1: First term in any row of the Routh array is zero while rest of the row has at least
one non-zero term.
Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is

s 5  s 4  2 s 3  2 s 2  3s  5  0 .
s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5
s3 0  2
s2
s1
s0
 = small positive number near to zero
Page 66 of 187
1 2 3
s5
1 2 5
s4
 2
s3
2  2
s2 5
1

s 2
s0 5
2  2
  2  5
 5 2
 2 
2  2 2  2

5 2
When  → 0,  2   2
2  2
Note: We are interested only in the signs of the terms in the first column, not in their magnitudes.
Here, there are 2 sign changes, hence there are two roots in the right side of s-plane and the system is
unstable.

s  2 s  3s  6s  5s  3  0 .
5 4 3 2
Ans: unstable
SPECIAL CASE 2: All the elements in any one row of the Routh Array are zeros.

s  2 s  8 s  12 s  20 s  16 s  16  0 .
6 5 4 3 2
s 6 1 8 20 16
s 5 2 12 16
s 4 2 12 16
s3 0 0 0
2
s
s1
s0
2s 4  12s 2  16  0
A(s)  s 4  6 s 2  8  0
dA(s)
 4 s3  12 s
ds
Page 67 of 187
s 6 1 8 20 16
s 5 2 12 16
s 4 2 12 16
s3 4 12 0
s 2
6 16
s 1.33
1
s 0 16
No change of sign; hence no roots have positive real parts.
s 4  6s 2  8  0
( s 2  2)( s 2  4)  0
s   j 2 and s   j 2
Since there are simple roots on imaginary axis, the system is marginally stable.
Note: Roots of auxiliary equation will be the roots of the characteristic equation.

s  2s  2s  4s  s  2  0 .
5 4 3 2
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 0 0
s2
s1
s0
2s 4  4s 2  2  0
A( s )  s 4  2 s 2  1  0
dA ( s )
 4s3  4s  0
ds
s3  s  0
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 1 1
2
s 1 1
s1 0 0
s0
A '( s )  s 2  1  0
Page 68 of 187
dA '( s )
2
ds
s5 1 2 1
s4 2 4 2
s3 1 1
s2 1 1
s1 2 0
s0 1
No change of sign; hence no roots have positive real parts.
2s 4  4s 2  2  0
s 4  2s2  1  0
( s 2  1) 2  0
s   j,  j
Since there are repeated roots on imaginary axis, the system is unstable.
K
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is G ( s )  . Find the
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25 s )
restriction of K so that the closed loop system is absolutely stable.
K
G ( s) 
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25 s )
Characteristic equation is
1  G (s) H (s)  0
s (1  0.4 s )(1  0.25s)  K  0
s 3  6.5 s 2  10 s  10 K  0
1 10
s3
6.5 10 K
s2
65  10 K
s1
6.5
s0
10 K
For stability, K  0
65  10 K  0
65  10 K
0  K  6 .5
Page 69 of 187
K
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system is G ( s )  .
( s  2)( s  4)( s 2  6 s  25)
By applying Routh criterion, determine the stability of the closed loop system as a function of K.
Ans:- 0  K  6 6 6 .2 5
The characteristic equation of a closed loop system is s 3  2 Ks 2  ( K  2) s  4  0 . Determine the

range of values of K for the system to be stable.
Ans:- K  0 .7 3
Page 70 of 187

Module 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EET302 Linear Control System Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GEC Thrissur

MODULE 2 – PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

The time response of a control system is divided into two parts:

STANDARD TEST SIGNALS

STEP FUNCTION RAMP FUNCTION

PARABOLIC FUNCTION UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION

The derivative of a parabolic function is a ramp function

Consider the closed loop system shown in figure below.

Here, c(t) is the time response.

TIME-RESPONSE FOR A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

For a first order system with unity feedback, G ( s )  1 and H (s )  1 .

RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT STEP INPUT

For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

c (0)  0 and c ()  1

At t = T, c (t  T )  1  0.368  0.632 ; output reaches 63.2% of its final value.

Smaller the time constant, the faster the system response.

RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH UNIT IMPULSE INPUT

For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .

RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

C (s) n2 n = undamped natural frequency

Roots of characteristics equation will be

 0 s1 , s 2   j n Roots are purely imaginary; system is undamped

0   1 s1 , s2   n  j n 1   2 Roots are complex conjugate; system is underdamped

UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)

For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

Let cos    ; sin   1   2

UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY-DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 1)

C (s) n2 n2 ;  1

For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

UNIT STEP RESPONSE OF UNDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM ( = 0)

For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

This response does not die out with time.

Roots are, s1 , s2   n   n  2  1

For unit step input, R ( s )  1 .

COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CASES OF STEP RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

UNIT IMPULSE RESPONSE OF UNDERDAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM (0 <  < 1)

For unit impulse input, R ( s )  1 .

TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

1. How fast it is able to respond to the input?

When c(t) is maximum, d c ( t )  0

sin   co s( d t p   )  cos   sin( d t p   )  0

TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

Since 0    1 , system is under damped.

Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

Since   1 , system is over damped.

Since   1 , system is critically damped.

Since   0 , system is undamped.

Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1

  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad

Rise time, t r        1.31  0.945 s

Settling time for 5% error, t s  3  3

Standard form of second order system is C ( s )  n2 .

Hence,  n 2  4 and 2 n  1

 d   n 1   2  2  1  0.252  1.936 rad / s

  cos  1   cos  1 0.25  1.31rad

Peak time, t p      1.622 s

Settling time for 2% error, t s  4  4

The open-loop transfer function is

Here,  n 2  K and 2 n  1

For 85% peak overshoot,