Practical Research 1

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

I. Learning Competencies:

a. plan data collection, data gathering instrument, and analysis

procedures;
b. present a written research methodology;
c. collect data through observation and interview; and
d. appreciate the process of data collection.

II: Data Collection in Qualitative Research

After you have identified the sample of your study, the next step you are
going to take is the process of collecting data. As discussed in the paper of
Whitehead (2016), data collection can take the form of ‘direct data’ or
‘indirect data’.
Direct data include recordable spoken or written words and also
observable body language, actions, and interactions. Here, the interactions
may be human-to-human or human responses to inanimate objects—such
as a haemodialysis machine. Whatever can be observed or linked is
considered to be potential or actual data (Issacs, 2014). This will occur
when considering the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of
experience, responses, actions, interactions, language, and processes of
individuals and groups within their social and/or cultural setting (Babbie,
2014).
Indirect data are generated, firsthand, by someone or something else,
such as with documents or photographs reporting an event or an artistic
rendition of an event or experience (e.g., novels, songs, paintings, poems,
photographs). Direct data, though, are by far the most common form in
qualitative research.
Depending on the types of data required for a qualitative study,
various methods of collecting data can be used singularly or in
combination to obtain direct data. For direct data, these methods may
include interview, observation, open-ended questionnaire, journaling (diary
accounts) or ‘think aloud’ sessions. Direct data can be collected by the
participant involved in a study at the request of the researcher (e.g.,
through writing a personal journal or diary) and then provided to the
researcher. Most commonly, however, qualitative approaches acquire data
primarily through interpersonal contact with participants (usually an
interview) or, secondly, through the presence of the researcher in proximity
to pertinent events (usually observation) (Babbie, 2014). This is unlike
quantitative research where, frequently, interpersonal contact is
deliberately limited with participants or events. In quite a few instances,
researchers will use more than one technique to collect data.

Interviews
Interviews are viewed as the prime method for qualitative data
collection, which also represent the most common method for gathering

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qualitative data in nursing-related research (Issacs 2014). Spoken
‘narrative’ is the foundation of most qualitative data, wherein narrative is
most often gained through a direct encounter between the researcher and
the participant (or several participants) using in-depth interviews or focus
group interviews. Interviews can be conducted by telephone, email and,
more recently, through social media conversations and micro-blogging
(e.g., Twitter, Facebook, Tumblr).
Interviews in qualitative research may be unstructured, semi-
structured, or occasionally structured. With unstructured interviews, neither
the specific questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answers
are predetermined. The interviews are designed to be informal and
conversational with the aim of encouraging participants to express
themselves in a naturally unfolding manner. Unstructured interviews tend
to start with single broad questions, such as ‘what is your experience of…’
The researcher, however, has an idea in mind of the general issues to be
covered and may use a topic list as a reminder.
Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide to provide a set of
questions for discussion. The questions are set to ensure that the research
aims/questions are covered. However, there is freedom to pose any
questions in any order, following tangents or seeking clarification of
previous answers or elaboration of responses. Semi-structured interviews
steer the interview yet are flexible enough to allow the interviewer to follow
leads and areas of interest.
Structured interviews in qualitative research are not commonly
conducted. Structured interviews follow a list of set questions, usually
asked in a certain order—but these questions are still open-ended; that is,
usually commencing with words like ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘where’, or ‘when’. This
distinguishes them from structured quantitative interviews, which usually
only ask closedended questions—such as ‘how many’ to illicit numerical
data.

Conducting interviews
The structure and conduct of interviews are important; both factors
will impact on the quality of the data generated. Conducting interviews can
be complex and demanding and requires attention to process (Peters &
Halcomb 2015). Many researchers perform ‘dry or dummy runs’ with peers
and/or colleagues as a form of piloting the interview schedule and
interview techniques. There are a number of considerations for all
researchers conducting any type of interview to enhance the experience
and the quality of data collected. At the start of the interview, it is
important that the ‘rules of engagement’ are established early on—such as
generating and maintaining a warm and non-judgmental manner toward
the participant/s, asking questions in a balanced, unbiased, non-
threatening, sensitive, and clear way,

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and choosing a setting for the interview that is most appropriate to
exploring the area of study (e.g., private setting if personal questions will
be asked). The majority of interviews conducted in qualitative research are
audio-recorded or, less commonly, video-recorded.
Privacy and comfort are important, and the researcher should
minimize the likelihood of disruption as much as possible by, for example,
ensuring that all items required are available (recording equipment, tapes,
consent forms, participant information sheets, drinks, and tissues).
Researchers should take active steps, such as posting ‘do not disturb’
signs and disabling telephone or pager devices. The issues of
confidentiality and anonymity should be discussed with the participant
before the interview is conducted, and questions are encouraged and
answered. It is important to explore with the participant how you will
minimize their identification by others, and how you will securely store the
data, how long this will be kept, and when and how it will be destroyed.
Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to speak freely
and offer in-depth and lengthy responses through techniques used
singularly or in combination. Possible techniques include the following:
 • Funnelling—beginning the interview with general and broad
(nonthreatening) opening questions and then narrowing down to topic
specifics as the interview progresses.
• Probing—eliciting further details or seeking clarification. Price
(2002) explained an innovative probing technique called ‘laddered
questions. Appropriate questions are asked in a series leading from the
least intrusive questions to the most intrusive. This technique identifies
classifications of questions; questions about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the
least invasive, through to questions about ‘philosophy’
(feelings/values/beliefs) as the most invasive. Storytelling, as another
technique, involves asking questions in a manner which encourages
storytelling and more elaborate answers; for example, ‘Tell me about when
you last experienced…’
• Paraphrasing—repeating what the participant has said,
without changing the meaning of what has been said; assisting
understanding and clarity; and acting as a further prompt.

Focus group interviews

Focus groups are interviews conducted in a group setting and can be
used in a number of ways to generate data. Focus groups can be
conducted to explore, develop, and refine initial research questions and
interview schedules; as a form of data collection in their own right or as a
way of exploring the resonance of findings generated through interviews (or
another form of data collection). Focus groups use interview schedules, but
these differ

in scope, nature, and intention from other research interviews. This is

because of the unique nature of group dynamics and insights gained from
interaction between participants. Focus groups offer a collective set of
values, experiences, and observations of participants that are later
interpreted in context. Sometimes, group ‘synergy’ or consensus
(agreement) on issues occurs, but this is not always the case. If a series of
focus groups are scheduled, initial interviews usually identify broad issues
and perspectives related to the focus of the study, while subsequent
interviews seek to prioritize and narrow down generated issues.
Benefits of focus group interviews
The main benefits of this method of data collection are the
generation of data from multiple participants and often a larger sample
size compared to individual interview studies. Another advantage is that,
for those who may find one-to-one interviews intimidating, the group
setting may be more appealing, and provide access to participants who
may not participate otherwise (Liamputtong, 2010). Focus groups offer
supportive group interactions as each member is encouraged to identify,
describe, analyze, and resolve issues (Issacs, 2014) and are particularly
valuable in obtaining different perspectives on the same topic. Focus group
interviews are usually more economical to conduct than individual
interviews.
Observation
Observational methods are commonly used in qualitative research
designs and vary between methods. Observation is the process of observing
the daily life and behaviors of participants in their natural setting to record
aspects such as social position and function, or actions and interactions.
Qualitative observation is traditionally adopted by ethnographers (De
Chesnay, 2014), but can be used in other qualitative approaches. In
qualitative research, observation methods are mostly unstructured.
However, some studies will use more structured observation. In
unstructured observation, the researcher enters the ‘field’ with no
predetermined schedule as to what they may or may not see or hear. Using
this approach requires an ‘observation protocol’ to record the same
information collected during observations by the data collectors.
Process of observation
Methods of observation range across a continuum from participation
to observation where four distinct roles of participation and observation
can be identified:
Complete Participant
• Researcher is immersed in group/community (complete
intervention).

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• Research is usually concealed (covert).

Participant as Observer
• Researcher steps into and out of groups/community
 (intervention).
• Research is known (open).

Observer as Participant
• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally enters field
(brief intervention).
• Research is known (open).

Complete Observer
• Researcher does not participate.
• Research is either known (open) or concealed (covert).

Benefits of observation
De Chesnay (2014) suggested that observation has several
advantages in qualitative research:
‘capturing data in more natural circumstances’,
‘capturing the whole social setting and context of the environment in which
people function’, and
‘informing about influences of the immediate physical environment’.
Depending on the observation method used, there is opportunity to
interact with participants while gaining rich data and perspectives related
to participants’ values and experiences.
 Title

Introduction (What compels you to study on the problem you

identified?)

Statement of the Problem

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Significance of the Study

Review of Related Literature

Methodology

Research Design

Participants

Sampling

Data Gathering Procedure