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SUBJECT CODE CRIM 2

SUBJECT DESCRIPTION Theories of Crime Causations
MODULE DESCRIPTION Module No. 2
OBJECTIVE OF THIS 1.For students to study the different Psychological
MODULE: theories in Causation of Crime

DURATION One week

A. LESSON PROPER
I. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
1. Psychodynamic Theory
Psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind,
personality, or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the
unconscious level. The mental forces involved in psychodynamics are often divided into two
parts: (a) the interaction of the emotional and motivational forces that affect the behavior and
mental states, especially on a subconscious level; (b) inner forces affecting behavior: the study of
the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and states of mind.

2. Behavioral Theory
Behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the
reactions this behavior elicits in other people. In an ideal situation, behavior is supported by
rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or punishments. Social learning theory, which is a
branch of behavior theory, is the most relevant to criminology. The most prominent social
learning theorist is Albert Bandura (1978). Bandura maintains that individuals are not born with
an innate ability to act violently. He suggested that, in contrast, violence and aggression are
learned through a process of behavior modeling. In other words, children learn violence through
the observation of others. Aggressive acts are modeled after three primary sources:
1) Family interaction;
2) Environmental experiences; and
3) The mass media.

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3. Cognitive Theory
Here, psychologists focus on the mental process of individuals. Two prominent
pioneering 19th century psychologists are Wilhelm Wundt and William James. The two sub
disciplines of cognitive theory: first, is the moral development branch, the focus of which is
understanding how people morally represent and reason about the world, and second is the
information processing where people acquire, retain and retrieve information. On the other hand,
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) hypothesized that the individual reasoning process is developed in an
orderly fashion. Thus, from birth onward an individual will continue to develop. Another pioneer
of cognitive theory is Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987), who applied the concept of moral
development to criminological theory. Kohlberg believed that individuals pass through stages of
moral development. Most important to his theory is the notion that there are levels, stages, and
social orientation.

4. Personality and Crime

Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also that
which makes us different from others.
Five Model of Personality
1) Neuroticism – involves emotional stability. Individuals who score high on this domain
often demonstrate anger and sadness and have irrational ideas, uncontrollable impulses,
and anxiety. In contrast, persons who score low on Neuroticism are often described by
others as even tempered, calm, and relaxed.
2) Extraversion – characterized by sociability, excitement, and stimulation. Individuals who
score high on Extraversion (extraverts) are often very active, talkative and assertive. They
also are more optimistic toward the future. In contrast, introverts are often characterized
by being reserved, independent, and shy.
3) Openness – referring to individuals who have an active imagination, find pleasure in
beauty, are attentive to their inner feelings, have a preference for variety, and are
intellectually curious. Individuals who score high on Openness are willing to entertain
unique or novel ideas, maintain unconventional values, and experience positive and
negative emotions more so than individuals who are close-minded.

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In contrast, persons who score low in Openness often prefer the familiar, behave in
conventional manners, and have a conservative viewpoint.
4) Agreeableness – related to interpersonal tendencies. Individuals who score high on this
domain are considered warm, altruistic, softhearted, forgiving, sympathetic and trusting.
In contrast, those who are not agreeable are described as hard-hearted, intolerant, and
argumentative.
5) Conscientiousness – focuses on a person’s ability to control impulses and exercise self-
control. Individuals who score high on conscientiousness are described as organized,
thorough, efficient, determined, and strong willed. In addition, those who are
conscientious are more likely to achieve high academic and occupational desires. In
contrast, people who score low on this domain are thought to be careless, lazy, and more
likely assign fault to others than to accept blame themselves.

5. Psychopathic Personality
Antisocial personality, psychopathy, or sociopath is terms used interchangeably.
Sociopaths are often a product of a destructive home environment. Psychopaths are a product of
defect or aberration within themselves. The antisocial personality is characterized by low levels
of guilt, superficial charm, above-average intelligence, persistent violations of the rights of
others, incapacity to form enduring relationships, impulsivity, risk taking, egocentricity,
manipulativeness, forcefulness and cold- heartedness, and shallow emotions. The origin may
include traumatic socialization, neurological disorder, and brain abnormality. Interestingly, if an
individual suffers from low levels of arousal as measured by a neurological examination, he or
she may engage in thrill seeking or high-risk behaviors such as crime to offset their low arousal
level. Other dynamics that may contribute to the psychopathic personality is a parent with
pathological tendencies, childhood traumatic events, or inconsistent discipline. It is important to
note that many chronic offenders are sociopaths. Thus, if personality traits can predict crime and
violence, then one could assume that the root cause crime is found in the forces that influence
human development at an early stage of life.

6. Intelligence and Crime

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Criminologists have suggested for centuries that there exists a link between intelligence
and crime. Some common beliefs are the criminals and delinquents possess low intelligence and
that this low intelligence causes criminality. As criminological research has advanced, scholars
have continued to suggest that the Holy Grail is causality. The ability to predict criminals from
noncriminal is the ultimate goal. The ideology or concept of IQ and crime has crystalized into the
nature-versus-nurture debate.

7. Freudan-Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) is considered to be the founder of the
psychodynamic approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that
motivate people to act in certain ways.
Th role of the mind is something that Freud repeatedly talked about because he believed
that the mind is responsible for both conscious and unconscious decisions based on drives and
forces. Unconscious desires motivate people to act accordingly. The id, ego, and super ego are
three aspects of the mind; Freud believed to make up a person’s personality. Freud believed
people are “simply actors in the drama of [their] own minds, pushed by desire, pulled by
coincidence. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the power struggle going on deep
within us.”

8. Psychoanalytic Theory
Proponents of psychodynamic theory suggest that an individual’s personality is
controlled by unconscious mental processes that are grounded in early childhood. This theory was
originated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis.
Imperative to this theory are the three elements or structures that make up the human
personality:
a) Id – is the primitive part of a person’s mental makeup that is present at birth which
represents the unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other necessities over the
life span.
b) Ego – is responsible for creating balance between pleasure and pain.
c) Superego – considered to be the conscience of the mind because it has the ability to
distinguish between reality as well as what is right or wrong.

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9. Anxiety and Defense Mechanism

Sigmund Freud proposed a set of defense mechanism in one’s body. These set of
defense mechanisms occur so one can hold a favorable or preferred view of themselves. For
example, in a particular situation when an event occurs that violate ones preferred view of
themselves, Freud stated that it is necessary for the self to have some mechanism to defend itself
against this unfavorable event; this is known as defense mechanism. Freud’s work on defense
mechanisms focused on how the ego defends itself against internal events or impulses, which
are regarded as unacceptable to one’s ego. These defense mechanisms are used to handle the
conflict between the id, the ego, and the super ego.
Freud noted that a major drive for people is the reduction of tension and the major cause
of tension was anxiety. He identified three types of anxiety:
a) Reality anxiety – is the most basic form of anxiety and is based on the ego. It is typically
based on the fear of real and possible events, for example being bit by a dog or falling of
a roof.
b) Neurotic anxiety – comes from an unconscious fear that the basic impulses of the id will
take control of the person, leading to eventual punishment from expressing the ids
desires.
c) Moral anxiety – comes from the superego. It appears in the form of a fear of violating
values or moral codes, and appears as feelings like guilt or shame.
When anxiety occurs, the minds first response is to seek rational ways of escaping the
situation by increasing problem solving efforts and a range of defense mechanisms may be
triggered. These are ways that the ego develops to help deal with the id and the superego. Defense
mechanisms often appear unconsciously and tend to distort or falsify reality. When the distortion
reality occurs, there is a change in perception which allows for a lessening in anxiety resulting in
a reduction of tension one experiences. Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego defenses which
were noted throughout his work but his daughter, Anna Freud, developed and elaborated on them.
The defense mechanisms are a s follows:
1) Denial – believing that what is true is actually false
2) Displacement – taking out impulses on a less threatening target
3) Intellectualization – avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the intellectual
aspects

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4) Projection – attributing uncomfortable feelings to others

5) Rationalization – creating false but believable justifications
6) Reaction Formation – taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes
anxiety
7) Regression – going back to previous stage of development
8) Repression – pushing uncomfortable thoughts out of conscious awareness
9) Suppression – consciously forcing unwanted thoughts out of our awareness
10) Sublimation – redirecting ‘wrong’ urges into socially acceptable actions. These
defenses are not under our conscious control and our unconscious will use one or more
to protect one’s self from stressful situations. They are natural and normal and without
these, neurosis develops such anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.

10. Low IQ Theory

Explanation of IQ-crime correlation typically take one of three approaches, that
(1) IQ and crime are spuriously, not casually, correlated; (2) low IQ increases criminal behavior;
or (3) criminal behavior decreases IQ.
A popular argument against IQ as a cause of crime criticizes IQ test as only measuring
middle-class knowledge and values rather than innate intelligence. As a result, the observation
that some minority groups and the poor score low on IQ tests simply reflects their diverse cultural
backgrounds. These some groups also commit proportionately more crime because they suffer
structural disadvantages such as poverty and discrimination. Consequently, the same people who
score low on IQ tests also tend to commit more crime, and so IQ and crime are empirically
correlated, thus this correlation is not casual but reflects only culturally biased testing or
intelligence.
A variation of this argument holds that the structural disadvantages that increase crime
rates also reduce educational opportunities thus lessening individual’s ability and motivation to
score well on IQ tests. The IQ-crime correlation occurs only because they both rooted in
structural disadvantage, which, in statistical terms, represents a “spurious” correlation.
Although these discrimination hypotheses have wide appeal, they have received fairly
little support in empirical studies, for IQ and crime are significantly correlated

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within race and class groups as well as when statistically controlling for race, class, test- taking
ability, and test-taking motivation.
Another argument against IQ as a cause of crime holds that school teachers and
administrators treat student differently by perception of the student’s intelligence – giving
negative labels and fewer educational opportunities to less intelligent students. These labels and
constrained opportunities, in turn, produce feelings of alienation and resentment that lead students
to delinquent peers and criminal behavior (Menard and Morse). As such, society’s reaction to
intelligence, and not any property of intelligence itself, increases criminal behavior.
Unfortunately, few studies have delinquently tested this labeling hypothesis.
A final argument against IQ holds that even if all people commit crime with equal
frequency, less intelligent people would be less able to evade detection and would be arrested
more often. This detection hypothesis received some empirical support in that IQ scores tend to
correlate more strongly with officially recorded crime than self-reported crime. However, most
studies still find a significant correlation between IQ and self- reported crime, which is not easily
explained by differential police detection.
A more recent and more compelling, causal explanation emphasizes the importance of
intelligence – especially verbal intelligence – during childhood socialization. The socialization of
children involves constant verbal communication and comprehension of abstract symbols;
therefore, children with poor verbal and cognitive skills have greater difficulty completing the
socialization process, which puts them at risk of under controlled, antisocial behavior.
A final causal explanation links IQ to crime through school performance. Less intelligent
students do less well in school, which results in academic frustration. This frustration, in turn,
weakens their attachment and commitment to schooling, and a weakened bond to school, as per
social control theory, allows for more criminal behavior. This school-performance hypothesis
has received strong support from empirical studies, and it is probably the most widely accepted
explanation of the IQ- crime correlation.
One last approach to IQ and crime deserves mention even though few criminological
studies have examined it. Rather than low IQ increasing criminal behavior, criminal behavior
might decrease IQ. Many facets of a criminal lifestyle can impair

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cognitive abilities including physical injuries, especially head traumas, drug use, and
withdrawing from school.

11. Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Theory

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder of the neuro
developmental type. It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or
difficulty controlling behavior which is not age. The symptoms appear before a person is twelve
years old, are present for more than six months and cause problems in at least two settings (such
as school, home, or recreational activities). In children, problems paying attention may result in
poor school performance. Although it causes impairment, particularly in modern society, many
children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting.

12. Frustration-Aggression Theory

Frustration-aggression hypothesis, otherwise known as the frustration- aggression-
displacement theory, is a theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard, Neal E. Miller et al. in
1939 and further developed by Miller et al. in 1941 and Leonard Berkowitz in 1969. The theory
says that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person’s efforts to attain a goal.
The frustration aggression theory states that aggression is caused by frustration. When
someone is prevented from reaching their important goal or satisfying one of their important
needs they become frustrated. This frustration can then turn into aggression when the right trigger
is present.
For example, if you failed in your final exam you will definitely become frustrated but
what if someone you barely know told you “You are such a loser not to pass that exam”. In
this case, your stored frustration will surely turn into aggression. Note that the frustration
aggression theory does not provide explanation to all types of aggression but it rather focuses on
the aggression those results from not being able to reach your goals.
Frustration is the feeling of irritation and annoyance when something blocks you from
achieving a goal. Aggression, on the other hand, is a malicious behavior or attitude towards
someone or something usually triggered by frustration.

13. Inferiority Complex and Alfred Adler’s Theory

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According to Alfred Adler, who was the first one to coin the term inferiority complex,
every child experiences the feelings of inferiority as the result of being surrounded by stronger
and more capable adults.
As the child grows he becomes obsessed by his original feelings of inferiority he
experienced earlier and so he strives for power and recognition.
If the child failed to meet certain life challenges during his act of compensation then he
will develop an inferiority complex.
So according to Adler, every child feels inferior but not everyone develops an inferiority
complex which only affects those who failed to compensate correctly.
An inferiority complex is a lack of self-worth, a doubt and uncertainty about oneself,
and feelings of not measuring up to standards. It is often subconscious, and is thought to drive
afflicted individuals to overcompensate, resulting either in spectacular achievement or extremely
asocial behavior. In modern literature, the preferred terminology is “lack of covert self-esteem”.
For many, it is developed through a combination of genetic personality characteristics and
personal experiences.

14. Delinquent Subculture Theory

Walter Miller published an article in a journal called Lower-Class Culture as a
Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency. In this article he displayed the lower-class focal
concerns, which include six of the following: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and
autonomy. Trouble, as he states about lower-class communities, is evaluated by how much a
person creates it. Getting into trouble, as well all know it, is pretty much breaking the law such as
fighting. What this does is creates an image for that one subject. So if the subject gets into a fight
and wins, his reputation is therefore increased, people will start recognizing and won't try to fight
the subject.
On the other spectrum, not being able to fight, our subject will have the appearance of a
wimp and therefore be treated with little or no respect. Toughness can explain itself. It’s basically
how our subject would want to increase their physical and spiritual strength so that they would
not be labeled as weak. Smartness in this world is called street smart. What the subject would
want is to be able to make money and survive on the street without consequences. The most
important is of course how to outsmart the authorities/law. Excitement is the next on the list and
explains how our subject needs to find an activity that is “out of the norm” from his day to day
activities.

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These activities could range anywhere from fighting to sexual adventures. Fate is another
one on the list which depicts that people belonging to the lower class believe that their lives are
controlled by a great spiritual force. Last but not least we have autonomy. This pertains to our
subject being independent, which is actually a requirement and usually leads to gang
involvement.

15. Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory and its assumption about human behavior have been integrated
into numerous criminological theories and criminal justice interventions. Rational choice theory
originated during the late 18th century with the work of Cesare Beccaria. Since then, the theory
has been expanded upon and extended to include other perspectives, such as deterrence,
situational crime prevention, and routine activity theory. The rational choice perspective has been
applied to a wide range of crimes, including robbery, drug use, vandalism, and white-collar
crime. Rational choice theory purports that a person will commit crime after determining if the
pain or punishment is worth the pleasure or reward of the act. This theory comes from the
Classical and Neoclassical Schools.
The theory is related to earlier drift theory where people use the techniques of
neutralization to drift in and out of delinquent behavior, and the Systematic Crime Theory, where
Edwin Sutherland proposed that the failure of families and extended kin groups expands the
realm of relationships no longer controlled by the community, and undermines governmental
controls. This leads to persistent ”systematic” crime and delinquency. He also believed that such
disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural traditions and cultural conflicts that support
antisocial activity.
The systematic quality of the behavior was a reference to repetitive, patterned or
organized offending as opposed to random events. He depicted the law-abiding culture as
dominant as and more extensive than alternative criminogenic cultural views and capable of
overcoming systematic crime of organized for that purpose. In a similar vein, Cohen and Felson
(19790 developed Routine Activities Theory which focuses on the characteristics of crime rather
than the characteristics of the offender. This is one of the main theories of environmental
criminology as an aspect of Crime Prevention Theory. It states that for a crime to occur three
elements must be present, i.e. there must be:
 An available and suitable target;

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 A motivated offender; and

 No authority figure to prevent the crime from happening.

16. Choice Theory

Choice theory is the belief that individuals choose to commit crime, looking at the
opportunities before them, weighing the benefit versus the punishment, and deciding whether to
proceed or not. This cost-benefit analysis primarily focuses on the idea that we all have the choice
to proceed with our actions. Because of the punishment involved, we are deterred from
committing the crime.
The term choice theory is the work of William Glasser, MD, author of the book so
named, and is the culmination of some 50 years of theory and practice in psychology and
counseling.
Choice theory posits behaviors we choose are central to our existence. Our behavior
choices are driven by five genetically driven needs, survival, love and belonging, freedom, fun
and power. Survival needs include:
 Food
 Clothing
 Shelter
 Personal safety
 Security and sex, having children And
four fundamental psychological needs:
 Belonging/connecting/love
 Power/significance/competence
 Freedom/autonomy
 Fun/learning
The Ten Axioms
1) The only person whose behavior we can control is our own.
2) All we can give another person is information.
3) All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems.
4) The problem relationship is always part of our present life.

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5) What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we
can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in
the future.
6) We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World.
7) All we do is behaving.
8) All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting,
thinking, feeling and physiology.
9) All total behavior is chosen, but we only had direct control over the acting and
thinking components, we can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly
through how we choose to act and think.
10) All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the
most recognize.

17. Drift Theory (Neutralization Theory)

The theory of Neutralization and Drift was first introduced by Gresham Sykes and
David Matza. Sykes and Matza got together and first theorized about Neutralization during their
time working on Differential Association by Sutherland in the 1960’s. While working on juvenile
delinquency, they thought the same ideas could be used in society and published their theories in
“Delinquency and Drift” in 1964. Neutralization theory is the idea that people who violated the
law learn to neutralize the orthodox attitudes and values of society allowing them to drift
between outlaw and orthodox behavior. Drift is the motion in and out of delinquency, moving
from orthodox and criminal values. Neutralization techniques allow the person to occasionally
‘drift’ out of orthodox behavior and get into criminal behaviors, such as stealing or shooting
someone. The theory was based off four observations. Delinquents sometimes express guilt and
remorse over their act. If they were truly of a criminal mind and really embodied criminal values
they would not express guilt or remorse unless just over the fact that they got caught.

18. Labeling Theory

Had its origins in Suicide, a book by French sociologist Emile Durkheim. He argued that
crime is not so much a violation of a penal code as it is an act that outrages society. He was the
first to suggest that deviant labeling satisfies that function and

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satisfies society’s need to control the behavior. George Herbert Mead posited that the self is
socially constructed and reconstructed through the interactions which each person has with the
community. The labeling theory suggests that people are given labels based on how others view
their tendencies or behaviors. Each individual is aware of how they are judged by others because
he or she has adopted many different roles and functions in social interactions and has been able
to gauge the reactions of those present.
Labeling theory, in criminology, a theory stemming out of a sociological perspective
known as “symbolic interactionism,” a school of thought based on the ideas of George Herbert
Mead, John Dewey, W.I Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, theorists was
Howard Becker, who published his groundbreaking criminologists during the mid-1960’s.
According to sociologists like Emile Dukheim, George Herbert Mead, and Kai T.
Erickson, deviance is functional to society and keeps stability by defining boundaries. In 1966,
Erickson expanded labeling theory to include the functions of deviance, illustrating how societal
reactions to deviance stigmatize the offender and separate him or her from the rest of society. The
results of this stigmatization are a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the offender comes to view
him- or she in the same ways society does.
Labeling theory is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them. It is associated with the
concepts of self-fulfilling or stereotyping. Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent to
an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those
seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. The theory was prominent during 1960s and 1970s,
and some modified versions of the theory have developed and are still currently popular. A
stigma is defined as a powerfully negative label that changes a person’s self-concept and social
identity.

B. ASSESSMENT
Instruction: In your own understanding, explain the different psychological theories
mentioned in this module (must not be less than 50 words). Write it on you notebook.
Take a photograph of it and submit it on the email provided below on or before Friday
(observe cleanliness and understandable handwriting).

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C. INQUIRY AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

Study this module well and prepare for your oral recitation on the scheduled online
class via Skype. For more questions and clarifications, send your message on my
email account (kmompad@gmail.com).

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