Sas 401 Notes-1-1

Sociology and Psychology Department Moi University
Policy Analysis and Project Management
MOI UNIVERSITY
Tel: (053) 43001-8 P.O Box 3900
(053) 43620 ELDORET
Fax: (053) 43047
KENYA
THE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE OUTLINE
SAS 401: POLICY ANALYSIS AND PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Mr. Daniel Simotwo
Objective of the Course

At the end of this course, the student should be able to :
1. Define and explain project management and project leadership.
2. Understand and apply the sequential steps of the project management framework.
3. Understand the importance and function of project management and apply the project
process of initiating, planning, executing, controlling and closing the project.
4. Define the roles of the project manager, the project team member and effectively
communicate with the project team, clients and customer (sponsor)
5. Apply knowledge and skills to manage the project scope, project time and work flow,
project cost and budgets, project resources, project quality, project human resource
requirements, project communication (reports, meetings, correspondence, etc.) project
changes and project risk management.
6. Understand the critical people skills needed to lead projects.
TOPIC ONE
 Introduction To Project Management
 Meaning Of Terms
 Characteristics of a Project
 What is Project Management
 What is Management
 Types Of Projects
 Importance Of Project Management
TOPIC TWO
 Principles & Theories Of Project Management
 Theory Of Management
 Role Of The Community In Project Management
 The Role Of A Project Manager
Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 1

TOPIC THREE
 Project Management Cycle
 Programming Phase
 Identification Phase
 Formulation Phase
 Implementation Phase
 Evaluation Phase
TOPIC FOUR
 Stakeholder Analysis
 Tools for stakeholder analysis
 Stakeholder analysis matrix
 SWOT analysis
 Venn diagrams
 Spider diagram
 Problem Analysis
 Analysis of Objectives
 Analysis of Strategies
TOPIC FIVE
 Development of the Project Layout
 Steps in Developing a Logframe Matrix
 Interrelationships within the Logframe matrix
 Activity Scheduling
 Resource Scheduling
 Steps in Resource Scheduling

TOPIC SIX
 Action Planning
 Monitoring and Review
 Steps in Monitoring & Review
 Monitoring and Review Tools
 Risk Management
 Process of Development of Risk Management Matrix
TOPIC SEVEN
 Project Evaluation
 Types Of Evaluations
 Steps In Evaluation
 Tools In Evaluation
 Project Appraisal
 Tools And Techniques In Appraisal
TOPIC EIGHT
 Project Report Writing
 Why Report Writing
 Factors To Consider In Report Writing
 Types Of Project Reports
 Format Of A Project Report
TOPIC NINE
 Community Participation
 Types Of Participation
 Decision Making / Problem Solving
 Community Participation In Needs Assessment
 Project Sustainability
 Why Project Sustainability
 Project Sustainability Options
Assessment
Students shall be assessed twice. We shall have one Sit in Continuous Assessment Test and
One term paper. Each shall carry the following weight.
Sit in Continuous Assessment Test=15%

Term Paper =15%
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Total =30%
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REFERENCES
1. The Definitive Guide to Project Management. Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. London
(Financial Times / Prentice Hall): 2007. ISBN 978 0 273 71097 4
2. Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons,
2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8. p.35 and further.
3. Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN
0-07-147160-X. p.110.
4. Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide.
McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354.
5. Dennis Lock (2007) Project management (9e ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007.
ISBN 0-566-08772-3
6. Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief history of Project Management". In: The story of
managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group,
2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2
7. David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global project management handbook.
"Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management". McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006.
ISBN 0-07-146045-4
8. Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways. Association for Project
Management. APM Publishing Limited, 2002 ISBN 1-903494-01-X p.xxii
9. Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-
415-36977-0. p. 96-101.
10. David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global project management handbook.
McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4. p.1-4 states: "It was in the
1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution
arising from the management discipline."
11. Bjarne Kousholt (2007). Project Management –. Theory and practice. . Nyt Teknisk
Forlag. ISBN 87-571-2603-8. p.59.
12. F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured
approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 0-566-07822-8. p.34.
13. Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems"
in: In: Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon)
August 2528, 1970, Los Angeles, USA.
14. Albert Hamilton (2004). Handbook of Project Management Procedures. TTL
Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7277-3258-7

1. INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1.1 MEANING OF TERMS
Policy analysis is "determining which of various policies will most achieve a given
set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals". However,
policy analysis can be divided into two major fields.
i. Analysis of policy that is analytical and descriptivei.e., it attempts to

explain policies and their development.
ii. Analysis for policy is prescriptivei.e., it is involved with formulating
policies and proposals (e.g., to improve social welfare).
The area of interest and the purpose of analysis determine what type of analysis is to
be conducted. A combination of policy analysis together with program evaluation
would be defined as Policy studies.
Policy Analysis is frequently deployed in the public sector, but is equally applicable
to other kinds of organizations. Policy analysis has its roots in systems analysis as
instituted by United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara during the Vietnam
War. (stopped here for Main group)
Planning (also called forethought) is the process of thinking about and organizing
the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It involves the creation and
maintenance of a plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills.
There are even a couple of tests to measure someones capability of planning well.
As such, planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior.
Also, planning has a specific process and is necessary for multiple occupations
(particularly in fields such as management, business, etc.). In each field there are
different types of plans that help companies achieve efficiency and effectiveness. An
important, albeit often ignored aspect of planning, is the relationship it holds to
forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predicting what the future will look like,
whereas planning predicts what the future should look like for multiple scenarios.
Planning combines forecasting with preparation of scenarios and how to react to
them.
1.1.1 Project
A project can usually be specified as a series of activities leading to a clearly
defined objective (target) which cannot be achieved by normal day to day
activities (FINNIDA, 1991). It has specified objectives, time and resource
frames, and project organization responsible for the achievement of the
objectives.
According to EC (2004), a project is a series of activities aimed at bringing

about clearly defined objectives within a defined time period and with a
defined budget.

Verzuh (2003) defines a project as work that is temporary and produces a

unique product (one time shots).
Harvey (1995) simplifies a project as a non repetitive activity. He further states

that a project is goal oriented, has particular set of constraints, the output(s)
are measurable and that on its completion something has changed.
Thus combining the cross cutting aspects of all these scholarly/professional

definitions one comes up with a definition of a project as an intervention
aimed at transforming an existing undesirable situation to the desirable or
expected situation. The intervention occurs within a specified time and
budget, aimed at some specific objective(s) that bring about some change
(impact) in the lives of the recipients/beneficiaries.
1.1.2 Programme
Whereas a project is specific, a programme is general. A project is only a part
of a larger development programme of a country/organization. Besides a
particular project there are usually several other ongoing projects in the same
field (FINNIDA, 1991). According to EU (2004), a programme is a package of
projects.
EU looks at a programme from two perspectives: a set of projects put together

under the overall framework of a common overall objective/goal; or an
ongoing set of initiatives/services that support common objectives.
Thus a programme is a collection of projects concerned with a particular

aspect of human development e.g. health, agriculture, education, water and
sanitation etc.
1.1.3 Characteristics of a Project

1.1.3.1 Project Description
Each project should have a project description which clearly stipulates its
overall objective, purpose, results and activities. An overall objective (goal) is
the desired state of affairs that ought to be attained after the implementation
of the entire project. It describes the desired positive situation in which the
beneficiaries of the project are expected to be in after the implementation of
the project as opposed to the undesirable negative situation that they are in at
the start of the project. Purpose refers to the anticipated immediate benefit for
the beneficiaries stemming from the implementation of a project. It can also be
referred to as immediate objective and some projects may have more than one
purpose. A result is a tangible or intangible good or service attained from the
undertaking of a given activity of a project. It can also be seen as an outcome
of a project. An activity is an undertaking that utilizes various project

resources so as to produce some results. All these aspects of a project
description should be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time bound
and accepted (SMARTA).
1.1.3.2 Organization Structure

A project will always have human capital charged with authority to carry out
some responsibilities/tasks of the project. Such human capital will be charged
with the project management and more specifically project implementation.
Thus, an organization structure is an arrangement of positions occupied by
such human capital in an organization showing who is answerable to
whom/flow of authority during the implementation of a project. (Main
Group resume here 12/6/15)
1.1.3.3 Transformatory
The trigger for a project is an existing negative situation, whereas the target of
a project is the desired positive situation. A project is the intervention used to
move beneficiaries from the current negative situation to the future desired
positive situation. Hence a project is a tool of transformation in the livelihood
of the beneficiaries. (KPA group begin here next)
1.1.3.4 Conformity to the Triple Constraint

Every project operates within some framework in terms of cost/budget,
schedule/time and quality. This is also referred to as triple constraint or the
cost-schedule-quality equilibrium. Thus a project must operate within an
established: budget of resources, time frame i.e. a given start and finish
period, and a set of quality attributes or characteristics of the project like
relevance, feasibility and effectiveness.
1.1.3.5 Clearly Identified Stakeholders

Stakeholders are people, groups of people, or institutions that are affected by
a project. For effective project management all the stakeholders should be
known, that is beneficiaries as well as supporters.
1.1.3.6 Cost Benefit Analysis

All projects should be seen as investment ventures where resources are used
in the project at some cost as inputs. It is anticipated that the utilization of
these inputs yields some results as outputs/benefits whose value must exceed
that of the inputs. Thus the justification for a project should be on the proof
that the benefits from it exceed the costs into it.
1.1.4 Management
Plunket (1994) defines management as the setting and attainment of
organizational goals/objectives through the five functions that acquire and
utilize effectively; human, financial, material, time and informational

resources. The five functions of management include: planning, organizing,
staffing, directing and controlling.
1.1.5 Project Management

Harvey (1999) says that project management includes planning, organizing,
directing and controlling activities in addition to motivating what usually is
the most expensive resource on the project the people.
Locke (2003) observes that the purpose of project management is to foresee or

predict as many of the dangers and problems as possible and to plan, organize
and control activities so that projects are completed as successfully as possible
in spite of all the risks.
Thus project management can be seen as the process of setting and

subsequently attaining objectives through planning, organizing, directing and
controlling the investment of available resources in conformity with triple
constraint principle so as to transform peoples livelihood positive ly. It can
also be seen as the process of planning, executing and controlling work that is
temporary to produce unique goods / services that positively transform the
livelihoods of beneficiaries.
1.2 TYPES OF PROJECTS
According to Locke (2003); there are four main typologies of projects based on
where they are carried out from and the kind of output. These are: industrial
projects, manufacturing projects, management projects and Research projects.
1.2.1 Industrial Projects

They are normally carried out away from a contractors head office. Such a
place is referred to as a site. They face special risks and problems of
organization and require massive capital investment and deserve rigorous
management of progress, finance and quality but often don t get. Due to their
complexity in capital management requirements, more than one company
joins to execute them. Examples include; civil engineering, construction
petrochemical, mining and quarrying projects.
1.2.2 Manufacturing Projects

These kinds of projects are carried out in a factory and aim at producing
specially designed hardware like ship, farm machinery, aircraft, motor vehicle
etc. Such hardware could be for particular person /client or it could be a
development by a company for subsequent manufacture and sale in quantity
as per the demand.

1.2.3 Management Projects
Unlike the first two categories, projects in this category engage in operations
that involve the management and coordination of activities with outputs that
are often intangible. Most of non profit making organizations (NGO s national
and local government departments, professional associations, charities,
disaster relief agencies etc) undertakes projects of this nature.
1.2.4 Research Projects

These projects are designed to inquire into a given phenomenon for the
purpose of expanding the boundaries of current knowledge. They are
characterized by difficulties in the definition of their objectives and as such
may be subject to project management methods. However, its agreeable that
some degree of project management should be exercised.
Consider the following categorizations
1. Engineering Projects
This should involve all the projects that are of industrial and manufacturing in
nature.
2. Business Projects
This category would include projects that are aimed at service /Product
output with the core interest of profit making.
3. Academic Projects
In this category we would include projects for research aimed at knowledge
expansion. Examples would include dissertations and theses.
4. Social Development Projects

These would involve aid delivery oriented projects whose main motive is non
profit making. (Main Group reached here on 19/06/15)
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The basic importance of project management is manifest in the paradigmatic
change in organizations towards output (product /service) delivery. Over the
years, this was based on routine operations and the concern of management
teams was on how to do same thing better so as to productive an
enhancement out put.
This is to say that they were involved in repetitive operations or activities.
Today management in most organizations is more involved in one time shots

(Verzuh, 2003). This approach to output delivery gives an individual /team
only one chance to do something, hence the need for project management.
Specific importances of project management are as follows;
1. Help organizations to identify desirable projects for the

stakeholders/clients. Through project management projects are
established which address the most felt need of the stakeholders
especially the beneficiaries. This is well catered for through
identification phase of project management cycle. In this phase, the
most felt problem and need of the beneficiaries is established.
Subsequently, this forms the overall goal of the project.
2. Project management helps to establish an appropriate strategy for
project execution. After establishing the most felt need/the goal of the
project, various objectives are developed to help attain this goal. Based
on the established objectives, a framework (strategy) is put in place that
will enable their attainment. In the project management cycle, this is
done during the formulation/design phase.
3. Project management helps in the attainment of outputs as per the
established goal and through the outlined strategies. The execution of a
given strategy demands the carrying out of some activities. Thus
project management helps to plan what should be done, by whom
when, where, and by use of what resources. This is undertaken during
the implementation phase of the project management cycle.
4. Project management helps to keep track of project execution process.

During implementation, monitoring and periodic review is undertaken
to ensure everything conforms to the principle of triple constraint of the
project as well as to the Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) framework
as established under formulation phase.
5. Project management helps to reveal if the project has produced

meaningful impact to the beneficiaries as well as any learning
experiences as a result of a completed project. Project evaluation is a
core phase through which this importance is achieved. Here, an
assessment is undertaken to measure if the outputs of a project had the
desired impact or change in the livelihood of the beneficiaries.
Subsequently, any learning experiences are also catalogued for
consideration during future project management.

1.5 PRINCIPLES & THEORIES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
A theory is a set of prepositions that describe, explain or predict a

phenomenon. Thus a theory stems from a conceptualization of a phenomenon
and subsequently concretizes into principles/prescriptions /concepts. Thus a
theory of project management should be prescriptive. That is, it should reveal
how action contributes to the goals set for a project (Koskela and Howell,
2002).

The discipline of project management has for long time not had a theory. As
late as the year 2000, scholars in the discipline were in agreement that the
discipline was based on implicit and narrow theory which needed
development, expansion and enrichment (Koskela and Howell, 2002). This
poverty in the theory of project management has led to frequent project
failures (Kharbanda and Pinto, 1996), lack of commitment towards project
management methods (Foster et al, 1996) and slow rate of methodological
renewal (Morris , 1994)
Since a theory of project management should focus on how action contributes

to the goal of the project (Koskela and Howell, 2002), it is inevitable that such
a theory should focus on the process that take place in the life of a project.
Projects have two broad categories of processes that go on as a project is
undertaken:
1. Project Management Processes

These processes are aimed at designing systems that are used /employed so
as to realize the goals/objectives of the project. They include; initiating,
planning, execution controlling and closing processes (Koskela and Howell,
2002), these processes closely relate to formulation of systems for handling the
operations of the project.
2. Product Oriented Processes

These processes are aimed at employment of the designed systems so as to
realize some output/value generating for customers/clients/beneficiaries. It
involves processes like Critical path Analysis/Network Analysis, resource
scheduling and action planning.
Each of the two has a set of principles which can be viewed collectively as
comprising a theory. Thus we have the theory of management and the theory
of project accruing to processes of category 1 and 2 respectively.
1.5.1Theory of Management
Management has been defined as the setting and attainment of organizational
goals/objectives through the five basic functions that acquire and utilize
effectively: human; financial, material, time and informational resources. It
has also been aforementioned that project management process includes
initiating, planning, execution, controlling and closing a project.
Koskela (2002) deduces that management can be mirrored into three core
principles of planning, execution and controlling. The three forms a closed
loop, that is planning provide a plan which is realized through executing.

Variances from baseline or request for change lead to corrections in execution
or changes in further plans, hence controlling (see figure below).
The cycle resultant of the principles of the theory of management
Planning
Changes Plans
Controlling
Executing
Corrections
1.5.1.1 Planning Principle

Planning is the systematic process of establishing organizational
goals/objectives as well as the means/strategies of attaining them. Its a
preparation for tomorrow an orderly process that allows managers to
determine the organizational goals and how to achieve them (Plunket, 1994).
In planning, managers use 4W-2H questions to develop goals and means or
strategies of achieving them. The 4W-2H questions are:
1. What objective/target goal.
2. When target date and intermediate goals if any (long term Vs short term
goals).
3. Where geographical location of performance.
4. Who the people to perform the specific tasks essential to the plan.
5. How methodology used to achieve the objectives (how actions will be
undertaken to attain objectives.
6. How much resources needed which the management is willing to spend.
1.5.1.2 Execution Principle

Execution can be seen as the formal procedure for sanctioning project work to
ensure that work is done at the right time and in the proper sequence. Thus
jobs/tasks are assigned to work in crews usually by a central authority. The
execution process has two elements: decision (for selecting a task for a
person/work crew from the predetermined tasks that are ready for execution)
and communicating the assignment/authorization of the person/crew to
undertake the task. Many a times and especially in project management,
deciding what task (element one of execution process) is undertaken during
planning. Hence execution is entirely communication (element two of
execution).
1.5.1.3 Controlling Principle

Controlling is the setting of standards for performance against which to
monitor performance of people and processes in an organization. This aimed
at detecting, preventing and correcting unacceptable variances between
expected/planned and actual results. Controlling as such establishes
qualitative and quantitative standards, detects any deviations from standards
(monitors) and redeems the organization from any further deviations
(corrective feedback). The core processes of controlling can be divided into
two sub processes: performance reporting and overall change control. Based
on the latter; changes are prescribed for the planning processes (Koskela and
Howell, 2002).
1.5.2.1Theory of Project
The conceptualization of the theory of project starts from the understanding
that project management is about managing work. Turner (1993) put forward
the following assumptions/principles about project management:
i. Project management is about managing work.
ii. In managing work the total work must be decomposed. That is it
should be subdivided into smaller chunks which he refers to as
tasks/activities.
iii. Decomposition of work is aimed at achieving three purposes:
a. Ensuring adequate/sufficient amount of work is done
b. Ensuring that unnecessary work is not done
c. Ensuring that any work done is aimed at achieving/delivering
the stated business/project purpose or objective.
iv. Decomposition and execution of the total project work proceeds with
tasks/activities that are related if at all by sequential dependence. This
relates to undertaking critical path analysis/network analysis.
The four comprises the scope of project management and is outlined in the
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and it is the raison detre of project
management.

1.6 ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The entire task of project management has taken a paradigmatic shift from
top-bottom to bottom-up. This scenario has increasingly advocated for the
involvement of the community and other stakeholders in all the phases of
project cycle. Thus there is increased community participation in the project
leading to participatory project management. Taking project management
from the point of view of participatory management, the community has the
following roles:
1.6.1The Role of Stakeholders/Partners

By and large, the community is required to appreciate that the project is theirs.
They ought to get involved in the project as owners and not as recipients.

1.6.2 The role of informants

Participatory project management espouses the notion that the community
has the information about the environment and they understand what they
need. Thus project management team can rely on them for the purpose of
getting valuable information regarding project management.
1.6.3 The role of resource mobilizers

By being partners in the project, the community should be able to support the
project and not to wait for everything to be done for them. Thus they should
be seen as people endowed with resources locally available which they can
contribute for the success of the project.
1.6.4 The role of decision makers

In participatory management, the community should be viewed with trust
and belief that they have the capacity to decide rightly for the project. They
should be involved in all structures of decision making for example when
doing prioritization/needs assessment, when developing community action
plans etc.
1.7 THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANAGER

The role of the project manager can be adopted from the role of a manger as
per Henry Minsterberge. Minsterberge (1978) groups ten basic roles of a
manager into three: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
1.7.1 Interpersonal Role

A project manager is a symbol/figurehead of the project. In this role his/her
duties consists of signing certain documents required by the law/project
policies and officially receiving visitors. Locke (2003) contends that the project
manager is often a significant part of the corporate image which the company
(project) presents to the outside world. S/he can reliably make statements on
behalf of the project.
1.7.2 Informational Role

A project manager acts as a monitor. S/he gathers data both from without the
project and within the project so as to collate for decision making. S/he will
also pertake of the duty of preparing reports based on the data gathered so
that s/he disseminates within and outside the project. Since s/he is directly
associated with data collection and dissemination, a project manager can
reliably make statements on behalf of the project organization.
1.7.3 Decisional Role

Project managers are seen as entrepreneurs. They initiate new projects, design
strategies and implement so as to solve existing problems. They will more

often get involved in deciding which way the project should go incase of
disturbances like incase the project has not met its targets, the human capital
is not motivated, the human capital conflict resolution etc.
2. PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE
A cycle is a regularly repeated series of events (Mifflin, 1983). According to

FINNIDA (1991), a project cycle is a system whereby a project advances from
one stage to another in a certain order. Thus a project cycle can be seen as a
series of regularly repeated stages/phases through which a project advances
(develops from inception to completion).
EU (2004) stipulates that a project takes five stages/phases: programming,

identification, formulation, implementation, and, evaluation & audit.
FINNIDA (1991) outlines four stages/phases of a project cycle: project
identification, project preparation and design, project implementation and
project face out & evaluation.

A comparison of these professional sources one comes up with a project cycle
as constituting the following phases/stages: programming, identification,
formulation/design, implementation and evaluation. These phases are
progressive i.e. each should be completed for the next phase to be tackled
with success. Thus the project management cycle can be presented as the
figure below:
Project management cycle
Programming
Identification
Formulation
Evaluation
Implementation
2.1 Programming Phase

During this phase, the objective/aim is to ascertain the relevance of the project
to Partner Governments (PGs) and donors development priorities. The
purpose of the activities of this phase is to deepen understanding of the PG
and donor development policies.
2.2 Identification Phase

The goal here is to ascertain the relevance of the project to the community
(that is, if the project meets demonstrated and high priority needs of the
community/beneficiary groups), while keeping eye/consistency with the
donors policy priorities. The purpose of the activities/tasks in this phase is to
define the problem(s) and establish the objective(s) of that the project will
address. Critical to understand is what the problem is, what causes it and how
it can be addressed.

2.3 Formulation phase
The goal of this phase is to ensure that feasibility of the project (the project is
well designed and it will deliver sustainable benefits to target/beneficiary
groups). The purpose if the activities in this phase are to come up with a
designed methodology on how the established objective(s) shall be attained.
Critical to understand is the project description as well as the monitoring and
evaluation considerations.
2.4 Implementation phase

During this phase the goal is to ensure efficiency, effectiveness and proper
management of the project (is the project delivering the anticipated benefits,
and is it well managed). The objective is to make the project produce planned
results by use of available resources. Key tasks include: monitoring and
regular review, planning (and re-planning) and preparation of reports. Thus
there is need to ensure that execution of the project remains relevant and
feasible, and that the project is well managed. If this is not the case, identify
why, so as to make necessary changes through re-planning.
2.5 Evaluation phase

The objective of evaluation is to ascertain how effective the project was, the
impact and sustainability. This is best done by an individual/group outside
the implementing team. It is designed to rely on the output/documents of the
preceding phases, thus the log frame matrix, monitoring reports, operational
work plans etc. the output is an evaluation report on the relevance, efficiency,
effectiveness, impact and sustainability of the project. In a nutshell it looks at
the success of the project and will be carried out upon completion of the
project (ex-post evaluation).
3. PROJECT CYCLE MANAGEMENT
3.1 MEANING OF TERMS

Project cycle management (PCM) is a methodology for preparation or
formulation, implementation and evaluation of projects and programmes. It is
a term used to describe the management activities and decision making
procedures used during the life cycle of a project (EU, 2004).
Thus PCM can be seen as an aid on how to handle the project cycle. It focuses
on what to be done, various methods and outputs expected after
accomplishing the various phases/stages of the project cycle. In modern
project management; successful PCM relies on Logical Framework Approach
(LFA). LFA is an analytical process and a set of tools that help in project
planning and management (EU, 2004).

This section proceeds by looking at various project cycle phases vis-à-vis what
should be done; methods of doing it, and expected outputs for each of them
based on LFA.
3.2 PROGRAMMING PHASE

To understand the relevance of a project idea to PGs and donor government s
development priorities, one has to undertake a thorough literature review of
the PGs and donor governments policies. Thus this phase mainly involves
desk review of the PGs development plans, sectoral policy documents, etc in
comparison with the donors development requirements. In Kenya key
documents for review would include: five year development plans, Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), Vision 2030, MDGs etc.
3.3 IDENTIFICATION PHASE

This phase focuses on knowing/defining the problem at hand, the
stakeholders in the problem and the relevance of the problem to the
stakeholders. Thus central to this stage is the goal of ensuring that the project
to be meets demonstrated and highly prioritized needs of the donor, PGs and
most significantly the beneficiaries.
The tasks involved in project identification include:

i. Stakeholder analysis this involves identifying and characterizing
potential major stakeholders and assessing their capacity.
ii. Problem analysis this is identifying key problems, constraints and
opportunities, determining cause and effect relationships.
iii. Objective analysis developing solutions from the identified
problems; identifying means-end relationships.
iv. Strategy analysis identifying different strategies to achieve
solutions and selecting most appropriate strategy.
3.3.1 Stakeholder Analysis

A stakeholder is an individual, group of individuals, institutions or firms that
may have a significant interest in the success or failure of a project (either as
beneficiaries, implementer, facilitators, or adversaries). They can also be seen
as individuals/institutions that may directly/indirectly, positively/negatively
affect or be affected by a project or programme.
Stakeholder analysis helps the Project management team to understand and

recognize the different concerns, capacities and interests of the various
stakeholders. Further it helps to maximize the social, economic and
institutional benefits of the project to target groups and ultimate beneficiaries
as well as minimize the projects potential negative impacts e.g. stakeholder
conflicts.

The main steps in stakeholder analysis are:
1. Identification of the general development problem/opportunity being
addressed/considered.
2. Identification of all groups with a significant interest in the project to be
(potential project).
3. Investigation of their respective roles, different interests, relative power
and capacity to participate (strengths/weaknesses).
4. Identification of the degree of cooperation/conflict in the relationships
between stakeholders.
5. Interpretation of the findings of the analysis and incorporation of relevant
information into the project design so as to ensure that target resources are
equitably distributed, stakeholder ownership and participation is
promoted and conflicts of stakeholders is promoted and conflicts of
stakeholders interests are recognized and explicitly addressed in project
design.
3.3.1.1Tools for stakeholder analysis

There are several tools/techniques for undertaking stakeholder analysis; but
key among them are: stakeholder analysis matrix, SWOT analysis, Venn
diagrams, and Spider diagrams.
i. Stakeholder analysis matrix

This matrix is used to reveal some relevant information about the
people/institutions that may directly/indirectly, positively/negatively
affect/be affected by the project to be. This information is in terms of type of
stakeholder and basic characteristics, their interests and how affected by the
problem(s), capacity and motivation to bring about change and possible
actions to address stakeholder interests. It is used to indicate the extent to
which various stakeholders are affected by the problem. This can be
summarized in a grid as in the figure below:
Outline of a Stakeholder Analysis Matrix

Stakeholder & Interest and how affected Capacity and Possible actions to
basic by the problem(s) motivation to bring address stakeholder
characteristic about change interests
X
Y
Z
ii. SWOT analysis

SWOT analysis is an acronym that denotes Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats. This tool is used to identify the internal strengths
and weaknesses as well as the external opportunities and threats of an

institution, community or individual. It can be summarized in a matrix as in
the figure below.
An Example of a SWOT Analysis Matrix

Strengths Weaknesses
a) X a) x
b) X b) x
c) x c) x
Opportunities Threats
a) x a) x
b) x b) x
c) x c) x
iii. Venn diagrams

Some scholars and project management practitioners refer to this tool as
chapati diagrams/the Anjera. It is used to reveal the various institutions
present in an area of project operation, their activities, their relationship with
one another and how the community perceives them to be important.
Manilla paper could be cut in different sizes of chapati like figures. Members
are then asked to give/award them to identified institutions on the basis of
their perceived importance (the greater the importance, the bigger the
chapati). The community is then asked to arrange them close to each other
and within a frame. This helps to depict their relationship to each other as
well as how remotely placed the institution is within the community. Thus
institutions with close relationship are placed next to/overlapped with one
another; institutions that are remote are placed far away from the centre of the
frame (community). This exercise yields a Venn diagram as below.
Example of a Venn Diagram
D
A
E
F
C G
H
iv. Spider diagram

This technique can be used to reveal the institutional capacity to manage
change. Core operational areas of the institution are identified through e.g.
desk review, interviews, observation etc; and their operation levels
(effectiveness and efficiency established). A four ringed diagram is drawn to
measure the performance level:
0 = undesirable level, thus dramatic improvement
1 = Poor; thus significant room for improvement
2 = Satisfactory; thus some scope for improvement
3 = Highly effective; maintain standards.
Institutional capacity analysis through spider diagram can output a matrix
/web as follows:
An Example of Spider Diagram
Client focus
Personnel management
3 2 1 0
Policy and
Financial management planning system

N/B The above web is for a four operational areas; which forms four
quadrants. However we can have more operational areas for analysis e.g. six,
etc for analysis hence hexagonal etc
3.3.2 Problem Analysis

A problem is a negative aspect of an existing situation. Problem analysis is a
critical assessment of such negative situations so as to establish cause-effect
relationship between the identified problem(s) or negative situations.
Problem analysis proceeds in the following order:

1. Knowing and bringing together stakeholders for the purpose of
participation in problem analysis.
2. Formulation or definition of the problem(s). This involves listing of the
existing negative situations and subsequently framing problem statements.
It is important to note that a problem is not the absence of a solution, but
an existing negative state. For example in the case where tsetse flies have
infested a cattle raring region; it would be wrong to formulate lack of
pesticides as a problem, rather it should be cattle infested by tsetse flies .
Or in the case where a maize growing area is infested by maize stock
borers: it is wrong to state the problem as lack of pesticides ; rather it
should be maize infested by the maize stock bores.
3. Select a starting point. After the listing of the problems and subsequent
amalgamation of those that appear to be contributing to the larger one, the
team will be left with core ones. At this stage it is vital that the
stakeholders prioritize their problems, through techniques like pair-wise
ranking, preference ranking, and direct matrix among others.
Above the problem
4. Develop a problem tree for individual problems. A problem tree aims at

revealing two things: causes and effects of a problem. Thus for each core
problem, identify substantial and direct causes as well as substantial and
direct effects. When the causes and effects of each problem have been
identified, a problem tree is then constructed. The guiding rules are that:
}
2 Level hierarchy nd
a. All the causes are put below/under the core problem of effects
b. Causes or effects of a problem usually have different levels, thus

forming a hierarchy of effects as well as causes. It is important to put
}
Below the problem
this into consideration while developing the problem tree. That is if

1 Level hierarchy
st
there is two or more cause combining to produce an effect,ofplace effects
them at the same level in the problem tree. Thus a problem tree will
be as illustrated below.
An illustration of a problem
tree
} 1st Level hierarchy

of causes
}
Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso
2 Level24
hierarchy
nd
of causes
Simulation of a problem tree for cattle infested with tsetse flies area
Low income
Low milk and meat Cattle deaths due to

production illnesses like ECF
Cattle infested by ticks
Lack of money to buy In availability / poor

pesticides supply of pesticides

3.3.3 Analysis of Objectives

Simply stated, an objective is the desired achievement in future as a result of
what you are doing at present. In project cycle management; analysis of
objectives can be seen as a technique used to describe the situation in future
once identified problem(s) have been salvaged. It is used to track the path to
be followed if a problem has to be eradicated. Thus through its product
(objectives tree), one is able to understand the means-ends relationships of a
problem, hence a clear view of the desired future situation.
An analysis of problems proceeds in the following order:

1. Reformulation of negative statements of the problem analysis into positive
situation statements. These should be realistic and desirable.
2. Check the means-end relationships to ensure validity and completeness of
the hierarchy (cause-effect relationships are turned into means-end
linkages).
3. If necessary revise statements; add new objectives if you consider them
necessary to achieve the objective at the next higher level, delete objectives
which do not seem suitable or necessary.
In reference to the problem tree under problem analysis, the objective tree
would appear as below:
Simulation of an objective tree for cattle infested with tsetse flies area
Increased income
Increased productivity Reduced / no cattle

of milk and meat deaths from ECF
production
Ticks free cattle
Provision of money Effective pesticides

for pesticides provision

3.3.4 Analysis of Strategies
Successful completion of analysis of objectives leaves one with a clear vision
of where s/he wants to be and the path to follow so as to get there (means-
end). A strategy can be seen as a method to be employed so as to get where
one wants to be. Analysis of strategies will effectively help to identify the best
method to be used so as to achieve a given objective. For each objective there
may be several proposals by the stakeholders on how to achieve it, this posses
a difficulty of which one to be picked/used. In the practice of project cycle
management, it is required that the interests of all stakeholders are taken care
of so that the selected strategy is acceptable. Thus to achieve this; the choice of
a strategy should be unbiased and objective i.e. free of any subjectivity. Such
objectivity calls for establishment of criteria upon which each of the strategies
proposed to achieve a goal can be measured against and come up with most
favourable strategy.
EU (2004) stipulates the following as a set of criteria to objectively select a

strategy:
 Expected contribution to key policy objectives e.g. poverty
reduction/economic integration.
 Benefits to target groups i.e. women, children, men, youth, aged,
disabled etc.
 Complementarity with other on going or planned programmes/projects
 Financial and economic cost benefit.
 Contribution to institutional capacity building.
 Technical feasibility
 Environmental impact.
Lelo et al (2000) proposes the following set of criteria:

 Sustainability
 Productivity
 Equitability
 Cost
 Technical feasibility
 Socio-cultural acceptability
 Time taken to benefit
 Stability
The set of criteria selected, can be used to asses various strategies by use of a
strategy/opportunity assessment matrix.

3.4 FORMULATION PHASE

At this stage the project management team already understands who the
stakeholders in the project to be are and the logical project description. The
team then advances by trying to develop a logical flow of the project to be.
Thus project formulation consists of three major tasks:

i. Development of a project layout defining project structure, testing its
internal logic and risks, formulating measurable indicators of success
and where to get such indicators.
ii. Activity scheduling determining the sequence and dependency of
activities; estimating their duration and assigning responsibility.
iii. Resource scheduling from activity schedule, develop input schedules
and a budget.
3.4.1Development of the Project Layout

The project layout can be seen ass the plan of the project to be. The project
layout/plan is presented through the logical framework matrix, also referred
to as the logframe matrix. The logframe matrix provides a summary of the
project design and it is normally between 1 and 4 pages (determined by the
complexity of the project, and how many objective levels are in the matrix). It
is recommended that the logframe matrix only consists of the overall
objective, purpose and results on one hand and how it can be known that they
are achieved, source of verification that the three have been achieved and the
assumptions to be kept so as to achieve them.
An illustration of the logframe matrix
Project Description Indicators Source of Verification Assumptions
Overall objective Measures the extent to Sources of information and
The broad development which a contribution to the methods used to collect and
impact to which the project overall objective has been report it (including who and
made. Used during when/how frequently).

contributes - at a national or evaluation. However, it is
sectoral level (provides the often not appropriate for
link to the policy and/sector the project itself to try and
programme context). collect this information.
Purpose Helps answer the question Sources of information and Assumptions (factors
The development outcome at how will we know if the methods used to collect and outside project
the end of the project more purpose has been report it (including who and managements control)
specifically the expected achieved? Should include when/how frequently). that may impact on the
benefit t the target group(s). appropriate details of activity-result linkage.
quantity, quality, and time.
Results Helps answer the question Sources of information and Assumptions (factors
The direct/tangible results how will we know if the methods used to collect and outside project
(goods and services) that the results have been report it (including who and managements control)
project delivers, and which delivered? Should include when/how frequently). that may impact on the
are largely under project appropriate details of activity-result linkage.
managements control. quantity, quality and time.
Activities (At times you may provide

a summary of
(Sometimes a summary of
costs/budget is provided in this
Assumptions
outside
(factors
project
The tasks (work programme) sources/means). box). managements control)
that need to be carried out to that may impact on the
deliver the planned results. activity-result linkage.
N/B this is optional within
the matrix itself
Essentially then, activities as a component of the project description is left out
in the logframe matrix and can be shown in an activity schedule, just like the
details of inputs and budget are presented in the resource schedule.
3.4.1.1 Steps in Developing a Logframe Matrix

The general sequence in the development of the matrix is as follows:
1. Develop the project description (from top to bottom).
2. Develop the assumptions column from bottom upwards. That is the
assumptions at each level of the project description but leaving out the
overall objective. This is because once assumptions at the purpose level are
fulfilled, then overall objective is attained and there is nothing to be
attained above the overall objective.
3. Develop indicators then sources of verification for one level top to down
(objective, purpose, and then results). This can be illustrated as in figure
below:
Illustration of the steps to be followed in development of a logframe matrix
Project Description Indicators Source of Assumptions
Verification
Overall objective 1 8 9
Purpose
2 1 1 7
0 1
0
Results 3 1 1 6
2 3
Activities 4 5
3.4.2 Interrelationships within the Logframe matrix

There are three relationships within a logframe matrix culminating into what
is referred to as the logics of the logframe.
3.4.2.1 Intervention Logic

This is the relationship between the components of the project description.
The first column of the logframe matrix produces the project s intervention
logic (summary of means-end logic). Using the objective hierarchy, the
intervention logic can be read from bottom up as:
i. If adequate inputs are provided, then activities can be undertaken;
ii. If activities are undertaken, then results can be produced;
iii. If results are produced, then the purpose will be achieved; and
iv. If the purpose is achieved, then this should contribute towards the
overall objective.
Read from top bottom, the intervention logic will read;
i. If we wish to contribute to the overall goal, then we must achieve the
purpose;
ii. If we wish to achieve the purpose, then we must deliver results;
iii. If we wish to deliver results, then the specified activities must be
implemented; and
iv. If we wish to implement specified activities, then we must apply
identified inputs/resources.
3.4.2.2 Horizontal Logic

This represents the relationship between indicators (OVIs) and their sources
of verification (SoV). The SoV are also referred to as the Means of Verification
(MoV). The horizontal logic is the relationship between OVIs and SoV for
overall objective, purpose, and results; or rows 1, 2, and 3 in relation to overall
object, purpose, and results.
The horizontal logic consists of the indicators and means of verification. An

indicator can be simplified as a measure that what was planned to happen/be
achieved has happened/been achieved. It can also be seen as how do you
know whether/not what has been planned is actually happening or
happened?
Means of verification are sources from which one can be able to find
information about the indicators of achievement. In the logframe matrix, one
reads across the matrix (column 2 and 3) when analyzing indicators and
means of verification, hence it is referred to as the horizontal logic.
Indicators should be Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVIs). This means that

the information collected should be the same if collected by different people.
That is using the OVI will yield same information the kind of person
collecting not withstanding. Indicators can be qualitative (based on numbers

of the variable measured) or they can be qualitative (numbers but based on
things like opinion/attitude).
On the basis of project description/hierarchy of objectives; indicators can also

be classified as impact indicators (measures overall objective), outcome
indicators (measures purpose) and output indicators (measures results). The
sources of verification for each indicator should reveal how to get the
information (desk review, surveys, observation etc), who is going to collect
the information and when the information is going to be collected (i.e. time
and period/interval).
3.4.2.3 Vertical Logic

This stipulates the relationship between components of the project
intervention and the assumptions. Thus this logic states that a combination of
a lower level component of the project intervention with the assumption(s) at
that level, leads to the attainment of the next higher level component of the
project intervention.
Assumptions are external factors that can influence/determine the success of

a project but lie outside the direct control of the project managers. Thus
assumptions ought to be met before resources are committed and activities
initiated etc. This can be summed as in the figure below:
An illustration of the vertical logic
Overall Objective
Purpose +
+ Assumptions
Results
+
+ Assumptions
Activities +
+ Assumptions
Inputs
Assumptions are identified in reference to the various analyses that are

undertaken during the identification phase (stakeholder, problem, objective
and strategies analyses). Identification phase highlights a number of issues

(policy, institutional, technical, socio-economic etc) that can impact/affect the
project success.
It is always important to be realistic when developing the assumptions so that

they can hold true because this determines the probability of the project s
success. Such a probability of the success of the project is a clear measure of
the degree of risk of the project. Thus if it is likely (high probability) that an
assumption will hold true, then the project is less risky and vice versa.
Assumptions that are likely to hold true usually becomes part of the project s
monitoring and risk management plan during implementation.
3.4.2 Activity Scheduling
An activity schedule is a layout that indicates the logical sequence, expected
duration and dependencies that exist between activities. The development of
an activity schedule should be linked to the delivery of the project results as
per the logframe matrix.
From the various results established, as per the logframe, activities are
identified which must be undertaken to achieve the results. Such activities are
then arranged by use of an activity schedule. Depending on the magnitude of
the project, how long it will take to commence the implementation of the
project or any other reason; the details of the activity schedule may differ.
3.4.2.1 Steps in preparation of an activity schedule

1. List Main Activities
For each result of the project, there are activities that should be undertaken /
carried out so that the results can be attained. These are critically identified
and listed.
2. Break / Decompose Main Activities Into Tasks
Every activity identified under (1) above that is too big to be handled by one
person should be subdivided/broken/decomposed into smaller and
manageable sub activities /tasks. These tasks can be assigned to individuals
during implementation to form their short term goals. Decomposition of
activities should stop as soon as the planner has sufficient detail to estimate
the time and other resources required.
3. Establish Sequence and Dependencies
A sequence is the order in which related tasks will be undertaken.
Dependence means the relationship of tasks in terms of which should be
undertaken to completion before the other can be started. Dependence can
also be as a result of the activities being undertaken by the same person; hence
s/he may not be able to undertake/complete both tasks at simultaneously.
Establishment of sequence and dependence is done by use of techniques like
Critical Path Analysis /Network Analysis.
4. Estimate Start-up and Completion timing (duration) of Activities

For each task, try to realistically determine how long it can take to finish it.
This is done for all tasks/sub activities of an activity. To succeed in being
realistic in estimating duration, one may seek opinion from experts.
5. Summary can be done to determine the duration to take so as to complete
main activities.
6. Define Milestones
Milestones are key events that provide a measure of progress and a target for
the project team to aim at. They are vital during implementation (monitoring
and review). An example of a milestone is like a date when a task is to be
complete, quantity of output as per that date etc.
7. Define Expertise
Having known the tasks that need to be undertaken its possible to determine
the kind of person to carry them out in terms of technical know-how or
expertise. Thus for each task, endeavour to identify the kind of person needed
to accomplish it.
8. Allocate tasks
This is the assignment of tasks to individuals so that they can carry it out. This
is in view of the capability, skills and experience of the individual being
assigned the task.
As mentioned before the complexity of activity scheduling differs from project

to project. However, at the formation phase, it will be desirable to establish
overall projections and leave finer details to the implementation phase. Thus it
suffices to prepare an activity schedule which goes only as far as predicting
what activities to be undertaken on quarterly basis for all the years of the
project (project lifespan) and at the main activities level. Thus it may not be
necessary to establish/ undertake step 8 of activity scheduling until we get to
implementation phase.
A competed activity schedule can be presented in a summary through an

indicative activity schedule or matrix based on the Gantt chart principle as
shown below:
Year 1 Year 2
Ref. Results and Responsibility Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
No. Indicative Activities
1.0 Result 1
1.1 Indicative activity 1
2.0 Result 2
Notes:
Columns 1 (Ref. No.) and 2 (Results and indicative Activities) Each result
identified that needs to be produced so as to attain the purpose of the project

is assigned a reference number. Subsequently, each activity identified that
needs to be undertaken so as to attain a given result is assigned a reference
number as a sub set of the result. For example, if there are two results we shall
have the first assigned reference number 1.0 and the second as 2.0.
Subsequently, if the first result has three identified activities, then they will be
assigned reference numbers 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 respectively.
Column 3 (Responsibility) who will ensure that the indicative activity is

carried out and where possible to whom shall s/he be answerable to or liaise
with.
Columns 4 and 5 (Year 1 and Year 2) on a quarterly basis, how long will the
activities take to be attained.
3.4.3 Resource Scheduling

A resource schedule can be perceived as a plan indicating the resources
needed to undertake a given activity successfully and by extension the cost of
such resources. Essentially resource scheduling is very instrumental in
developing the budget of the project.
3.4.3.1 Steps in Resource Scheduling

1. Enter activities into the resource schedule proforma.
These activities are the same as established under the logframe/activity
schedule. Thus you will establish a resource schedule proforma for each
activity as under the activity schedule or as under the logframe matrix.
2. Specify inputs/resources
For each activity a list of necessary inputs/resources is identified and listed.
This is done in reference to the various sub activities established as under
activity scheduling.
3. Classify inputs/resources into categories
This is an act of trying to put related resources into cost categories.
4. Specify units
After identifying the various resources/inputs needed, its important to
determine/estimate the medium of their measurement. Such mediums could
be numbers, man-hours, kilograms etc.
5. Specify quantities
Estimate how much of each input you will require over the planning period.
At this stage it would be appropriate to limit it to quarters of the year. Hence
establish quantities needed for each quarter of the year and for al years (life
span) of the project.
6. Estimate unit cost
Using the current market costs of various inputs, and with a realistic
estimation of what the costs may be in the near future, determine the costs per
unit of the input.
7. Identify funding source

It is important that you factor in who is going to provide various identified
resources and their respective proportions or contributions.
8. Allocate cost codes
This helps in accounting, so that each expenditure is entered in the right place
for purposes of keeping track of vote heads.
9. Schedule costs
Here costs per planning period are established. The cost per unit as
established under (6) above is multiplied by the quantity required to complete
the task. This is done on the basis of quarters of the year. Thus costs per
quarter are established.
10. calculate the total activities costs
This is arrived at by summing up all quarterly costs to arrive to an annual cost
value/amount. A sum of annual costs will give total project cost in respect to
activities only.
11. Estimate Recurrent costs
Recurrent cost is a monetary value of resources that will be required to
manage the project on a periodic basis e.g. salaries for project management
team.
The output of resource scheduling can be summarized in a resource

schedule/proforma as shown below.

3.5 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Implementation is the process of putting into action a predetermined plan /
carrying out planned activities. Thus implementation phase relies on the
preceding phases of project cycle and more specifically on the formulation
stage. It calls for use of resources as per the resource schedule so as to
undertake the stipulated activities as per the activity schedule; which in turn
leads to the attainment of results and subsequently realization of the project
purpose; thus contributing to the project overall goal.
Implementation therefore consists of the following tasks: detailed planning

(action/operational planning) so as to provide a comprehensive guide in
implementation; collect, analyze and communicate results for purposes of
replanning; risk management; and reporting
3.5.1 Action Planning

During the formulation phase, activities are established to attain certain
results (attainment of the project description hierarchy). In some cases, such
activities are prepared or planned in broader terms, mostly up to quarterly
basis for each year. This action planning / operations planning must be
undertaken so as to define what activities to be undertaken to a finer/shorter
period of say a week or a month. The result of action planning is an operation
plan or a work plan.
3.5.2 Monitoring and Review

Monitoring is the collection, analysis, communication and use of information
about the projects progress. Its main objective is to provide relevant
information to right people at the right time for informed decision making.
This means that monitoring will highlight the weaknesses and strengths of
project management, propose how to deal with them, thus improve
performance. It is undertaken to check progress, facilitate taking of remedial
action and help in updating of plans.
Monitoring focuses on:

 Physical progress of the project (input provision, activities undertaken and
results thereof) and quality of process.
 Financial progress (budget and expenditure)
 Preliminary responses by target groups to project activities (use of
services/facilities and changes in knowledge, attitudes, or practices).

 Reasons for any unexpected / adverse response by target groups and

remedial action.
3.5.2.1 Steps in Monitoring & Review

1. Discuss the Reasons for Monitoring
It should not be taken for granted that each person underscores the necessity of
monitoring unless we are dealing with a project management team that has
been together for long. Thus always endeavour to bring each person to
appreciate what monitoring is and it importance.
2. Review Objectives and Activities

During the identification and formulation stages of the project cycle, as well as
in implementation in cases of action planning, these two (objectives and
activities) are established. It is important for the project management team t go
over them.
3. Develop Monitoring Questions

With a clear mind of what the objectives of the project are and the activities
thereof, establish what need to be known and what you need to help know if
activities are going on well.
4. Establish Indicators for the Activities

These indicators will assist in answering the monitoring questions as
established in 3 above. The indicators can be drawn from the action/operation
planning.
5. Identify/Decide Tools for Data Collection

That is establish what tools to use so as to get information about what is
happening as regards the requirements in 3 and 4 above.
6. Assign Responsibility
Indicate / spell out who will be responsible for collecting what information
about what indicator of activity.
7. Analyze and Present Results

Collected information should be analyzed at specific times so as to bring out
its implication. This reveals if activities are being undertaken are o course as
planned/not and causes as to any deviation. This feedback is important for re-
planning.
3.5.2.2 Monitoring and Review Tools

a) Logical Framework Matrix

During formulation phase, indicators of performance in respect of activities and
results are developed. Thus, the management team will refer to the logframe to
keep track of progress of the project. Further, it also contains a list of assumptions
that must be keenly attended to ensure the success of the project.
b) Work plans / Activity Schedules
Both at formulation as well as implementation, a clear indication of what
ought to be done, when and by whom is clearly stipulated. These are critical
reference documents during implementation for purposes of tracking
progress of the project.
c) Resource Schedules
In formulation stage/phase as well as at the start of implementation,
costs/resources for various activities are outlined. These are vital reference
documents when carrying out activities so as to establish if the project is on
track.
d) Risk Management Matrix

At the on set of implementation phase, the project management team prepares
a risk management system. This should always be used during
implementation so as to help handle any up coming risks.
3.5.3 Risk Management

A risk is an occurrence that is likely to adversely/negatively affect the
happing of an activity. It the context of project management, it can be seen as
an occurrence that is likely to negatively affect the achievement of the project.
Simply put it is the likelihood/probability that an assumption shall not hold
true (an assumption come false).
Thus during implementation, it is important that project management

prepares itself on how to deal with the eventuality that an assumption has not
held true. The main tool in the management of project risks is the risk
management matrix.
3.5.3.1 Process of Development of Risk Management Matrix

1. Identify the Risk
The best approach of identifying a risk is to be pessimistic about all
assumptions developed during the formulation stage as stipulated in the
logframe. Thus assume that all assumptions will not hold true, hence
negatively affect the success of the project.
2. Indicate the potential adverse effect(s) of each Risk
That is indicate how each risk is going to negatively affect the success of the
project.
3. Rate the Intensity of the Risk

Try to weigh the gravity of the negative effect that the risk is going t cause to
the projects success. This gravity could be on a predetermined scale of say
low, medium, or high.
4. Establish how to contain the risk

It is important to map out / think or put in place an approach on how you are
going to handle the risk. That is your management strategy in case the stated
risk occurs.
5. Identify who is going to monitor / be in charge of handling that risk
When the above steps have been accomplished, the risk management matrix
can be presented as follows:
LF POTENTIAL RISK LEVEL RISK MGT
REF RISK ADVERSE/ STRATEGY RESPONSIBILIT
EFFECTS Y
3.5.4 Report Writing

Monitoring is mainly undertaken by project implementers/internal
management. These are just a part of a whole set of stakeholders. Thus it is
necessary to inform other stakeholders on the progress of the project,
constraints encountered and significant remedial action needed.
Reporting is also important because it provides documents that will facilitate

future reviews as well as evaluations and promotes transparency and
accountability.

3.6 PROJECT EVALUATION PHASE

An evaluation is an independent periodic assessment of the relevancy,
efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of a project in the context of
the stated objectives. Its aimed at drawing lessons that may guide future
decision making.
Whereas evaluations may be undertaken during the life of the project, it s

mainly desirable at the end of the project (ex-post). Further, it should be
impartial (evaluators should be independent of implementers); credible
(people involved must be experts); participatory (get views of different and all
stakeholders) and useful (information of an evaluation should be made
available on time).
It is thus clear that an evaluation is an activity external to the project

management team. This implies that the tasks of an evaluation in respect to
the project management team are basically supportive. These involves
identifying the need for an evaluation and topics of evaluation; designing the
evaluation terms of reference, tendering the evaluation so as to select the best
evaluator, briefing the selected evaluator and supporting him/her; and,
ensuring production of a quality evaluation report.
3.6.1 TYPES OF EVALUATIONS

Mulwa F.W & Nguluu S.N (2003) stipulates four types of evaluations
depending on the time it is undertaken during the lifecycle of a project.
3.6.1.1 Ex ante Evaluation
This is undertaken before the start of a project. It can also be referred to as
baseline survey, or project appraisal. This helps reveal vital information that
can be used during planning (feasibility, viability, problem scope/needs
assessment) etc.
3.6.1.2 Formative Evaluation

Undertaken during implementation and can be referred to as midterm or
ongoing evaluation. It is aimed at facilitating/deciding on whether to modify,
or improve the project.
3.6.1.3 Summative Evaluation

This is undertaken at the end of the project. It can also be referred to as post-
project or terminal evaluation. It helps to indicate if the project s results had
any effects to beneficiaries.

3.6.1.4 Ex - post Evaluation

This is done after project completion, usually starting a year to 10 years later.
It is aimed at establishing issues of sustainability, impacts and lessons learnt
for future project planning.
3.6.2 STEPS IN EVALUATION

1. Review Objectives and activities
Attempt to bring each stakeholder at par with one another in respect to the
objectives and activities of the project. This is done in view that, some
stakeholders may be new or in case objective and activities establishment was
not participatory. Further, such a review helps to remind people involved in
the evaluation what their objectives and activities were.
2. Review reasons for evaluation

A comprehensive evaluation that covers the five aspects (relevance, efficiency,
effectiveness, impact and sustainability) of a project is undertaken at the end
of the project (ex post).
However, other intermittent evaluations in terms of snapshots, midterm etc,

can be undertaken. As such they are likely not to cover all the five aspects of
the project. Thus it is important at the onset of the evaluation to try and
establish the reason (objective/aim) of the evaluation.
3. Develop evaluation questions

In this session endeavour to establish how you are going to measure that the
objectives in (2) above have been met. That is put in place questions that are
going to help you measure what you wanted to know in (2). Broadly, these
questions relate to how you will know that the activities in respect to the
objectives in (2) above have been undertaken /met.
4. Decide who will do the evaluation

It would be desirable that every person (stakeholder) be involved. But this
may not be possible due to a number of reasons (time, finance, expertise etc).
Thus it is good to get a few to represent the rest. However, such a
representation should cut across the whole divide e.g. on the basis of
geographical location, interest groups, departments of the programme
/projects etc.
5. Identify indicators

This relates to step two try to establish how you will know that a given
activity has been actually undertaken. Follow the LFA that was established
during the formulation phase.
6. Identify information sources for evaluation questions

In this case, it is vital to clearly state how you are going to get the information.
Critical to spell out is where to get the information. The means of verification
column of the Logical Framework is very helpful in this case.
7. Determine the skills and labour requirements

Less often than not, it may occur that an evaluation requires use of various
methods/tools in data collection. The evaluating team however may not have
the requisite skills. Thus it is important to find out if this is the case, and then
hire the required skills. On the other hand, it is also important to ensure that
you have a sufficient budget to cater for evaluation. In fact in experienced
project management practice, this is factored into the project s budget during
formulation.
8. Determine the duration of the evaluation

This is quite crucial because it is in tandem with one of the qualities of a good
evaluation (it should be useful). Hence this step requires judicious allocation
of time to be taken to collect, analyse and present information. This can be in
the form of a time schedule.
9. Spell out who collects data

When the specific dates, time required and the skills are known; then tasks
can be delegated to individuals or small working groups in relation to (4)
above.
10. Analyse and present results

Data collected may not have any meaning to any person. It is thus quite
important that you harmonize your information, analyse it, explain it, qualify
where necessary etc. this helps you to add value and meaning to it. After this,
it will be necessary to make a write up in some form of a report.
3.6.3 TOOLS IN EVALUATION

1. Projects logical framework
This contains the project description and as such clearly spells out the planned
activities, results, purpose, and goal of the project.
2. Resource schedule
During formulation, the project management team already established
required resources / budget for implementation. This is a crucial guide when
checking the efficiency of the project.

3. Activity Schedule/Work plan

Either at the formulation or implementation phase respectively, the project
management team indicates what activity shall take place when. This is an
important reference during evaluation.
4. Monitoring & Review reports

As implementation takes place, monitoring and review is undertaken and
documented in reports. These are useful sources of information during
evaluation of a project.
5. Terms of reference
This is a set of tasks that a contractor in an evaluation is required to attain.
They stipulate the reason(s) why a contractor for an evaluation was hired,
how long s/he is expected to take to accomplish the tasks, what resources are
to be used in the evaluation etc.

PROJECT APPRAISAL
An appraisal is an analysis of a proposed project to determine its merit and
acceptability to the stakeholders. The reason for appraisal is to revise the plans
and justify the decisions on whether or not to undertake the project. This is
done against a set of criteria/factors that ought to be met or fulfilled. Project
appraisal is desirable during identification and formulation stages of the
project cycle. FINNIDA (1991) defines appraisal as an overall assessment of
the relevance, feasibility and sustainability of a project prior to its
implementation.
Relevance:
A project is relevant if it meets demonstrated and high priority needs of the
community. Thus while doing a project appraisal, it is important to find out if
the project:
 Is consistent with and supportive of governmental/donor policies and
or developmental priorities.
 Has identified key stakeholders and related issues like equity,
institutional capacity, local ownership etc have been analyzed.
 Has appropriately analyzed problems of the community.
 Has incorporated lessons learnt from experience and collaborated with
ongoing/planned projects.
Feasibility:
A project is feasible if it is well designed and likely to deliver tangible and
sustainable benefits to target group(s). While undertaking appraisal, it is vital
to find out if the project:
 Has clear and logical objectives which address clearly identified
needs.
 Costs in terms of the resources/inputs are clearly stipulated and that
the project benefits outweigh costs.
 Has clear management arrangement in terms of project personnel as
well as supports institutional strengthening and local ownership.
 Has clearly identified and acceptable assumptions/risks.
 Is likely to be environmentally, technically and socially acceptable
and sustainable.
Over and above the foregoing issues of feasibility and relevance, it is

important to find out if the project is likely to be well managed. That is will
the project be based on good practice of project cycle management. For
example has the project preparation respected project management cycle, is it
based on key PCM aspects like LFA and its tools, etc.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN APPRAISAL

1. Desk Review
Reading through reports of identification phase (stakeholder analysis,
problem analysis, objective analysis and strategy analysis) will help give a
clear picture on issues of relevance of the project. On the other hand perusing
reports /project literature of the formulation phase (logframe, resource and
activity schedules) gives an insight on issues of feasibility and good
management of the project.
2. Cost Benefit Analysis

This is aimed at establishing whether or not the project s benefits are more
than inputs.
3. Participatory Rural Appraisal

This is a technique used to enable community members realize their potentials
so as to help themselves.
4. Surveys
This is a research design which can be used to collect data on the issues of
appraisal (relevance, feasibility and good management) of the project.

5.0 PROJECT REPORT WRITING
A report is an account about a phenomenon/an occurrence. In the perspective
of a project, a report can be defined as an account about the going-on of the
project.
5.1 Why Report Writing

1. To enable the management to make sound judgments on the operations of
the project.
2. To provide a historical reference. That is to find a fall back documentation
where upon information about the past can be traced now and in the
future. This facilitates reviews and evaluations of the projects.
3. To enable the project management team to evaluate the decisions of
various work teams involved in various aspects of the project.
4. To reveal the performance of the project against its planned objectives,
activities, budgets etc. this helps to inform stakeholders of the progress of a
project.
5. To promote transparency and accountability. Where reports are done, it is
most likely that every person shall have to abide by the laid down policies
and cases of fraud are reduced.
5.2 Factors to Consider in Report Writing

a) The consumer of the project report
There are different sets of people who use the project report. Thus it is
important to keep in mind their interests in the project report. Taking the case
of levels of management; the top level requires a more summarized report
than the line management. On the other hand; a donors interests are quite
different from a beneficiarys; thus it is quite essential to know who shall
consume your report and the likely interest.
b) Promptness- project can be overtaken by the event
A report should be prepared and issued before it is stale. Reports assist in
prompt and rational decision making. The principle of promptness comes
with problems as the report writer is faced with the possibilities of issuing a
report with incomplete information and the wrong data or waiting until the
information is verified. In such situations, promptness may be sacrificed for
accuracy/ correct information. For prompt and correct reporting, the
management may adopt certain methods that may facilitate quick flow of
information such as delegation of responsibility and creation of work crews.
c) Comparative
A project report should give comparisons between it and any previous ones if
any. Such comparisons could be effected on such dimensions as time,
performance, resource utilization etc. This helps to establish trends and
variations calling for attention.
d) Consistency

This means that similar reports at different times in a similar manner or
format. That is at each level of reporting there should be resemblance in the
information presented.
e) Simplicity
The report should be clear with facts and figures and where necessary graphs,
tables, pie charts, histograms etc may be used. Subsequently terms that are
considered to be a jargon of a particular discipline should be defined.
5.3 Types of Project Reports

There can be varied typed of project reports basing on various factors. A more
encompassing typology is to base reports on when they are prepared during
the lifecycle of the project. Thus we have the following types:
1. Inception Reports
This should be produced within the first months of the launch of the project
for example three months. This type of a report helps project managers to
review the design of the project in consultation with stakeholders, update the
first annual work plans. This is vital especially in cases where much of the
design of the project (identification and formulation phases) was undertaken
by people different from those implementing or when there has been a long
time lapse between design and commencement of implementation.
2. Progress Reports
These are reports that shall be produced periodically during the
implementation phase of the project. The interval of their production
normally id agreed upon or stipulated by the stakeholders and may be for on
the basis of for example quarterly, biannually or annually.
3. Completion Reports
These are prepared at the end of the financing period. It comments and
documents on the overall achievements against the original plan, prospects
foe sustainability of benefits, lessons learned as well as recommendations for
follow up actions required.
5.4 Format of a project report

A format of a project refers to the plan or layout that can be adhered to while
publishing or writing a report. It outlines the content(s) of the project report as
prepared by the project management team. Various development agents
propose different project report formats. Refer to hand out sourced form EU
(2004).
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

According to ordinary English, participation is a process through which
people get involved / partake of an activity. Participation presupposes
presence of a group of people, an activity and a common goal. So for one to
participate s/he brings aboard what s/he knows or has just like the rest of the
group do, then they share/exchange for the purpose of attaining their shared
common goal.
As a result of participation, members contribute, share, learn, attain and most

importantly they are capacitated and become self-reliant.
Thus, participation is a process of consciously involving oneself in an activity

whereupon each person contributes to the process of decision making in the
carrying out of the activity, learns from the process and as a result each
participant in the activity comes out having learnt. Thus s/he is self
developed, self-reliant and can undertake that activity in the absence of
others.
Mulwa, (2008) defines participation as a process of learning by doing. He

further stipulates that a participating mind is hinged on the belief that every
mistake is a learning opportunity as long as the mistake is out of a genuine
effort to experiment new ways of doing something better.
TYPES OF PARTICIPATION
According to Mulwa (2008), participation can be classified into two main
groups: passive and active participation.
Passive participation has three prototypes: extractionist, handout induced and

vertical.
Extractionist Participation
Normally used by governments where they draw development plans in the
exclusion of their offices and far away from the citizens. They then hand the
blue prints to extensionists in respective ministries for implementation.
Citizens are then required to contribute money or labour as part of
participation to meet the cost of the activities in the budget. This is famously
referred to as cost sharing.
This form of participation looks at the people / community as objects of

development (tools for execution and implementation of project plans drawn
by others. It thus denies the community the opportunity to make decisions on
what projects should be initiated to solve their most felt problem.
Vertical Participation

Unlike in extractionist participation where decision making is entirely by the
central government / project planners; here theres involvement of the
community representatives in decision making. This happens by either the
project planners hand picking Locally Influential Persons (LIPs) or selecting
democratically elected leaders of community based organizations. In either
case the project planners will then pay or compromise the leaders either by
some incentives or by ensuring that the leaders benefit more than the rest of
the community. The leaders then will be obliged to accept any decisions by
the project planners even if not in favour of the community.
Handout Induced Participation

Here the motive is to entice the involvement of community members in
predetermined projects by use of incentives. Thus once a project has been
identified and planned, experts in it come to the community with incentives to
give to community members so that they (community members) can partake
of the project. An example of this approach is the food for work oriented
projects.
The experts do not transfer their technical know-how to the community. In

exceptional cases, they disseminate their know-how to carefully chosen
people (LIPs and leaders of community based organizations) in the context of
demonstration projects.
Active / Authentic Participation

Basically the community / development beneficiaries are seen as more than
objects of development. They become subjects and indeed masters of their
own development initiatives.
It involves community members in all aspects of project planning and

management. The community is involved in identifying what their problem
is, they plan on how to solve it by use of what, they go ahead and undertake a
project to solve the problem, they all benefit as a group. They posses /
Problem Develop
develop knowledge, skills and attitude necessaryalternatives
identification to undertake on their own
any such development initiative. Thus the community is involved in decision
making in all aspects of the project management.
DECISSION MAKING / PROBLEM SOLVING Identify limiting

Control and
A decision is a choice taken
evaluate
after careful thought or consideration.
factors Usually the
consideration is from among a number of alternatives. According to Plunket
(1994), a conventional model for decision making is as in the figure below:
Implement Analyze the

alternative alternatives

Select best
alternative
1. Problem Identification
Find out what is the problem. What causes it (differentiate symptoms from
causes). Try to define the scope of the problem (how intense it is and whom
does it affect).
2. Develop / Generate Potential Alternatives

Each problem can have several way or means of solving it. Thus make sure
these are generated.
3. Identify Limiting Factors

What problems /constraints may exist in the way as you try to solve the
defined problem as in step (1) above?
4. Analyse the alternatives

Score each alternative against the limiting factors as in (2) above. Thus try to
establish how fitting an alternative is in relation to the limiting factor(s); and
the consequences of each alternative.
5. Select the Best Alternative

As result of the scoring in (4) above, pick an alternative that fits in the limiting
factors and presents least negative effects / consequences.
6. Implement the decision

Undertake action or activities that will enable you solve the problem by
executing the selected alternative. Plan to establish the amount of resources
needed to help you carry out the various activities.
7. Establish A Control And Evaluation System

Determine how you are going to ensure that planned activities are carried out
as planned: that is on time; by use of allocated resources and that the
implementation is in the direction of solving the problem.
The foregoing problem solving model quite resembles the project cycle
management model. Thus it becomes quite imperative that the community
should be at the centre in making choices at each phase of the project planning
and management.
That is; they should be ones to decide what their problem is (most felt), its
scope, how they can solve it, cost each method of solving it, picking the best
way/method to solve it, executing that method as well as evaluating if/not
the implemented decision was as planned and has helped solve their problem.
Community Participation in Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is the process of trying to evaluate the developmental
requirements / desires of a community. Needs stem from potential problems.
A problem is an existing negative situation; whereas a need is a desired
positive situation. Thus the community ought to be involved actively /
authentically so that they are able to make a decision what their most felt need
is and subsequently the desirable need.
In project management, community participation in needs assessment is

attained during the identification phase when the community is allowed to
undertake problem analysis. Thus they are facilitated to: identify the
problems, list their causes, prioritize them, develop problem trees, identify
and prioritize ways of solving the prioritized problem etc.
Subsequently; the community participation can be attained in all the other

phases of project management if they are allowed / involved in decision
making during all the activities/tasks of each of the phases.
PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability is drawn from the root word sustain which means to provide
conditions in which something can happen; (A & C Black Publishers, 2007). In
relation to the project, sustainability would mean the probability that a project
shall continue long after the outside support is withdrawn.
EU (2004) defines sustainability a the likelihood of a continuation in the

stream of benefits produced by the project after the period of external support
has ended. Mulwa F.W (2008) says project sustainability concerns itself with
the continuity of a project until it attains its set objectives.
Thus while thinking of project sustainability three things must be born in

mind; the community, project results and external assistance. A project is
sustainable if the community / beneficiaries are capable on their own without
the assistance of outside development partners to continue producing results
for their benefit for as long as their problem still exists.
Project sustainability concept as such should be encompassed into the project

from the start of the project management cycle. The community /
beneficiaries must be allowed authentic participation (they should make each
decision involving project management) so that they become subjects or
masters and not objects /slaves of their development process.
WHY PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY

Promote community self esteem
When a community is capable to maintain the flow of results from a project
for their own good, they will always have a feel of we are capable and this
enhances their self-esteem or ego. They will be more willing to get involved in
any other project than ever before.
Develop a pool of case studies

Sustained projects will always become points of references for other people or
communities that need to undertake similar projects. They become case
studies for learning references.
Project sustainability is important because it helps in proper utilization of the

immense resources invested in the project. Thus continuity of the project long
after external support has ceased leads to economical use of resources and
avoids misuse of the same.
Project sustainability enables the community to continue producing the much

needed results (goods and services) so that they ensure their most felt need is
meet hence solve their problem long after the external assistance has stopped.
PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY OPTIONS

This refers to what ought to be done to ensure project continuity long after the
departure of external assistance/support. What are the pre-requisites or
conditions that should be provided /present to attain project sustainability?
Project productivity
The project should be able to produce results which when utilized meets the
most felt need(s) of the community. If the community members do not see or
perceive any goods /services from the project, then such a project s
sustainability is compromised.
Equitability
The results / benefits of the project should reach each and every member of
the project or at least there should be representation of the wider community
who are seen to benefit equally from the project. Thus, there should be no
form of segregation in respect to who should benefit from the project
whether of colour, sex, age, status etc.
Cost
A sustainable project is one whose cost is affordable by the community
members. As such emphasis should be on ensuring that community members
actually contribute or use locally available resources to run the project.
Technical Feasibility
The technology that is used in the project should be one that is familiar to the
community members. Where this is not the case, community members /
selected few should be trained as Trainers of Trainers (TOTs) so as to make
the technology more familiar in the community. More appropriately, the
project managers can promote the use of Indigenous Technical Knowledge
which is more familiar with the community they are working with.
Socio-cultural acceptability
The project should be respectful and considerate of the community s beliefs,
norms, religion etc. Any project activity that undermines a community s socio-
cultural orientation will be met with a lot of resistance and the chance of its
sustainability is quite small. The case of anti Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
projects in communities of Rift Valley are a living testimony. Thus it is
imperative to involve an education component to the community before you
begin a project that is likely to brush shoulders with a community s socio-
cultural system.
Participation

To enhance sustainability, the community members must be seen as people
who are capable of steering their own destiny. Thus at all stages of project
cycle, they should be let to contribute what they have or know, share or learn
what they do not know and enhance their capabilities.
Capacity Building and Empowerment

The project management team should endeavour to train and enhance the
abilities of the community members their knowledge, attitude, and skills.
Authentic Project Management Methodology

There is need for use of predictable approaches of project management.
Contemporary approach is by the use of project cycle management which
relies on the Logical Framework Approach (LFA).

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Sociology and Psychology Department  Moi University

Policy Analysis and Project Management

Objective of the Course

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 1

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 2

Sit in Continuous Assessment Test=15%

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 3

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 4

1. INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT

i. Analysis of policy that is analytical and descriptivei.e., it attempts to

According to EC (2004), a project is a series of activities aimed at bringing

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 5

Verzuh (2003) defines a project as work that is temporary and produces a

Harvey (1995) simplifies a project as a non repetitive activity. He further states

Thus combining the cross cutting aspects of all these scholarly/professional

EU looks at a programme from two perspectives: a set of projects put together

Thus a programme is a collection of projects concerned with a particular

1.1.3 Characteristics of a Project

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 6

1.1.3.2 Organization Structure

1.1.3.4 Conformity to the Triple Constraint

1.1.3.5 Clearly Identified Stakeholders

1.1.3.6 Cost Benefit Analysis

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 7

1.1.5 Project Management

Locke (2003) observes that the purpose of project management is to foresee or

Thus project management can be seen as the process of setting and

1.2 TYPES OF PROJECTS

1.2.1 Industrial Projects

1.2.2 Manufacturing Projects

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 8

1.2.4 Research Projects

Consider the following categorizations

4. Social Development Projects

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 9

Specific importances of project management are as follows;

1. Help organizations to identify desirable projects for the

4. Project management helps to keep track of project execution process.

5. Project management helps to reveal if the project has produced

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 10

1.5 PRINCIPLES & THEORIES OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

A theory is a set of prepositions that describe, explain or predict a

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 11

Since a theory of project management should focus on how action contributes

1. Project Management Processes

2. Product Oriented Processes

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 12

The cycle resultant of the principles of the theory of management

1.5.1.1 Planning Principle

1.5.1.2 Execution Principle

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 13

1.5.1.3 Controlling Principle

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 14

1.6 ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

1.6.1The Role of Stakeholders/Partners

Unit Facilitator : Moses Mutua Mutiso 15

1.6.2 The role of informants

1.6.3 The role of resource mobilizers

1.6.4 The role of decision makers

1.7 THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANAGER

1.7.1 Interpersonal Role

1.7.2 Informational Role

Sociology and Psychology Department Moi University

i. Analysis of policy that is analytical and descriptivei.e., it attempts to