Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Turning low-density polyethylene plastic waste into plastics bricks for

sustainable development
A. Arun Solomon a,⇑, J. Joel Shelton b, C. Daniel c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam, Andhra Pradesh, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, RGM College of Engineering and Technology, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Plastic trash is a global environmental problem. Recycling and creating commercial products from waste
Available online xxxx plastics are the best solutions to mitigate environmental degradation. This paper attempted to develop
building bricks from waste plastics with the addition of M-sand. The research was carried out with three
Keywords: mix ratios 1:3, 1:4, and 1:5. Here, the first part of the ratio represents shredded waste LDPE plastics, and
LDPE the second part of the ratio represents the M-sand. The shredded waste plastics were kept in a pan and
Plastic bricks heated, and the M-sand was added when the plastics in the pan became semi-solid. Then the M-sand was
Stress–strain
thoroughly mixed with semi-solid plastics and kept in the standard size brick mold for manufacturing
Toughness
building bricks. From the research, it could be observed that the waste plastics could be converted into
bricks. The mechanical characteristics of developed plastic bricks were examined experimentally. The
characteristics of plastic bricks with a mix ratio of 1:4 were observed to be higher than the standard
first-class red clay bricks.
Copyright Ó 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

1. Introduction
Over the years, brick production has significantly increased due
to the increasing demand for housing and infrastructure in devel-
oping countries. The rapid increase in construction activity has
motivated researchers to innovate alternative construction materi-
als for masonry works. Many poor people in India cannot afford
their own houses due to the high cost of building materials. India
has tremendous demand for inventing low-cost and efficient con-
struction materials to fulfill underprivileged peoples’ dreams of
building their own houses. Over 40 million metric tons of plastics
are consumed annually in India, and after use for some time, most
of it becomes a waste that threatens the environment. This quan-
tity reportedly increases by 1.5–2% annually [1]. Table 1 provides
the different types of plastics.
The pie chart shown in Fig. 1 illustrates the number of various
plastics produced worldwide in 2015 and their recycling codes.
17% of LDPE-based products are produced; this is the third signif-
icant portion of produced plastics, and these are used only once
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arun.a@gmrit.edu.in (A. Arun Solomon).
and, after usage, thrown away. This research focuses on converting
LDPE waste into bricks and its characterization to reuse this large-
scale single-use LDPE plastic waste for sustainable development.
1.1. Review of studies on waste plastic in construction
In recent years, a few studies have been conducted on convert-
ing plastic waste into construction materials. Muyen et al. [2] have
examined the suitability of discarded polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) bottles filled with aggregates for the construction of walls.
The mechanical properties of fine sand filled trash plastic bottles
were investigated in this study in five different sizes (250, 500,
1250, 1500, and 2000 ml). It has been reported that the largest
one had a high compressive value of 17.44 MPa. Mohan et al. [3]
were involved in fabricating a plastic brick manufacturing machine
and did brick analysis with a different test. Moreover, it was con-
cluded that plastic composite bricks are more efficient than clay
and cement bricks. Daftardar et al. [4] investigated developing
plastic bricks with plastic beads and fly ash. It is concluded that
the bricks have higher compressive strength, high water absorp-
tion characteristics, and lower weight than the conventional red
clay bricks. Singhal et al. [5] have been involved in manufacturing

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.482
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

Please cite this article as: A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel, Turning low-density polyethylene plastic waste into plastics bricks for sustainable
development, Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.482
A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel
Table 1
Different types of plastics with a few examples.
S. Type of Plastics Few examples
No
1 Poly-ethylene terephthalate water bottles
(PET)
2 High-density polyethylene Shampoo bottles, containers,
(HDPE) buckets
3 Low-density polyethylene Carry bags, garbage bags,
(LDPE)
4 Polypropylene (PP) Ropes, twine, tape, carpets
5 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Credit cards, windows, pipes
6 Polystyrene (PS) CD cases, PS-food trays.
7 Urea-formaldehyde Electrical fitting handles.
plastic bricks and tiles with waste plastics and fly ash. They
reported that the compressive strength of plastic sand brick is
5.6 MPa with nil water absorption. Isaac Akinwumi et al. [6] have
examined the suitability of shredded waste plastic to manufacture
compressed earth bricks (CEB). The bricks compressive strength
manufactured from shredded plastic wastes without admixture
was as low as 0.45 MPa. Based on these findings, adhesive binders
are recommended to add with soil and shred plastic waste during
the brick manufacturing process to enhance durability and com-
pressive strength.
Ghuge et al. [7] have investigated the suitability of waste plas-
tics in developing paver blocks, and it was concluded that plastic
paver blocks produce comparable compressive strength with con-
crete paver blocks. Kognole et al. [8] investigated several types of
soil including plastic bottles (PET) for the manufacture of plastic
bricks such as river sand, red clay, and rock crusher. They made
plastic bricks with three compounds such as red clay, river sand,
and crushed plastics with stone. The compressive strength of this
mixture of specimens was higher than that of plastic with river
sand and red clay. Bhushaiah et al. [9] have conducted various
experiments on plastic sand bricks’ properties. It has been reported
that plastic bricks were found to be more effective compared to
third-class red bricks and fly ash bricks. Chauhan et al. [10] have
investigated the effect of sand-based plastic bricks’ mix design
ratio. They found the optimal mix proportion for higher compres-
Fig. 1. Distribution of plastic waste by type among word wide, 2015 (Source: Plastic Atlas-2019).
2
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
sive strength is 1:2, which yields the higher results of 203.56 kg/
cm2. The water absorption rate varies from 0.949 to 1.227%, which
is better than ordinary bricks. Lalzarliana Paihte et al. [11] have
partially used recycled aggregate-filled plastic bottles to replace
burnt clay brick partially. The compressive strength of bottles con-
taining 10% crushed aggregate and coarse stone aggregates was
25 MPa. Ariyani et al. [12] have used waste PET bottles to develop
eco-bricks and found that eco-bricks results were higher than red
clay bricks.
Nath, Arun Jyoti, and colleagues [13] explored brick produc-
tion’s impact on India’s agricultural production. India is the
second-biggest producer of bricks in the world, with an annual
growth rate of 2–5%. Today, brick kilns cover about 0.7 Mha (mil-
lion hectares) of agricultural land and produce about 250 billion
bricks yearly. The fastest-growing brick kilns in India produce
bricks using the agriculturally productive topsoil, thus reducing
agricultural yields by 60–90%. In 2010, the International Council
for the Advancement of Science (ICAR) reported that the holdings
of private farming land had dropped from 0.48 ha in 1951 to
0.14 ha in 2013 and 0.08 ha in 2035. Therefore, it is necessary to
create alternative construction materials to protect agricultural
land. Prathik Kulkarni et al. [14] have used High-Density Polyethy-
lene (HDPE) and Polypropylene (PP) to manufacture plastic bricks
through physical recycling methods. Physical, mechanical, and
thermal properties were examined over the developed bricks.
And concluded that the performance of HDPE-based plastic bricks
is comparable with the conventional red clay bricks. Ananya Bar-
man et al. [1] have manufactured plastic bricks from the waste
plastics and river sand and carried experiments to comprehend
its behavior. It was concluded that compressive strength is
increased compared to the conventional bricks. Maria Idrees
et al. [15] have utilized varying percentages of plastic dust in fired
clay bricks to investigate the variations of physical and mechanical
properties. Final remarks stated that the compressive strength was
reduced by increasing the plastic dust percentage and water
absorption increased. It is also mentioned that the compressive
strength and water absorption remain within acceptable building
standard limits. Sabiha Sarwar et al. [16] produced plastic bricks
from grinded High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and investigated
their physical and mechanical properties. Concluded that plastic
A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel
bricks which incorporate a maximum of 35% HDPE satisfy the stan-
dards in the construction industry.
The construction industry follows the conventional brick pro-
duction method, demanding natural resources [17]. The construc-
tion industry requires alternative sustainable bricks to reduce the
consumption of natural resources such as clay, shale, and sand in
brick production. LDPE plastics-based bricks are recommended
for the construction industry to eliminate the shortage of green
and conventional building materials. Plastics have all basic proper-
ties for building materials: strong, durable, waterproof, light-
weight, easy to mold, and recyclable. Converting these wastes
into sustainable materials can reduce environmental pollution.
More research is demanded to understand the characteristics of
the new sustainable bricks from plastic waste. Therefore, many
researchers and material scientists are exploring the compatibility
of plastic waste in various construction activities. It is evident from
the literature that various research works have been carried out on
converting various plastic wastes into bricks. Also, the results of
previous studies confirm that bricks made from plastic waste have
good mechanical properties.
This research mainly focuses on converting single-use LDPE
plastic waste into bricks in addition to M-sand and exploring
developed bricks’ characteristics. Plastic wastes have been slowly
used as raw materials for plastic-based bricks and road construc-
tion. Thus, using the raw material in the building sector is advan-
tageous in both ways. On one side, it minimizes environmental
pollution; on the other, low-cost bricks could be manufactured.
Sustainable goals can be achieved on both sides. It means mini-
mized ecological pollution and reduced natural raw-material
consumption.
2. Methodology
This work used LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene) plastics with
M-sand to produce novel LDPE cum M-sand bricks. Hereafter, the
LDPE cum M-sand brick will be mentioned as plastic bricks in
the entire text. Fig. 2 shows the design methodology for developing
Plastic bricks.
Fig 2. Proposed Methodology.
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Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
3. Plastic brick preparation
Available spaces, and the shredding process was done manually
for easy burning. Three different mix proportioned bricks are uti-
lized to create the plastic bricks. The mix proportions are 1:3,
1:4, and 1:5, where the first portion represents LDPE plastics and
the second represents M-sand. The second phase is to convert
the solid shredded plastic into semi-solid by heating plastics above
180 °C in a big pan. M-sand was gradually added to the semi-solid
plastic and mixed thoroughly to attain a uniform mixture accord-
ing to the design mix. The uniform mixture is poured into a brick
mold of 190 mm
90 mm
90 mm for brick casting. A wooden
mold has been preferred for making plastic bricks as the plastic
does not have a bond with the wood. The brick should be in the
mold for 2–3 h to cool down; after that, the bricks can be
demolded. This process was repeated for three different plastic
and M-sand mix ratios. Fig. 3 shows the typical plastic brick mold
and developed plastic bricks.
4. Experiments and results
4.1. Compressive strength test
Compressive strength is the most critical property of construc-
tion materials that determines their suitability for construction.
Compressive strength testing were carried out over the developed
plastic bricks in a computerized 100 T capacity universal testing
machine. The computerized UTM could produce the load and dis-
placement graph during the experiment. The bricks are tested fol-
lowing the procedure laid down in IS 3495 (Part I): 1992 [18]. Fig. 4
shows the typical test on plastic bricks in the UTM. Table 2 pre-
sents the compression test results of tested bricks. The results
are the average results of the prepared three samples. Three red
clay brick samples were also tested for comparison. The ultimate
load carried by plastic bricks with plastic, M-sand ratios 1:3, 1:4,
and 1:5 are 64.42, 209.06, 62.15 kN respectively. The strength of
red clay brick is 164.63 kN. When compared to red clay bricks,
the compressive strength of plastic bricks with a plastic:sand ratio
of 1:4 was greater. Fig. 5 shows the load–deflection curves of tested
A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Typical mold and developed plastic bricks.

Fig. 4. Typical compression test on plastic bricks.

Table 2
Results of Compression test on Bricks.

Type of Bricks Ultimate Load, kN Deflection, mm Stress, N/mm2 Strain Toughness, J

Red Clay Bricks 164.63 9.20 9.63 0.1022 742.69
Plastic Bricks 1:3 64.42 11.06 3.77 0.1229 454.45
Plastic bricks 1:4 209.06 11.15 12.23 0.1239 1706.26
Plastic Bricks 1:5 62.15 12.08 3.63 0.1342 441.65

250 tic brick with the plastic, M-sand ratio of 1:4 is better than the
standard red clay bricks. However, the performance of plastic
bricks with the ratio of 1:3 and 1:4 are lower than the red clay
200
bricks.
The load and deflection values from the experiments are con-
150
Load, kN

Red Clay Bricks verted into stress and strain values using Eqs. (1) and (2) [19].
Plastic Bricks (1:3) Table 3 shows the peak stress and strain values of tested bricks.
100 Plastic Bricks (1:4)
The maximum compressive strength or compressive stress of plas-
Plastic Bricks(1:5)
tic brick is 12.23 N/mm2. The maximum compressive strength is
50 obtained in the plastic and M-sand ratio of 1:4. The compressive
strength of first, second and third class red clay bricks are 10,
0 7.5, and 3.5 N/mm2, respectively [20]. The compressive strength
0 5
Deflection,mm
10 15 of plastic bricks with a plastic-M-sand ratio of 1:4 is comparably
higher than the first-class red clay bricks. Other plastic bricks also
Fig. 5. Load vs. Deflection curve of tested Bricks. satisfy the minimum compressive strength requirements. Fig. 6
shows the stress–strain profiles of tested bricks.
bricks. The behavior of material during the entire loading period P
Compressive Stress rc ¼ ð1Þ
could be analyzed by either load vs. deflection or stress vs. strain A
profiles. It is observed from the graph that the performance of plas-

4
A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3 with less than 7% water absorption is more resistant to freezing

Water absorption test results.
Type of plastic bricks
Plastic Bricks 1:3
Plastic bricks 1:4
Plastic bricks 1:5
14
12
10
Stress, N/mm2
and thawing damage. Water absorption of bricks rises as the vol-
Water Absorption (%) Standard Water absorption ume of pores increases. So, the bricks, which have less than 3%
ofred clay bricks (IS water absorption, are called vitrified. Water absorption tests were
1077:1992) conducted over the developed plastic bricks. The initial dry weight
0.34 First class bricks <15% (w1 Þ of the plastic brick were noted, and the brick sample was
0.59 Second class bricks <20% immersed in a water tank for 24 h to execute the water absorption
0.64 Third class bricks
test. The brick was taken out from the water, cleaned with a damp
cloth, and weighted (w2 Þ. The percentage of water absorption was
calculated using Eq. (4) [18].
w2  w1
Water absorption ¼
100 ð4Þ
w1
Table 3 shows the results of the water absorption test on developed
plastic bricks and the standard water absorption percentage of red

Red Clay Bricks clay bricks as per IS 1077:1992 [21]. As per the Indian code, red clay
8
Plastic Bricks (1:3) bricks’ acceptable water absorption percentage is 20% for second
6
Plastic Bricks (1:4)
and third-class bricks and 15% for first-class bricks. It has been
observed that the water absorption percentage of plastic bricks is
4 Plastic Bricks (1:5)
negligible. The plastics do not transfer or absorb any drop of water.
2 The property of plastics is reflected in the plastic bricks too. The
plastic bricks are vitrified since the water absorption percentage
0 is less than 3%. However, the water absorption percentage increases
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Strain with the sand content since it increases the porosity of the bricks.

Fig. 6. Stress vs. Strain curve of tested bricks.
d
Compressive Strain ec ¼
L
where
rc = Compressive Stress (N/mm2)
P = Applied Compressive Load (N)
A = Cross Sectional area on the face of load (mm2)
ec = Compressive Strain
d = Vertical compression or reduction in height (mm)
L = height of the specimen (mm)
Toughness analysis was also carried out with the help of devel-
oped stress–strain profiles. The toughness of the specimens is
determined to examine the stress–strain behavior of tested speci-
mens. The absorbed energy of a specimen before its failure is
denoted as toughness. Toughness could be calculated by measur-
ing the area under the stress–strain curve. The area under the
stress–strain curve can be calculated using Eq. (3) [19].
Z ec
Energy absorption or toughness ¼ V rc de
0
Where V is the volume of the specimen, rc is compressive stress,
and ec is compressive strain. Here the area under the stress–strain
curve is calculated using AutoCAD. The area under the curve could
also be calculated with the help of the software AutoCAD. The
toughness vales of tested bricks are presented in Table 2. It was
observed that the toughness of plastic bricks with plastic and M-
sand ratio 1:4 is 1706.26 J, which is 2.3 times higher than the tested
red clay bricks. Hence the plastic bricks with 1:4 ratios exhibited
comparatively higher toughness than the tested first class red clay
bricks.
4.2. Water absorption test
A water absorption test determines the degree of compactness
of bricks because it is a indirect measure of percentage of pores
in the bricks. The water absorption test is an indirect measure of
durability properties, indicating the quality of bricks, behavior in
different weathering, and susceptibility against burning. A brick
4.3. Thermal test
ð2Þ Thermal behavior analysis helps to understand the behavior of
structures during fire accidents. Density and porosity are the cru-
cial factors influencing thermal and sound conductivity behavior.
High dense bricks resist heat and sound at a greater rate. Hence,
the higher dense bricks have higher thermal insulation and acous-
tic qualities. For this reason, bricks should be designed in higher
density for adequate insulation and acoustics. Plastics are highly
susceptible to fire. However, the sand in the plastic bricks imparts
thermal-resistant properties. Thermal-resistant properties were
examined by keeping the plastic bricks in a muffled furnace and
increasing the temperature every 30 min, and it has been observed
that plastic bricks retain their structural characteristics up to
180 °C, beyond which obvious fissures appear, and the bricks
weaken as temperature rises. Fig. 7 shows the typical thermal test
on plastic bricks. The fire resistance temperature of plastic brick is
180℃. Hence, plastic bricks are not recommended in the fire sus-
ceptible regions.
4.4. Efflorescence test
ð3Þ
The presence of soluble salts is measured using the efflores-
cence test. The efflorescence test is a standard test to disfigure
the deterioration process of bricks. The qualitative observations
are only possible in the efflorescence test and can be performed
with a simple water dish. The bricks were immersed in the
25 mm water depth dish, and the dish was placed in the ventilated
room. The specimens were kept until the water in the dish was
entirely absorbed by the brick specimen, and surplus water evap-
orated. After complete evaporation of water, the brick specimens
are taken out from the dish and dried. The exact process was
repeated a second time, and the observation was made on the sur-
face of the bricks. The formation of white scale (alkalies) is to be
observed on the surface of the brick sample. The liability to efflo-
rescence shall be reported as ’nil,’ ’slight,’ ’moderate,’ ’heavy,’ and
’serious’ based on the percentage of white scale formation over
the surface of the brick samples. Test results of the efflorescence
test are reported in Table 4. There are no white salt scale deposits
over the plastic bricks. It is observed that approximately 10% of a
thin deposit of salts was formed on the surface of red clay bricks.
5
A. Arun Solomon, J. Joel Shelton and C. Daniel
Fig. 7. Typical thermal test on plastic bricks.
Table 4
Efflorescence test on Plastic Bricks.
Mix ratios Nil Slight
Red clay bricks – U
Plastic bricks 1:3 U –
Plastic bricks 1:4 U –
Plastic Bricks 1:5 U –
Hence, the efflorescence test observed better performance in plas-
tic bricks over red clay bricks.
4.5. Soundness test
The brick is allowed to dry in the air for two days after manu-
facture. The bricks are then made to hit one other, resulting in a
ringing sound, which indicates that the brick is of good quality. A
clear ringing sound indicates high-quality bricks.
4.6. Hardness test
Hardness measures the resistance to localized plastic deforma-
tion induced by either mechanical indentation or abrasion. A good
brick should be resistant to scratches from sharp objects. A harness
test can be performed using a sharp tool or fingernails to scratch
the bricks’ surface. After scratching the bricks using a sharp tool
or fingernail, an observation needs to be made. The bricks are con-
sidered a hard brick since there is no scratch impression on the
surface of the bricks while scratching on the surface of brick with
a fingernail and nail.
5. Conclusion
The investigation was carried out to convert the waste LDPE
plastics into construction material as bricks which are called plas-
tics bricks. The shredded waste LDPE plastics were heated above
180 °C, and M-sand was added to the half-melted plastics with
the ratio of 1:3, 1:4, and 1:5. The mixture was placed in the stan-
dard size brick mold to develop plastic bricks. The characteristics
of developed bricks were examined experimentally. The following
conclusions were drafted based on the experimental investigation.
 The compressive strength of plastic bricks with the ratio of 1:4
attained a higher compressive strength of 12.23 N/mm2 than
the first-class red clay bricks.
 The toughness of developed plastic bricks was evaluated based
on the stress–strain profiles. The toughness of plastic bricks
with the ratio of 1:4 is 1706.26 J, which is 2.3 times higher than
the toughness of red clay bricks.
6
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
 It was observed that the water absorption percentage of plastic
bricks is minimal <0.7%.
 The plastic bricks deteriorate when the temperature is raised
above 180℃. Hence, plastic bricks are not recommended where
the buildings are susceptible to fire accidents.
 The plastic bricks performed better than first-class red clay
bricks during the efflorescence, soundness, and hardness test.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
A. Arun Solomon: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources,
Supervision, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing –
review & editing. J. Joel Shelton: Investigation. C. Daniel:
Investigation.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Karunya Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India for pro-
viding all the infrastructure facilities to carry out the research
work.
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