NUCLEARPHYSI

CS
NUCLEARSTRUCTUREOFANATOM

APROTONi
saposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedpar
ti
cl
ethati
slocat
edi
nthenucl
eusofanat
om.

ANELECTRONisanegat
ivel
ychar
gedpar
ti
cl
ethatr
otat
esar
oundt
henucl
eusatv
eryhi
ghspeed.Anel
ect
ron
hasnegl
i
gibl
emass.

ANEUTRONhasequal
numberofposi
ti
vechar
gesandnegat
ivechar
ges.Henceaneut
roni
sconsi
der
edt
o
beneut
ral
.

ATOMICMASS(
NUCLEONNUMBER)r
efer
stot
het
otal
numberofpr
otonsandneut
ronsi
nthenucl
eusofan
at
om i
.e.

Nucl
eonnumber=Numberofpr
otons+Numberofneut
rons

NUCLEARNOTATI
ONS

El
ement
sthatt
akepar
tinnucl
earr
eact
ionsar
erepr
esent
edi
nfor
m ofst
andar
dnot
ati
onsasshownbel
ow

Eg:

Wher
eX =Nameoft
her
adi
oact
iveel
ement U =Ur
ani
um

A =Massnumber 238 =Massnumber

Z =At
omi
cnumber 92 =At
omi
cnumber

I
SOTOPES

I
sotopesareat
omsoft
hesameel
ementwi
thdi
ff
erentmassnumber
sduet
odi
ff
erencesi
nnumberof
neut
rons.

Exampl
esofI
sot
opes

1
i
)Chl
ori
nehast
woi
sot
opes(
Cl-
35andCl
-37)

Bothi
sot
opesofchl
ori
nehav
etheat
omi
cnumberof17.Cl
-35has18neut
ronswhi
l
eCl
-37has20
neut
rons.

i
i
)Car
bonhast
hreei
sot
opes(
C-12,
C-13andC-
14)

i
i
i)Hy
drogenhast
hreei
sot
opesandar
e;hy
drogenpr
oton(
H-1)
,deut
eri
um (
H-2)andt
ri
ti
um (
H-3)

Hydr
ogenpr
otonhas1proton,
1elect
ronandnoneutron,hydr
ogendeut
eri
um has1pr
oton,
1
el
ect
ronand1 neut
ronwhil
ehydrogentr
it
ium has1pr
oton,
1el ect
ronand2neutr
ons.

i
v)Hel
i
um hast
woi
sot
opeswhi
char
e;He-
3andHe-
4

He-
4hast
wopr
otons,
2neut
ronsand2el
ect
ronswhi
l
easHe-
3at
om has1pr
oton,
1neut
ronand2
el
ect
rons.

Ty
pesofI
sot
opes

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofi
sot
opes;

1.Nat
ural

 Theyoccurnat
ural
l
ye.
g.C-
12andC-
14

2.Ar
ti
fi
cial

 Theyoccurar
ti
fi
ci
all
ye.
g.oxy
gen-
17.

Unst
abl
eNucl
ei

Whenthemassofanatom becomessolarge,t
henucl
eusisunstabl
eandbreaksuppr
oduci
ngt
woormor
e
ot
herel
ementsort
hrowoffenerget
icpar
ti
clesandemitener
gyinfor
m ofr
adiati
on.

Theener
gyr
equi
redt
obr
eakt
henucl
eusi
scal
l
edbi
ndi
ngener
gy.

Emi
ssi
on

Emi
ssi
oni
sther
eleaseofsomet
hingf
rom amat
eri
alorpr
ocess.

Radi
ati
on

Radi
ati
oni
sther
eleaseorpr
oduct
ionofpar
ti
cl
esandener
gyf
rom amat
eri
alorpr
ocess(
react
ion)
.

RADI
OACTI
VITY
Radioacti
vi
ty/
Radioact
ivedecayisthespont
aneousdi
si
ntegr
ati
onoft
henucl
eiofunst
abl
eisot
opeswi
tht
he
emissionofdif
fer
enttypesofradiat
ion.

Radi
oact
ivi
tycanoccurnat
ural
l
yaswel
lasar
ti
fi
ci
all
y.

Tr
ansmut
ati
on

Thi
sist
het
ransf
ormat
ionofoner
adi
oact
ivesubst
ancei
ntodi
ff
erentel
ement
s.

Radi
oisot
opes

Thesear
eisot
opeswi
thunst
abl
enucl
ei.Whent
heseunst
abl
eat
omsspont
aneousl
ybr
eakup,
theyar
esai
dto

2
di
sintegr
ate/decay
.Thedi
sint
egr
ati
onoft
heseat
omsr
eleaseheatener
gyandr
adi
ati
oni
semi
tt
edf
rom t
he
nucleus.

TYPESOFRADI
ATI
ON

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofr
adi
ati
onandt
hesear
e;

i
)Al
pha(
α)par
ti
cles

i
i
)Bet
a(β)par
ti
cles

i
i
i)Gamma(
γ)r
ays

1.ALPHAPARTI
CLES(
α)

Al
phadecayist
hedisi
ntegr
ati
onofthenucl
eusint
oal
phaparti
cle(4Henucl
eus)andanucl
eusofanot
her
el
ement
.Alphapar
ti
clesareHeli
um at
omsmi nust
woelect
rons(Heli
um i
onswithadoubl
eposi
ti
vecharge)
.

I
tist
hel
ossofanal
phapar
ti
cl
emadeupoft
wopr
otonsandneut
ronsf
rom anucl
eusofar
adi
oisot
ope.

Theseisotopeswhosedecayemitalphapar
ti
cleshavet
oomuchmasst
obest
abl
eandsogi
veoutal
pha
part
icl
esinordert
oform smal
lerandmorestableat
oms.

Exampl
e:

 Ur
ani
um under
goesr
adi
oact
ivedecaybyl
osi
nganal
phapar
ti
cleasshowni
ntheequat
ionbel
ow;

U =Ur
ani
um

Th =Thor
ium

Ra =Radi
um

Al
phapar
ti
cleshav
eachar
geof+2

PROPERTI
ESOFALPHAPARTI
CLES

 Theyhav
eli
tt
lepenet
rat
ionpowerascanbest
oppedbypaper
.

 Theyar
ereadi
l
yabsor
bedbyai
r,paperandev
ensur
faceofbody
’sski
n.

 Theyhav
elowdef
lect
ionduet
olar
gemass.Theyar
edef
lect
edbyt
hemagnet
icf
iel
d.

 Themassnumberoft
her
adi
oact
ivesubst
ancedecr
easesby4andat
omi
cnumberdecr
easesby2.

 Theypr
oducei
oni
zat
ionef
fectofai
r.

2.BETAPARTI
CLES(
β)

Bet
adecayi
sthedi
sint
egr
ati
onoft
henucl
eusi
ntobet
apar
ti
cle( anel
ect
ron)andanucl
eusofanot
her
el
ement
.

3
I
nabet
adecay
,aneutr
on(n)i
str
ansfor
medint
oaprot
onandanel
ect
ronatt
henucl
earsur
face.Thepr
oton
r
emai
nsint
henucl
eusandtheel
ect
ronisemi
tt
ed.

Thus,bet
adecayi
sthel
ossofanel
ect
ronf
rom t
henucl
eusofar
adi
oisot
ope.Thepr
otonhasonemor
e
prot
on.

Bet
apar
ti
clesar
eemi
tt
edf
rom heav
iernucl
eiwi
tht
oomanyneut
ronscompar
edwi
tht
henumberofpr
otons.

I
nabetadecay,t
her
eisalossofoneneutr
onandagai
nofonepr
oton.Sot
henumberofneutr
onsdecr
eases
by1whi
lethenumberofprot
onsincr
easesby1andt
hemassnumberremai
nsunchanged.

Exampl
e:

Bet
apar
ti
cleshav
enomassandar
enegat
ivel
ychar
ged.Lackofmassmakesbet
apar
ti
clest
obel
i
ght
.

PROPERTI
ESOFBETAPARTI
CLES

 Theyhav
egreat
erpenet
rat
ionpowerthanal
phapar
ti
clesbecauset
heyar
ever
yti
ny.Theycanbe
st
oppedyfewmm ofplast
icorpaper
.

 Theyar
eabsor
bedbyt
hinmet
alsuchast
inf
oil
oral
umi
nium.

 Theyhav
elar
gedef
lect
ioni
namagnet
icf
iel
dduet
osmal
lmass.

 Theyhav
evar
yingv
eloci
ti
esandr
angesi
nai
r.

 Themassi
sunchangedbutt
heat
omi
cnumberi
ncr
easesby1.

 Theycausel
essi
oni
zat
ioni
nai
r.

 Bot
hal
phaandbet
apar
ti
cl
esdi
si
ntegr
ateanat
om ofai
r.

GAMMARAYS(
γ)

Thegammaray
sar egi
venouti
nthef
orm ofel
ect
romagnet
icr
adi
ati
on,
asar
esul
toft
henucl
eusset
ti
ng
downaft
ert
hedecay.

Agammaraybei
ngaphot
on(
packetofener
gy)ofhi
ghener
gyel
ect
romagnetr
adi
ati
onhasnomassnumber
orat
omi
cnumber.

Gammadecayoccurswhenthenucl
eusemit
sgammaray(
γ)andbecomesalessener
geti
cfor
m oft
he
samenucl
eus.Sot
heradi
oisot
opethatemi
tsgammar
aysl
osesener
gyandbecomesstabl
e.

Exampl
e:

I
nmostcases,
gammar
aysar
eemi
tt
edwi
thal
ongwi
tht
heemi
ssi
onofal
phaandbet
apar
ti
cles.

4
  =GammaRay
s

PROPERTI
ESOFGAMMARAYS

 Theyhavegreat
estpenet
rat
ionpowerbecauset
heycar
rynochar
ge.Canbest
oppedbyt
hickl
ead
metal
/concr
ete.

 Theycannotbedef
lect
edi
namagnet
icf
iel
d.

 Theyar
eabsor
bedbyt
hickl
eadmet
alorconcr
ete.

 Theycausel
i
ttl
eioni
zat
ionofai
rpar
ti
cl
es.

 Ther
eisnochangeont
hemassorat
omi
cnumberoft
her
adi
oisot
opesubst
ance.Thenucl
eusonl
y
l
osesener
gy.

NUCLEAREQUATI
ONS

Whenwri
ti
ngnucl
earequati
onsmakesur
ethatthet
otal
massnumber
,thet
otal
atomi
cnumberandt
otal
char
gesmustbeequal
(thesame)onbot
hsidesoft
heequat
ion.

Exampl
es:

1.Ni
tr
ogenat
om i
sbombar
dedwi
thHel
i
um nucl
eit
opr
oduceani
sot
opeofOxy
gen-
17andpr
oton-
at
om.

2.Radi
um-226wi
thpr
oton88emi
tsanal
phapar
ti
cleanddecay
stor
adon-
222wi
thpr
oton86.

3.Radi
oact
ivecar
bo-
14decay
sbybet
aemi
ssi
ont
oni
tr
ogen.

4.Aradi
oact
ivei
sot
opesofl
ead-
210canl
oseabet
apar
ti
clet
opr
oduceanat
om ofBi
smut
h-210wi
th
prot
onnumber83.

5.Lant
hanum-139emitsanal
phapar
ti
cl
etof
orm Caesi
um f
oll
owedbyanemi
ssi
onofabet
apar
ti
cle
tofor
mt henucl
ideofBar
ium.

ARTI
FICI
ALRADI
OACTI
VITY(
INDUCEDNUCLEARREACTI
ONS)
5
Wit
hthehelpwithlar
gemachinescall
edparti
cl
eaccel
erat
orswhi
chuseel
ect
ri
cfi
eldt
oaccel
erat
echar
ged
par
ti
clest
ov er
yhighener
gies,ar
ti
fi
ci
al t
ransmut
ati
onsareper
for
med.

Thebombar
dedpar
ti
clesar
eusedt
obombar
dnucl
eiandi
nducenucl
earr
eact
ions.

Di
ff
erentr
eact
ionsr
equi
redi
ff
erentpar
ti
cl
esanddi
ff
erentbombar
dingener
gies.

Bel
owar
eexampl
esofi
nducedr
adi
oact
ivi
ty;

1.Ani
tr
ogeni
sot
ope canbechangedi
ntoanOxy
geni
sot
opebybombar
dingi
twi
than

alpha par
ti
cle.Thisi
saccompli
shedbybombardi
ngni
tr
ogen(
N)gaswi
thanal
phapar
ti
clef
rom
radioact
ivesour
ce. Theequat
ionf
orthereact
ioni
s;

 Anal
phapar
ti
cl
ecol
l
idi
ndwi
thani
tr
ogennucl
euscanoccasi
onal
l
yknockoutapr
oton.

2.Anothernucl
earr
eact
ionoccur
swhenapr
otonst
ri
kesmer
cur
y-200t
opr
oducegol
dandal
pha
part
icl
e.

3.I
fLi
thi
um (
Li)i
sbombar
dedwi
thpr
oton,
aBer
yll
i
um i
sot
opeandneut
ronar
epr
oduced.

Tr
ans-
Urani
um El
ement
s

Theseareel
ement
swithat
omi cnumber
sgreat
ert
han92.Theseel
ement
sar
esy
nthet
ical
l
ymadeby
shoot
ingali
ght
ernucl
euswit
halphapar
ti
cl
esorneut
rons

Exampl
e:

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFRADI
OACTI
VESUBSTANCE

1.Theyhav
eunst
abl
enucl
ei.

2.Theycanbechangedt
odi
ff
erentel
ement
s.

3.Theyemi
tvastamountofener
gyi
nfor
m ofr
adi
ati
on.

RADI
ATI
ONFROM RADI
OACTI
VESOURCE

1.Penet
rat
ionPower

6
 e:Thesour
Not ceofr
adi
ati
oni
scover
edwi
thl
eadbl
ocki
nor
dert
ocont
rolr
adi
ati
onf
rom goi
ngast
ray.

2.El
ect
ri
cfi
eld

 Bet
apar
ti
clesar
edef
lect
edt
otheposi
ti
vewhi
l
eal
phapar
ti
clesar
edef
lect
edt
othenegat
ivechar
ge.
Unl
i
kechar
gesat
tracteachot
her
.Gammar
aysar
enotdef
lect
edbecauset
heyhavenochar
ge.

 Bet
apar
ti
clesar
edef
lect
edmor
ethanal
phapar
ti
clesbecausebet
apar
ti
cleshavenomass.

I
NSTRUMENTSUSEDTODETECTRADI
ATI
ON

1.Gei
ger
-Műl
ler(
GM)t
ube.

AGeigerMul
lerCount
ercanmoni
torradi
oacti
vi
ty.Theinst
rumentdet
ermi
nest
her
ateofemi
ssi
onofdecay
par
ti
cleswhi
chismeasuredi
ncountsperminute(c.
p.m).

Whenr adiat
ionent
ersaGM t ube,eit
herthroughat hi
nend-wi
ndowmadeofmica,ori
fiti
sverypenet
rat
ing
t
hrought hewalli
tcreat
esargoni onsandel ect
rons.Thesear
eaccel
erat
est
owardstheel
ectr
odesandcause
moreionizati
onbycolli
dingotherargonatoms.

Onreachi
ngt
heelect
rodes,
thei
onspr
oduceacur
rentpul
sewhichi
sampl
if
iedandf
edei
thert
oascal
erora
r
atemeter
.Ascal
ercountst
hepul
sesandshowst
hetotal
recei
vedi
nacer
taint
ime.

7
2.Sci
nti
ll
ati
onCount
er

To‘sci
nti
l
lat
e’means‘
produci
ngsparksofl
i
ght
’.Asci
nti
l
lati
oncount
eri
sani
nst
rumentmadeupoft
he
combinat
ionofzi
ncsul
phatecry
stal
sandaphotomul
ti
pli
er.

I
tisusedt
odet
ectal
phapar
ti
cl
es(
α).

Acombinat
ionofzincsulphat
ecry
stal
sandphotomul
ti
pli
ercandet
ectev
ent
hef
aint
estf
lashesofl
i
ghtand
hel
pst
omeasur eradiat
ionfal
li
ngonthecr
yst
als.

Whenascr eencoat
edwithzincsulphatei
splacednearar adi
oact
iver
adium sal
tandexaminedusinga
magnify
inglensint
hedark,
tinyfl
ashesoflightappearonthesurf
aceofthezincsulphat
e.Thefl
ashesof
l
ightonthezincsul
phat
eresultf
rom alphaparti
cleshi
tti
ngthesurf
acethecryst
alsandemitti
ngi
tinfor
m of
l
ight.

3.Phot
ogr
aphi
cFi
lm

Thephot
ographicfi
lmisl
ightsensi
ti
vemater
ialwhichcandetectr
adiat
ionsemitt
edinform ofl
i
ght.Thef
il
m
worksef
fect
ivel
yifusedi
nt ot
aldar
knessi
nor dert
oav oi
dint
erfer
encesfrom ot
hersourcesofl
ight
.

4.El
ect
roscope

Whenachargedobj
ecti
sbr
oughtneart
het
opoft
her
odoft
heel
ect
roscope,
ther
odget
schar
gedby
i
nduct
ion.

Forexample,
ifaposit
ivel
ychargedobj
ectisdr
awncl oset
ot heel
ectr
oscoper
od,
theposi
ti
vechargesint
he
obj
ectrepelt
hepositi
vechargesint
herod.Theelect
ronsarether
efor
eattr
act
edt
otherod,maki
ngt hel
eaf
androdtobeposit
ivel
ychargedandthenrepeleachother
.

Onthecontrar
y,whenanegat
ivel
ychar
gedobjecti
splacedneart
herod,
thenegat
ivechar
gesi
ntheobject
r
epelthenegati
vechar
gesint
her odmaki
ngthem accumulat
einthel
owerpar
toftherodandt
heleaf
.So,the
l
eafisrepel
l
edawayf r
om t
herod.

Ther
epul
sionoft
hel
eaff
rom t
her
odi
ndi
cat
est
hepr
esenceofachar
gedmat
eri
al,
sot
hepr
esenceofal
pha

8
orbet
apar
ti
cleswi
l
lcauset
her
epul
si
onoft
hel
eaff
rom t
her
od.Thus,
det
ect
ingt
her
adi
ati
on.

USESOFNUCLEARRADI
ATI
ON
1.I
nMedi
cine

 I
odine-
123i
susedtodoct
orstomonit
orthei
odi
neintakebyt
het
hyr
oidgl
ands.Thi
sisdoneby
hav
ingapat
ientt
hathast
otakei
odinethr
oughi
nject
ion.

 Fort
reat
ingcancer
.Cancercell
saremor eeasi
l
ydamagedbyradi
ati
onthanheal
thycel
ls.Sendi
ng
gammar aysfr
om cobal
t-
60onacancer oustumourdest
roy
sit
scell
s.Ski
ncancerscanbetreat
ed
usi
ngbetaradi
ati
onfrom st
ronti
um-90source.

 Gammaraysareusedtoster
il
izemedi
cal
inst
rument
sbykil
li
ngbacteri
a.Theyar
eal
sousedt
o
i
rr
adi
atecer
tai
nfoods,
kil
li
ngbacter
iat
opreserv
ethefoodf
orlonger
.

2.I
nAgr
icul
tur
e

 Radi
oact
ivi
tyi
susedt
ocausest
eri
l
ityi
nmal
einsect
s.Thi
sreducest
hei
nsectpopul
ati
on.

 I
tisusedi
nobt
aini
ngi
nfor
mat
ionaboutani
mal
sorpl
antnut
ri
ti
on.

 Forradi
oacti
vedati
nge.g.carbon-14.Carbondatingisusedtofindt
heageoforganicremainsof
plant
s andanimalssuchaschar coal,
parchmentorbones.Allli
vingmatt
erhav
eaboutt hesame
level
ofradi
oacti
vi
tydueto14C,butthe14Ci nit
sr emainsconti
nuestodecay
.Thus,decreasi
ngin
amount, concentr
ationandradioacti
vit
y.

3.I
nindust
ry

 Formeasur ingthethi
cknessofamat eri
al.Thepenet
rat
ingabi
li
tyofradi
ationi
susedtogaugeand
adjustthethicknessofmetalsheet
s,pl
ast i
cfil
msandcigar
ett
es.Radiat
ionpassi
ngthr
ougha
mat er
ialdecreasesasthemat er
ial
getsthicker
.Theamountofpenetrat
ingbet
a/gammaradiat
ioni
s
usedt oesti
mat ethethi
cknessofthemat eri
al.

4.Forexami
ningweari
nmachi
ner
y.

5.Forsear
chi
ngpr
obl
emsi
nlubr
icat
ionorl
eaki
ngpi
pes.

6.Forst
oppi
ngf
lowofl
iqui
dorpowderi
nmachi
ner
y.

DANGERSOFRADI
OACTI
VITY

o I
tcausescancersuchasl
eukaemi
aandbl
ooddef
ect
s(bycausi
ngt
heDNAt
omut
ate)

o Ext
remel
ylar
gedosesofr
adi
ati
oncancausedeat
h.

o I
tcausesdepl
eti
onoft
heozonel
ayer
.

o I
tcausesmut
ati
on.

o I
tcancauseski
nbur
n

o I
tcausest
hel
ower
ingofdi
seaser
esi
stance.

9
 o I
tcausesser
iousabnor
mal
i
ties.

SAFETYMEASURESAGAI
NSTRADI
ATI
ON

1. Wearpr
otect
ivesui
ts.

2. Wearr
adi
ati
onl
evel
badges.

3. Checkr
adi
ati
onl
evel
sregul
arl
y.

4. Uset
hickl
ead-
wal
l
edcont
ainer
stot
ranspor
tradi
oact
ivemat
eri
als.

5. Donotusetheremotecontr
olt
ooper
ateaTVscreenwhenther
eisapersonbetweenthescr
een
andther
emotecontr
ol.Theremot
econt
rolwor
ksbyproduci
ngandsendi
ngelect
rons(bet
apart
icl
es)
tot
hescreen.

6. Usel
i
fti
ngt
ool
s(f
orcepsort
ongs)t
ohandl
eradi
oisot
opes.

HALFLI
FE

Thi
sist
heav
eraget
imef
orhal
ftheat
oms(
ther
adi
oact
ivemat
eri
al)i
nagi
vensampl
etodecay
.

Exampl
e:

o Radi
um hashal
fli
feof1600y
ear
s.

o Ur
ani
um-
238,
Thor
ium-
232andUr
ani
um-
235hav
ehal
fli
feof100×1010y
ear
s.

o I
odi
ne-
131hashal
fli
feof8.
1day
s.

Howev
eri
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoknowwhenasubst
ancehasl
ostal
li
tsr
adi
oact
ivi
ty.

DECAYCURVE

Theav
eragenumberofdi
sint
egr
ati
onsperuni
toft
imei
sisACTI
t VITY.

I
ftheact
ivi
tyi
smeasur
edatdi
ff
erentt
imes,
adecaycur
veofact
ivi
tyagai
nstt
imecanbepl
ott
ed.

Theidealonebelowshowst hattheact
ivi
tydecr
easesbythesamef ract
ioni
nsuccessi
veequalt
imeint
erval
s.
I
tfal
lsfrom 80to40disintegrati
onspersecondin10minutes,
from 40to20inthenext10minut
es,f
rom 20
to10inthethi
rd10mi nutesandsoon.

Ther
efor
ethehal
fli
fei
s10mi
nut
es:

10
 e:Hal
Not fli
vesvar
yfr
om mi
l
li
ont
hsofasecondt
omi
l
li
onsofyear
s.

EXAMPLES:

1.Ar
adi
oact
ivesour
cehasahal
fli
feof20mi
nut
es.Whatf
ract
ioni
slef
taf
ter1hour
?

Af
ter20mi
nut
es,
lef
t =

Af
ter40mi
nut
es,
lef
t =

Af
ter60mi
nut
e,l
eft =

2.Ar
adi
oact
iveel
ementhasahal
fli
feof5mi
nut
es.

a).I
fini
ti
all
ythecountrat
emeasuri
ngt
heint
ensi
tyofr
adi
ati
ongi
venouti
s624permi
nut
e.Howl
ong
doesi
tt aketoreachtheaccountof39permi
nut
e?

b)
.Whatf
ract
ionoft
heor
igi
nal
numberoft
heat
omsi
slef
t?

Sol
uti
on

a)
.Countr
atei
shal
vedi
nahal
fli
fe

i
.e.Rat
egoesf
rom 624t
o312i
n5mi
nut
es

Thenf
rom 312t
o156af
ter10mi
nut
es

11
 Then156t
o78af
ter15mi
nut
es

And78t
o39af
ter20mi
nut
es

b)
.Thef
ract
ionl
eft = =

3.Car
bon-14hasahalfl
ifeof5700year
s.A10gsampl eofwoodcutrecent
lyf
rom al
i
vingtr
eehasanacti
vi
ty
of160countsperminut
e.Apieceofcharcoal
takenf
rom aprehi
stor
iccampsi
teal
soweighs10gbuthasan
act
ivi
tyof40count
spermi nut
e.Est
imatetheageofthechar
coal.

Af
ter1×5700y
ear
stheact
ivi
tywi
l
lbe160/
2=80count
spermi
nut
e.

Af
ter2×5700y
ear
stheact
ivi
tywi
l
lbe80/
2=40count
spermi
nut
e

Theageoft
hechar
coal
is2×5700 =11400y
ear
s.

4.Thehalfl
i
feofar
adi
oact
ivesubst
ancei
s3hr
s.Whatmassoft
hesubst
ancewoul
dremai
naf
ter12hr
sif
thei
nit
ial
masswas20g?

Af
ter3hr
s,f
ract
ionl
eft=

Af
ter6hr
s,f
ract
ionl
eft=

Af
ter9hr
s,f
ract
ionl
eft=

Af
ter12hr
s,f
ract
ionl
eft= =

Ther
efor
e,t
hemasst
hatwi
l
lremai
n = ×20g

=1.
25g

NUCLEARFI
SSI
ON

Nucl
earfi
ssi
onisthespl
it
ti
ngofonelargenucl
eusint
ot wo(ormore)smal
lerf
ragment
sofal
mostequal
si
zes.Themassesoffr
agmentsproducedi
nnuclearf
issionar
elessthant
hemassoftheori
ginal
nucl
eus.

Dur
ingnucl
eusf
issi
on,
ener
gyi
srel
eased.

EXAMPLE

i
)

Neut
ron Fi
ssi
onf
ragment
s neut
rons

Expl
anat
ionont
heexampl
e:

Whenur
anium-235i
sbombardedwit
hasl
owmov i
ngneut
ron,
itbecomesunstableandspl
it
sint
otwo.When
t
hetwoneutr
onsrel
easesbombar
danot
herur
ani
um-235,
theprocesscont
inuesasbefor
econti
nuousl
y

12
hencel
argeamountofener
gyi
srel
eased(
abombexpl
odes)
.

Thisiscall
edachai
nreact
ion.Achai
nreacti
onisar eact
ionwher
etheproduct
sar
eabletopr
oducemor
e
reacti
onsinasel
fsust
aini
ngseri
essequence.Enoughsampleofurani
um-235mustbeusedi
nor
dert
oforma
chainreact
ioni
nabomb.Ifthi
sisnotcontr
oll
ed,i
tresult
sinat
omicbomb.

e: Thechai
Not nreact
ioni
scont
rol
l
edbyneut
ronabsor
bingBor
onst
eelr
ods.

Gr
aphi
tei
sal
sousedt
osl
owdownt
hechai
nreact
ion.

Cont
rol
ledNucl
earFi
ssi
on

 Contr
oll
ednucl
earfi
ssi
oncanbeusedf
orgener
ati
ngel
ect
ri
cit
y.Asmal
lmassofur
ani
um can
gener
ateel
ectr
ici
tyf
ormanyyear
s.

13
USESOFNUCLEARFI
SSI
ON

i
. I
tisusedt
opr
oduceener
gy(
nucl
earpowerpl
ant
)

i
i
. I
tisusedt
omakeanat
omi
cbomb.

NUCLEARFUSI
ON

o Thi
sist
hecombi
nat
ionoft
wosmal
l
ernucl
eit
ofor
m onel
argenucl
eus.

o Duri
ngnucl
earfi
ssi
on,t
henucl
eiofel
ement
swi
thsmal
lmassesf
uset
ofor
m nucl
eiofl
argemasses
andener
gyisrel
easedi
nthepr
ocess.

i
.e.

Note:
Thesunandotherst
arsproduceenergyduetonucl
earf
usi
onwher
ehy
drogennucl
ei/i
sot
opesf
usei
n
sev
eralst
epst
ofor
m onehelium nucl
eus/i
sotope.

USESOFNUCLEARFUSI
ON

i
. I
tisusedasasour
ceofener
gy

i
i
. I
tisusedt
omakeahy
drogenbomb

i
i
i. I
tisusedt
opr
oduceel
ect
ri
ci
ty.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenachemi
calReact
ionandNucl
earReact
ion

Chemi
calReact
ion Nucl
earReact
ion

Smal
lamountofener
gyi
srel
easedorabsor
bed. Lar
geamountofener
gyi
srel
easedorabsor
bed

Inv
olv
esrear
rangementofat
omst
ofor
m anew I
nvol
veslossorgai
nofpr
otonsandneut
ronst
ofor
m
subst
ance anewisotope.

Rateofreact
ionaffectedbychangeint
emper
atur
e, Rateofreact
ionnotaf
fectedbychangei
n
pressur
e,concent
rationandcatal
yst temperat
ure,pr
essur
e,concent
rat
ionandcat
aly
st.

Invol
vesshar
ing,l
ossorgai
nofv
alenceel
ect
ronsby I
nvol
veslossorgai
nofpr
otonsandneut
ronsi
nthe
atomstoform bonds. nucl
eusofanatom.

14
15