CHENNAII

NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

UNI
T-ISTEADYSTRESSESANDVARI
ABLESTRESSESI
NMACHI
NEMEMBERS
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Thesubj
ectMachi
neDesi
gni
sthecr
eat
ionofnew andbet
termachi
nesandi
mpr
ovi
ngt
he
exi
sti
ngones.Aneworbet
termachi
nei
sonewhi
chi
smor
eeconomi
cali
ntheov
eral
lcostof
pr
oduct
ionandoper
ati
on.Thepr
ocessofdesi
gni
sal
ongandt
imeconsumi
ngone.Fr
om t
he
st
udyofexi
sti
ngi
deas,anew i
deahast
obeconcei
ved.Thei
deai
sthenst
udi
edkeepi
ngi
n
mi
ndi
tscommer
cialsuccessandgi
venshapeandf
ormi
nthef
orm ofdr
awi
ngs.I
nthe
pr
epar
ati
onoft
hesedr
awi
ngs,
car
emustbet
akenoft
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esour
cesi
nmoney
,in
menandi
nmat
eri
alsr
equi
redf
ort
hesuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onoft
henew i
deai
ntoanact
ual
r
eal
i
ty.I
ndesi
gni
ngamachi
necomponent
,iti
snecessar
ytohav
eagoodknowl
edgeofmany
subj
ect
ssuch asMat
hemat
ics,Engi
neer
ing Mechani
cs,St
rengt
h ofMat
eri
als,Theor
yof
Machi
nes,
Wor
kshopPr
ocessesandEngi
neer
ingDr
awi
ng.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionsofMachi
neDesi
gn
Themachi
nedesi
gnmaybecl
assi
fi
edasf
oll
ows:
1.Adapt
ivedesi
gn.I
n mostcases,t
hedesi
gner
‘swor
kisconcer
ned wi
thadapt
ati
onof
ex
ist
ingdesi
gns.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gnneedsnospeci
alknowl
edgeorski
l
landcanbeat
tempt
ed
bydesi
gner
sofor
dinar
ytechni
calt
rai
ning.Thedesi
gneronl
ymakesmi
noral
ter
nat
ionor
modi
fi
cat
ioni
ntheexi
sti
ngdesi
gnsoft
hepr
oduct
.
2.Devel
opmentdesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gnneedsconsi
der
abl
esci
ent
if
ict
rai
ninganddesi
gn
abi
l
ityi
nor
dert
omodi
fyt
heexi
sti
ngdesi
gnsi
ntoanew i
deabyadopt
inganew mat
eri
alor
di
ff
erentmet
hodofmanuf
act
ure.I
nthi
scase,t
hought
hedesi
gnerst
art
sfr
om t
heexi
sti
ng
desi
gn,
butt
hef
inal
productmaydi
ff
erqui
temar
kedl
yfr
om t
heor
igi
nal
product
.
3.Newdesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gnneedsl
otofr
esear
ch,
techni
cal
abi
l
ityandcr
eat
ivet
hinki
ng.
Onl
ythosedesi
gner
swhohav
eper
sonalqual
i
tiesofasuf
fi
cient
lyhi
ghor
dercant
akeupt
he
wor
kofanewdesi
gn.Thedesi
gns,dependi
ngupont
hemet
hodsused,maybecl
assi
fi
edas
f
oll
ows:
(
a)Rat
ionaldesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gndependsuponmat
hemat
icalf
ormul
aeofpr
inci
pleof
mechani
cs.
(
b) Empi
ri
caldesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gndependsuponempi
ri
calf
ormul
aebasedon

Dr.
RGM/V-
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UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

t
hepr
act
iceandpastexper
ience.
(
c)I
ndust
ri
aldesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gndependsupont
hepr
oduct
ionaspect
stomanuf
act
ure
anymachi
necomponenti
nthei
ndust
ry.
d)Opt
( imum desi
gn.I
tist
hebestdesi
gnf
ort
hegi
venobj
ect
ivef
unct
ionundert
hespeci
fi
ed
const
rai
nts.I
tmaybeachi
evedbymi
nimi
singt
heundesi
rabl
eef
fect
s.
e)Sy
( stem desi
gn.I
tist
hedesi
gnofanycompl
exmechani
cal
syst
em l
i
keamot
orcar
.
(
f)El
ementdesi
gn.I
tist
hedesi
gnofanyel
ementoft
hemechani
cal
syst
em l
i
kepi
ston,
cr
ankshaf
t,connect
ingr
od,
etc.
g)Comput
( erai
deddesi
gn.Thi
sty
peofdesi
gndependsupont
heuseofcomput
ersy
stemst
o
assi
sti
nthecr
eat
ion,
modi
fi
cat
ion,
anal
ysi
sandopt
imi
sat
ionofadesi
gn.
Gener
alConsi
der
ati
onsi
nMachi
neDesi
gn
Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethegener
alconsi
der
ati
onsi
ndesi
gni
ngamachi
necomponent
:
1.Ty
peofl
oadandst
ressescausedbyt
hel
oad.Thel
oad,
onamachi
necomponent
,mayact
i
nsev
eralway
sduet
owhi
cht
hei
nter
nalst
ressesar
esetup.Thev
ari
oust
ypesofl
oadand
st
ressesar
edi
scussedl
ater
.
2.Mot
ionoft
hepar
tsorki
nemat
icsoft
hemachi
ne.Thesuccessf
uloper
ati
onofanymachi
ne
dependsl
argel
yupont
hesi
mpl
estar
rangementoft
hepar
tswhi
chwi
l
lgi
vet
hemot
ion
r
equi
red.
Themot
ionoft
hepar
tsmaybe:
a)Rect
( il
inearmot
ionwhi
chi
ncl
udesuni
dir
ect
ional
andr
eci
procat
ingmot
ions.
b)Cur
( vil
i
nearmot
ionwhi
chi
ncl
udesr
otar
y,osci
l
lat
oryandsi
mpl
ehar
moni
c.
c)Const
( antv
eloci
ty.
d)Const
( antorv
ari
abl
eaccel
erat
ion.
3.Sel
ect
ionofmat
eri
als.I
tisessent
ialt
hatadesi
gnershoul
dhav
eat
hor
oughknowl
edgeof
t
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
hemat
eri
alsandt
hei
rbehav
iourunderwor
kingcondi
ti
ons.Someoft
he
i
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
csofmat
eri
alsar
e:st
rengt
h,dur
abi
l
ity
,fl
exi
bil
i
ty,wei
ght
,resi
stancet
o
heatandcor
rosi
on,abi
l
ityt
ocast
,wel
dedorhar
dened,machi
nabi
l
ity
,el
ect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ty,
et
c.Thev
ari
oust
ypesofengi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsandt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
esar
edi
scussedl
ater
.
4.For
m andsi
zeoft
hepar
ts.Thef
orm andsi
zear
ebasedonj
udgment
.Thesmal
l
est

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
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UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

pr
act
icabl
ecr
oss-
sect
ionmaybeused,
buti
tmaybecheckedt
hatt
hest
ressesi
nducedi
nthe
desi
gnedcr
oss-
sect
ionar
ereasonabl
ysaf
e.I
nor
dert
odesi
gnanymachi
nepar
tforf
orm and
si
ze,i
tisnecessar
ytoknow t
hef
orceswhi
cht
hepar
tmustsust
ain.I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantt
o
ant
ici
pat
eanysuddenl
yappl
i
edori
mpactl
oadwhi
chmaycausef
ail
ure.
5.Fr
ict
ionalr
esi
stanceandl
ubr
icat
ion.Ther
eisal
way
sal
ossofpowerduet
ofr
ict
ional
r
esi
stanceandi
tshoul
dbenot
edt
hatt
hef
ri
cti
onofst
art
ingi
shi
ghert
hant
hatofr
unni
ng
f
ri
cti
on.I
tis,t
her
efor
e,essent
ialt
hatacar
efulat
tent
ionmustbegi
vent
othemat
terof
l
ubr
icat
ionofal
lsur
faceswhi
chmov
eincont
actwi
thot
her
s,whet
heri
nrot
ati
ng,sl
i
ding,or
r
oll
i
ngbear
ings.
6.Conv
eni
entandeconomi
calf
eat
ures.I
ndesi
gni
ng,t
heoper
ati
ngf
eat
uresoft
hemachi
ne
shoul
dbecar
eful
l
yst
udi
ed.Thest
art
ing,cont
rol
l
ingandst
oppi
ngl
ever
sshoul
dbel
ocat
edon
t
hebasi
sofconv
eni
enthandl
i
ng.Theadj
ust
mentf
orwearmustbepr
ovi
dedempl
oyi
ngt
he
v
ari
oust
akeupdev
icesandar
rangi
ngt
hem sot
hatt
heal
i
gnmentofpar
tsi
spr
eser
ved.I
fpar
ts
ar
etobechangedf
ordi
ff
erentpr
oduct
sorr
epl
acedonaccountofwearorbr
eakage,easy
accessshoul
dbepr
ovi
dedandt
henecessi
tyofr
emov
ingot
herpar
tst
oaccompl
i
sht
his
shoul
dbeav
oidedi
fpossi
ble.Theeconomi
caloper
ati
onofamachi
newhi
chi
stobeusedf
or
pr
oduct
ionorf
ort
hepr
ocessi
ngofmat
eri
alshoul
dbest
udi
ed,
inor
dert
olear
nwhet
heri
thas
t
hemaxi
mum capaci
tyconsi
stentwi
tht
hepr
oduct
ionofgoodwor
k.
7.Useofst
andar
dpar
ts.Theuseofst
andar
dpar
tsi
scl
osel
yrel
atedt
ocost
,becauset
hecost
ofst
andar
dorst
ockpar
tsi
sonl
yaf
ract
ionoft
hecostofsi
mil
arpar
tsmadet
oor
der
.The
st
andar
dorst
ockpar
tsshoul
dbeusedwhenev
erpossi
ble;par
tsf
orwhi
chpat
ter
nsar
e
al
readyi
nexi
stencesuchasgear
s,pul
l
eysandbear
ingsandpar
tswhi
chmaybesel
ect
edf
rom
r
egul
arshopst
ocksuchasscr
ews,nut
sandpi
ns.Bol
tsandst
udsshoul
dbeasf
ew as
possi
blet
oav
oidt
hedel
aycausedbychangi
ngdr
il
ls,r
eamer
sandt
apsandal
sot
odecr
ease
t
henumberofwr
enchesr
equi
red.
8.Saf
etyofoper
ati
on.Somemachi
nesar
edanger
oust
ooper
ate,especi
all
ythosewhi
char
e
speededupt
oinsur
epr
oduct
ionatamaxi
mum r
ate.Ther
efor
e,anymov
ingpar
tofamachi
ne
whi
chi
swi
thi
nthezoneofawor
keri
sconsi
der
edanacci
denthazar
dandmaybet
hecauseof
ani
njur
y.I
tis,t
her
efor
e,necessar
ythatadesi
gnershoul
dal
way
spr
ovi
desaf
etydev
icesf
or

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
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UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

t
hesaf
etyoft
heoper
ator
.Thesaf
etyappl
i
ancesshoul
dinnowayi
nter
fer
ewi
thoper
ati
onof
t
hemachi
ne.
9.Wor
kshop f
aci
li
ti
es.A desi
gn engi
neershoul
d bef
ami
l
iarwi
tht
hel
i
mit
ati
onsoft
his
empl
oyer
‘swor
kshop,i
nor
dert
oav
oidt
henecessi
tyofhav
ingwor
kdonei
nsomeot
her
wor
kshop.I
tissomet
imesnecessar
ytopl
anandsuper
viset
hewor
kshopoper
ati
onsandt
o
dr
aftmet
hodsf
orcast
ing,
handl
i
ngandmachi
ningspeci
alpar
ts.
Numberofmachi
10. nest
obemanuf
act
ured.Thenumberofar
ti
clesormachi
nest
obe
manuf
act
uredaf
fect
sthedesi
gni
nanumberofway
s.Theengi
neer
ingandshopcost
swhi
ch
ar
ecal
l
edf
ixedchar
gesorov
erheadexpensesar
edi
str
ibut
edov
ert
henumberofar
ti
clest
obe
manuf
act
ured.I
fonl
yaf
ewar
ti
clesar
etobemade,
ext
raexpensesar
enotj
ust
if
iedunl
esst
he
machi
nei
slar
georofsomespeci
aldesi
gn.Anor
dercal
l
ingf
orsmal
lnumberoft
hepr
oduct
wi
l
lnotper
mitanyundueexpensei
nthewor
kshoppr
ocesses,sot
hatt
hedesi
gnershoul
d
r
est
ri
cthi
sspeci
fi
cat
iont
ost
andar
dpar
tsasmuchaspossi
ble.
Costofconst
11. ruct
ion.The costofconst
ruct
ion ofan ar
ti
clei
sthe mosti
mpor
tant
consi
der
ati
oni
nvol
vedi
ndesi
gn.I
nsomecases,i
tisqui
tepossi
blet
hatt
hehi
ghcostofan
ar
ti
clemayi
mmedi
atel
ybari
tfr
om f
urt
herconsi
der
ati
ons.I
fanar
ti
clehasbeeni
nvent
edand
t
est
sofhandmadesampl
eshav
eshownt
hati
thascommer
cialv
alue,i
tist
henpossi
blet
o
j
ust
if
ytheexpendi
tur
eofaconsi
der
abl
esum ofmoneyi
nthedesi
gnanddev
elopmentof
aut
omat
icmachi
nest
opr
oducet
hear
ti
cle,especi
all
yifi
tcanbesol
dinl
argenumber
s.The
ai
m ofdesi
gnengi
neerunderal
lcondi
ti
onsshoul
dbet
oreducet
hemanuf
act
uri
ngcostt
othe
mi
nimum.
Assembl
12. ing.Ev
erymachi
neorst
ruct
uremustbeassembl
edasauni
tbef
orei
tcanf
unct
ion.
Lar
geuni
tsmustof
tenbeassembl
edi
ntheshop,t
est
edandt
hent
akent
obet
ranspor
tedt
o
t
hei
rpl
aceofser
vice.Thef
inall
ocat
ionofanymachi
nei
simpor
tantandt
hedesi
gnengi
neer
mustant
ici
pat
etheexactl
ocat
ionandt
hel
ocal
faci
l
iti
esf
orer
ect
ion.
Gener
alPr
ocedur
einMachi
neDesi
gn
I
ndesi
gni
ngamachi
necomponent
,ther
eisnor
igi
drul
e.Thepr
obl
em maybeat
tempt
edi
n
sev
eral
way
s.Howev
er,
thegener
alpr
ocedur
etosol
veadesi
gnpr
obl
em i
sasf
oll
ows:

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fi
g.1.Gener
alMachi
neDesi
gnPr
ocedur
e
1.Recogni
ti
onofneed.Fi
rstofal
l
,makeacompl
etest
atementoft
hepr
obl
em,i
ndi
cat
ingt
he
need,
aim orpur
posef
orwhi
cht
hemachi
nei
stobedesi
gned.
2.Sy
nthesi
s(Mechani
sms)
.Sel
ectt
hepossi
blemechani
sm orgr
oupofmechani
smswhi
ch
wi
l
lgi
vet
hedesi
redmot
ion.
3.Anal
ysi
soff
orces.Fi
ndt
hef
orcesact
ingoneachmemberoft
hemachi
neandt
heener
gy
t
ransmi
tt
edbyeachmember
.
4.Mat
eri
alsel
ect
ion.Sel
ectt
hemat
eri
albestsui
tedf
oreachmemberoft
hemachi
ne.
5.Desi
gnofel
ement
s(Si
zeandSt
resses)
.Fi
ndt
hesi
zeofeachmemberoft
hemachi
neby
consi
der
ingt
hef
orceact
ingont
hememberandt
heper
missi
blest
ressesf
ort
hemat
eri
alused.
I
tshoul
dbekepti
nmi
ndt
hateachmembershoul
dnotdef
lectordef
ormt
hant
heper
missi
ble
l
i
mit
.
6.Modi
fi
cat
ion.Modi
fyt
he si
ze oft
he membert
o agr
ee wi
tht
he pastexper
ience and
j
udgmentt
ofaci
l
itat
emanuf
act
ure.Themodi
fi
cat
ionmayal
sobenecessar
ybyconsi
der
ati
on
Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

ofmanuf
act
uri
ngt
oreduceov
eral
lcost
.
7.Det
ail
eddr
awi
ng.Dr
aw t
hedet
ail
eddr
awi
ngofeachcomponentandt
heassembl
yoft
he
machi
newi
thcompl
etespeci
fi
cat
ionf
ort
hemanuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocessessuggest
ed.
8.Pr
oduct
ion.Thecomponent
,aspert
hedr
awi
ng,
ismanuf
act
uredi
nthewor
kshop.Thef
low
char
tfort
hegener
alpr
ocedur
einmachi
nedesi
gni
sshowni
nFi
g.
Not
e:Whent
her
ear
enumberofcomponent
sint
hemar
kethav
ingt
hesamequal
i
tiesof
ef
fi
ciency
,dur
abi
l
ityand cost
,thent
hecust
omerwi
l
lnat
ural
l
yat
tractt
owar
dst
hemost
appeal
i
ngpr
oduct
.Theaest
het
icander
gonomi
csar
ever
yimpor
tantf
eat
ureswhi
chgi
ves
gr
aceandl
ust
ret
opr
oductanddomi
nat
est
hemar
ket
.
Engi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsandt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
es
Theknowl
edgeofmat
eri
alsandt
hei
rpr
oper
ti
esi
sofgr
eatsi
gni
fi
cancef
oradesi
gnengi
neer
.
Themachi
neel
ement
sshoul
dbemadeofsuchamat
eri
alwhi
chhaspr
oper
ti
essui
tabl
efor
t
hecondi
ti
onsofoper
ati
on.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,adesi
gnengi
neermustbef
ami
l
iarwi
tht
he
ef
fect
swhi
cht
hemanuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocessesandheatt
reat
menthav
eont
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
he
mat
eri
als.Now,we shal
ldi
scuss t
he commonl
y used engi
neer
ing mat
eri
als and t
hei
r
pr
oper
ti
esi
nMachi
neDesi
gn.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofEngi
neer
ingMat
eri
als
Theengi
neer
ingmat
eri
alsar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edas:
1.Met
alsandt
hei
ral
l
oys,
suchasi
ron,
steel
,copper
,al
umi
num,
etc.
2.Non-
met
als,
suchasgl
ass,
rubber
,pl
ast
ic,
etc.Themet
alsmaybef
urt
hercl
assi
fi
edas:
(
a)Fer
rousmet
al b)Non-
sand( fer
rousmet
als.
f
The*er
rousmet
alsar
ethosewhi
chhav
ethei
ronast
hei
rmai
nconst
it
uent
,suchascasti
ron,
wr
oughti
ronandst
eel
.
Thenon-
fer
rousmet
alsar
ethosewhi
chhav
eamet
alot
hert
hani
ronast
hei
rmai
nconst
it
uent
,
suchascopper
,al
umi
num,
brass,
tin,
zinc,
etc.
Sel
ect
ionofMat
eri
alsf
orEngi
neer
ingPur
poses
Thesel
ect
ionofapr
opermat
eri
al,f
orengi
neer
ingpur
poses,i
soneoft
hemostdi
ff
icul
t
pr
obl
emsf
ort
hedesi
gner
.Thebestmat
eri
ali
sonewhi
chser
vest
hedesi
redobj
ect
iveatt
he
mi
nimum cost
.Thef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orsshoul
dbeconsi
der
edwhi
l
esel
ect
ingt
hemat
eri
al:

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
Page6
 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

1.Av
ail
abi
l
ityoft
hemat
eri
als,
2.Sui
tabi
l
ityoft
hemat
eri
alsf
ort
hewor
kingcondi
ti
onsi
nser
vice,
and
3.Thecostoft
hemat
eri
als.
Thei
mpor
tantpr
oper
ti
es,
whi
chdet
ermi
net
heut
il
it
yoft
hemat
eri
al,
arephy
sical
,chemi
cal
and
mechani
calpr
oper
ti
es.Weshal
lnow di
scusst
hephy
sicalandmechani
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
he
mat
eri
ali
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
ti
cles.
Phy
sicalPr
oper
ti
esofMet
als
Thephy
sicalpr
oper
ti
esoft
hemet
alsi
ncl
udel
ust
er,col
our
,si
zeandshape,densi
ty,el
ect
ri
c
andt
her
malconduct
ivi
ty,andmel
ti
ngpoi
nt.Thef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
eshowst
hei
mpor
tantphy
sical
pr
oper
ti
esofsomepur
emet
als.
Mechani
calPr
oper
ti
esofMet
als
Themechani
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
hemet
alsar
ethosewhi
char
eassoci
atedwi
tht
heabi
l
ityoft
he
mat
eri
alt
oresi
stmechani
calf
orcesandl
oad.Thesemechani
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
hemet
al
i
ncl
udest
rengt
h,st
if
fness,el
ast
ici
ty,pl
ast
ici
ty,duct
il
it
y,br
it
tl
eness,mal
l
eabi
l
ity
,toughness,
r
esi
l
ience,
creepandhar
dness.Weshal
lnowdi
scusst
hesepr
oper
ti
esasf
oll
ows:
1.St
rengt
h.I
tist
heabi
l
ityofamat
eri
alt
oresi
stt
heext
ernal
l
yappl
i
edf
orceswi
thoutbr
eaki
ng
ory
iel
ding.Thei
nter
nalr
esi
stanceof
fer
edbyapar
ttoanext
ernal
l
yappl
i
edf
orcei
scal
l
ed
st
ress.
2.St
if
fness.I
tist
heabi
l
ityofamat
eri
alt
oresi
stdef
ormat
ionunderst
ress.Themodul
usof
el
ast
ici
tyi
sthemeasur
eofst
if
fness.
3. El
ast
ici
ty.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alt
oregai
nit
sor
igi
nalshapeaf
terdef
ormat
ionwhen
t
heext
ernalf
orcesar
eremov
ed.Thi
spr
oper
tyi
sdesi
rabl
eformat
eri
alsusedi
ntool
sand
machi
nes.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatst
eel
ismor
eel
ast
ict
hanr
ubber
.
4. Pl
ast
ici
ty.I
tispr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alwhi
chr
etai
nst
hedef
ormat
ionpr
oducedunderl
oad
per
manent
ly.Thi
spr
oper
tyoft
hemat
eri
ali
snecessar
yforf
orgi
ngs,i
nst
ampi
ngi
mageson
coi
nsandi
nor
nament
alwor
k.
5. Duct
il
it
y.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofa mat
eri
alenabl
i
ng i
tto be dr
awn i
nto wi
rewi
tht
he
appl
i
cat
ionofat
ensi
l
efor
ce.Aduct
il
emat
eri
almustbebot
hst
rongandpl
ast
ic.Theduct
il
it
y
i
susual
l
ymeasur
edbyt
het
erms,
per
cent
ageel
ongat
ionandper
cent
ager
educt
ioni
nar
ea.The

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

duct
il
emat
eri
alcommonl
yusedi
nengi
neer
ingpr
act
ice(
inor
derofdi
mini
shi
ngduct
il
it
y)ar
e
mi
l
dst
eel
,copper
,al
umi
nium,
nickel
,zi
nc,
tinandl
ead.
6. Br
it
tl
eness.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alopposi
tet
oduct
il
it
y.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofbr
eaki
ng
ofamat
eri
alwi
thl
i
ttl
eper
manentdi
stor
ti
on.Br
it
tl
emat
eri
alswhensubj
ect
edt
otensi
l
eloads
snapof
fwi
thoutgi
vi
nganysensi
bleel
ongat
ion.Casti
roni
sabr
it
tl
emat
eri
al.
7. Mal
leabi
li
ty.I
tisa speci
alcase ofduct
il
it
ywhi
ch per
mit
smat
eri
alst
o be r
oll
ed or
hammer
edi
ntot
hinsheet
s.Amal
l
eabl
emat
eri
alshoul
dbepl
ast
icbuti
tisnotessent
ialt
obe
so st
rong.Themal
l
eabl
e mat
eri
alscommonl
yused i
n engi
neer
ing pr
act
ice (
in or
derof
di
mini
shi
ngmal
l
eabi
l
ity
)ar
elead,
sof
tst
eel
,wr
oughti
ron,
copperandal
umi
nium.
8. Toughness.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alt
oresi
stf
ract
ureduet
ohi
ghi
mpactl
oadsl
i
ke
hammerbl
ows.Thet
oughnessoft
hemat
eri
aldecr
easeswheni
tisheat
ed.I
tismeasur
edby
t
heamountofener
gyt
hatauni
tvol
umeoft
hemat
eri
alhasabsor
bedaf
terbei
ngst
ressed
upt
othepoi
ntoff
ract
ure.Thi
spr
oper
tyi
sdesi
rabl
einpar
tssubj
ect
edt
oshockandi
mpact
l
oads.
9. Machi
nabi
l
ity
.Iti
sthepr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alwhi
chr
efer
stoar
elat
ivecasewi
thwhi
cha
mat
eri
alcanbecut
.Themachi
nabi
l
ityofamat
eri
alcanbemeasur
edi
nanumberofway
s
suchascompar
ingt
het
ooll
i
fef
orcut
ti
ngdi
ff
erentmat
eri
alsort
hrustr
equi
redt
oremov
ethe
mat
eri
alatsomegi
venr
ateort
heener
gyr
equi
redt
oremov
eauni
tvol
umeoft
hemat
eri
al.I
t
maybenot
edt
hatbr
asscanbeeasi
l
ymachi
nedt
hanst
eel
.
Resi
10. li
ence.I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alt
oabsor
bener
gyandt
oresi
stshockandi
mpact
l
oads.I
tismeasur
edbyt
heamountofener
gyabsor
bedperuni
tvol
umewi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
.
Thi
spr
oper
tyi
sessent
ial
forspr
ingmat
eri
als.
Cr
11. eep.Whenapar
tissubj
ect
edt
oaconst
antst
ressathi
ght
emper
atur
eforal
ongper
iod
oft
ime,i
twi
l
lunder
goasl
ow andper
manentdef
ormat
ioncal
l
edcr
eep.Thi
spr
oper
tyi
s
consi
der
edi
ndesi
gni
ngi
nter
nal
combust
ionengi
nes,
boi
l
ersandt
urbi
nes.
Fat
12. igue.Whenamat
eri
ali
ssubj
ect
edt
orepeat
edst
resses,i
tfai
l
satst
ressesbel
ow t
he
y
iel
dpoi
ntst
resses.Sucht
ypeoff
ail
ureofamat
eri
ali
sknownas*
fat
igue.Thef
ail
urei
s
causedbymeansofapr
ogr
essi
vecr
ackf
ormat
ionwhi
char
eusual
l
yfi
neandofmi
croscopi
c
si
ze.Thi
spr
oper
tyi
sconsi
der
edi
ndesi
gni
ngshaf
ts,
connect
ingr
ods,
spr
ings,
gear
s,et
c.

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
Page8
 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Har
13. dness.I
tisav
eryi
mpor
tantpr
oper
tyoft
hemet
alsandhasawi
dev
ari
etyofmeani
ngs.
I
tembr
acesmanydi
ff
erentpr
oper
ti
essuchasr
esi
stancet
owear
,scr
atchi
ng,
def
ormat
ionand
machi
nabi
l
ityet
c.I
tal
someanst
heabi
l
ityofamet
alt
ocutanot
hermet
al.Thehar
dnessi
s
usual
l
yexpr
essedi
nnumber
swhi
char
edependentont
hemet
hodofmaki
ngt
het
est
.The
har
dnessofamet
almaybedet
ermi
nedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
est
s:
a)Br
( inel
lhar
dnesst
est
,
b)Roc
( kwel
lhar
dnesst
est
,
c)Vi
( cker
shar
dness(
alsocal
l
edDi
amondPy
rami
d)t
est
,and
d)Shor
( escl
eroscope.
St
eel
I
tisanal
l
oyofi
ronandcar
bon,wi
thcar
boncont
entupt
oamaxi
mum of1.
5%.Thecar
bon
occur
sint
hef
orm ofi
roncar
bide,
becauseofi
tsabi
l
ityt
oincr
easet
hehar
dnessandst
rengt
h
oft
hest
eel
.Ot
herel se.
ement g.si
l
icon,
sul
phur
,phosphor
usandmanganesear
eal
sopr
esent
t
ogr
eat
erorl
esseramountt
oimpar
tcer
tai
ndesi
redpr
oper
ti
est
oit
.Mostoft
hest
eel
pr
oducednow-
a-day
sispl
aincar
bonst
eelorsi ycar
mpl bonst
eel
.Acar
bonst
eeli
sdef
inedas
ast
eelwhi
chhasi
tspr
oper
ti
esmai
nlyduet
oit
scar
boncont
entanddoesnotcont
ainmor
e
t
han0.
5%ofsi
l
iconand1.
5%ofmanganese.
Thepl
aincar
bonst
eel
svar
ying f
rom 0.
06% car
bont
o 1.
5% car
bonar
edi
vi
ded i
ntot
he
f
oll
owi
ngt
ypesdependi
ngupont
hecar
boncont
ent
.
1.Deadmi
l
dst
eel
—upt
o0.
15%car
bon
2.Lowcar
bonormi
l
dst
eel
—0.
15%t
o0.
45%car
bon
3.Medi
um car
bonst
eel
—0.
45%t
o0.
8%car
bon
4.Hi
ghcar
bonst
eel
—0.
8%t
o1.
5%car
bon
Accor
dingt
oIndi
anst
andar
d*[
IS:1762(
Par
t-
I)
–1974]
,anewsy
stem ofdesi
gnat
ingt
hest
eel
i
srecommended.Accor
dingt
othi
sst
andar
d,st
eel
sar
edesi
gnat
edont
hef
oll
owi
ngt
wobasi
s:
a)Ont
( hebasi
sofmechani
calpr
oper
ti b)Ont
es,and( hebasi
sofchemi
calcomposi
ti
on.We
shal
lnow di
scuss,i
ndet
ail
,thedesi
gnat
ionofst
eelont
heabov
etwobasi
s,i
nthef
oll
owi
ng
pages.
St
eel
sDesi
gnat
edont
heBasi
sofMechani
calPr
oper
ti
es

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
Page9
 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Thesest
eel
sar
ecar
bonandl
ow al
l
oyst
eel
swher
ethemai
ncr
it
eri
oni
nthesel
ect
ionand
i
nspect
ionofst
eeli
sthet
ensi
l
est
rengt
hory
iel
dst
ress.Accor
dingt
oIndi
anst
andar
dIS:1570
(
Par
t–I
)-1978 (
Reaf
fi
rmed 1993)
,these st
eel
sar
e desi
gnat
ed bya sy
mbol‗
Fe‘or‗
Fe
E‘
dependi
ngonwhet
hert
hest
eel
hasbeenspeci
fi
edont
hebasi
sofmi
nimum t
ensi
l
est
rengt
h
ory
iel
dst
rengt
h,f
oll
owedbyt
hef
igur
eindi
cat
ingt
hemi
nimum t
ensi
l
est
rengt
hory
iel
dst
ress
i
nN/
mm2.Forexampl
e‗Fe290‘meansast
eelhav
ingmi
nimum t
ensi
l
est
rengt
hof290
mm2and‗
N/ FeE220‘
meansast
eel
hav
ingy
iel
dst
rengt mm2.
hof220N/
St
eel
sDesi
gnat
edont
heBasi
sofChemi
calComposi
ti
on
Accor
dingt
oIndi
anst
andar
d,I
S:1570(
Par
tII
/SecI
)-
1979(
Reaf
fi
rmed1991)
,thecar
bonst
eel
s
ar
edesi
gnat
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ngor
der:
a)Fi
( gur
eindi
cat
ing100t
imest
heav
erageper
cent
ageofcar
boncont
ent
,
b)Le
( t
ter‗
C‘,
and
c)Fi
( gur
eindi
cat
ing10t
imest
heav
erageper
cent
ageofmanganesecont
ent
.Thef
igur
eaf
ter
mul
ti
ply
ingshal
lber
oundedof
ftot
henear
esti
nteger
.
Forexampl
e20C8meansacar
bonst
eelcont
aini
ng0.
15t
o0.
25percent(
0.2percenton
av
erage)car
bonand0.
60t
o0.
90percent(
0.75percentr
oundedof
fto0.
8percentonan
av
erage)manganese.
Ef
fectofI
mpur
it
iesonSt
eel
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etheef
fect
sofi
mpur
it
iesl
i
kesi
l
icon,
sul
phur
,manganeseandphosphor
uson
st
eel
.
1.Si
li
con.Theamountofsi
l
iconi
nthef
ini
shedst
eel
usual
l
yrangesf
rom 0.
05t
o0.
30%.Si
l
icon
i
saddedi
nlow car
bonst
eel
stopr
eventt
hem f
rom becomi
ngpor
ous.I
tremov
est
hegases
andoxi
des,
prev
entbl
owhol
esandt
her
ebymakest
hest
eel
tougherandhar
der
.
2.Sul
phur
.Itoccur
sinst
eelei
therasi
ronsul
phi
deormanganesesul
phi
de.I
ronsul
phi
de
becauseofi
tsl
owmel
ti
ngpoi
ntpr
oducesr
edshor
tness,wher
easmanganesesul
phi
dedoes
notaf
fectsomuch.Ther
efor
e,manganesesul
phi
dei
slessobj
ect
ionabl
einst
eelt
hani
ron
sul
phi
de.
3.Manganese.I
tser
vesasav
aluabl
edeoxi
disi
ngandpur
if
yingagenti
nst
eel
.Manganese
al
so combi
nes wi
th sul
phurand t
her
ebydecr
eases t
he har
mfulef
fectoft
his el
ement

Dr.
RGM/V-
SEM/
ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES
Page10
 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

r
emai
ningi
nthest
eel
.Whenusedi
nor
dinar
ylowcar
bonst
eel
s,manganesemakest
hemet
al
duct
il
eandofgoodbendi
ngqual
i
ties.I
nhi
ghspeedst
eel
s,i
tisusedt
otoughent
hemet
aland
t
oincr
easei
tscr
it
ical
temper
atur
e.
4.Phosphor
us.I
tmakest
hest
eelbr
it
tl
e.I
tal
sopr
oducescol
dshor
tnessi
nst
eel
.Inl
ow
car
bonst
eel
s,i
trai
sest
hey
iel
dpoi
ntandi
mpr
ovest
her
esi
stancet
oat
mospher
iccor
rosi
on.
Thesum ofcar
bonandphosphor
ususual
l
ydoesnotexceed0.
25%.
Manuf
act
uri
ngconsi
der
ati
onsi
nMachi
nedesi
gnManuf
act
uri
ngPr
ocesses
Theknowl
edgeofmanuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocessesi
sofgr
eati
mpor
tancef
oradesi
gnengi
neer
.The
f
oll
owi
ngar
ethev
ari
ousmanuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocessesusedi
nMechani
cal
Engi
neer
ing.
1.Pr
imar
yshapi
ngpr
ocesses.Thepr
ocessesusedf
ort
hepr
eli
minar
yshapi
ngoft
hemachi
ne
componentar
eknownaspr
imar
yshapi
ngpr
ocesses.Thecommonoper
ati
onsusedf
ort
his
pr
ocessar
ecast
ing,f
orgi
ng,ext
rudi
ng,r
oll
i
ng,dr
awi
ng,bendi
ng,shear
ing,spi
nni
ng,powder
met
alf
ormi
ng,
squeezi
ng,
etc.
2.Machi
ningpr
ocesses.Thepr
ocessesusedf
orgi
vi
ngf
inal
shapet
othemachi
necomponent
,
accor
ding t
o pl
anned di
mensi
ons ar
e known as machi
ning pr
ocesses.The common
oper
ati
onsusedf
ort
hispr
ocessar
etur
ning,
planni
ng,
shapi
ng,
dri
l
li
ng,
bor
ing,
reami
ng,
sawi
ng,
br
oachi
ng,
mil
l
ing,
gri
ndi
ng,
hobbi
ng,
etc.
3.Sur
facef
ini
shi
ngpr
ocesses.Thepr
ocessesusedt
opr
ovi
deagoodsur
facef
ini
shf
ort
he
machi
necomponentar
eknownassur
facef
ini
shi
ngpr
ocesses.Thecommonoper
ati
onsused
f
ort
hispr
ocessar
epol
i
shi
ng,buf
fi
ng,honi
ng,l
appi
ng,abr
asi
vebel
tgr
indi
ng,bar
relt
umbl
i
ng,
el
ect
ropl
ati
ng,
superf
ini
shi
ng,
sher
adi
zi
ng,
etc.
4.Joi
ningpr
ocesses.Thepr
ocessesusedf
orj
oini
ngmachi
necomponent
sar
eknownas
j
oini
ng pr
ocesses.The common oper
ati
ons used f
ort
his pr
ocess ar
e wel
ding,r
ivet
ing,
sol
der
ing,
braz
ing,
scr
ewf
ast
eni
ng,
pressi
ng,
sint
eri
ng,
etc.
5.Pr
ocessesef
fect
ingchangei
npr
oper
ti
es.Thesepr
ocessesar
eusedt
oimpar
tcer
tai
n
speci
fi
cpr
oper
ti
est
othemachi
necomponent
ssoast
omaket
hem sui
tabl
eforpar
ti
cul
ar
oper
ati
onsoruses.Suchpr
ocessesar
eheatt
reat
ment
,hot
-wor
king,col
d-wor
kingandshot
peeni
ng.
Ot
herconsi
der
ati
onsi
nMachi
nedesi
gn

Dr.
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

1.Wor
kshopf
aci
l
iti
es. 2.
Numberofmachi
nest
obemanuf
act
ured
3.
Costofconst
ruct
ion 4.
Assembl
i
ng

I
nter
changeabi
l
ity
Thet
ermi
nter
changeabi
l
ityi
snor
mal
l
yempl
oyedf
ort
hemasspr
oduct
ionofi
dent
ical
i
temswi
thi
nthepr
escr
ibedl
i
mit
sofsi
zes.Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshow t
hati
nor
dert
o
mai
ntai
nthesi
zesoft
hepar
twi
thi
nacl
osedegr
eeofaccur
acy
,al
otoft
imei
srequi
red.But
ev
ent
hent
her
ewi
l
lbesmal
lvar
iat
ions.I
fthev
ari
ati
onsar
ewi
thi
ncer
tai
nli
mit
s,al
lpar
tsof
equi
val
entsi
zewi
l
lbeequal
l
yfi
tforoper
ati
ngi
nmachi
nesandmechani
sms.Ther
efor
e,
cer
tai
nvar
iat
ionsar
erecogni
zedandal
l
owedi
nthesi
zesoft
hemat
ingpar
tst
ogi
vet
he
r
equi
redf
it
ti
ng.Thi
sfaci
l
itat
est
osel
ectatr
andom f
rom al
argenumberofpar
tsf
oran
assembl
yandr
esul
tsi
naconsi
der
abl
esav
ingi
nthecostofpr
oduct
ion.
I
nor
dert
ocont
rolt
hesi
zeoff
ini
shedpar
t,wi
thdueal
l
owancef
orer
ror
,forchangeabl
epar
ts
i edl
scal
l imi
tsy
stem.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatwhenanassembl
yismadeoft
wopar
ts,t
hepar
t
whi
chent
ersi
ntot
heot
her
,isknownasenv
elopedsur
face(
orshaf
tforcy
li
ndr
icalpar
t)and
t
heot
heri
nwhi
choneent
ersi edenv
scal
l elopi
ngsur
face(
orhol
eforcy
li
ndr
icalpar
t).The
t
erm shaf
tref
ersnotonl
ytot
hedi
amet
erofaci
rcul
arshaf
t,buti
tisal
sousedt
odesi
gnat
e
anyext
ernaldi
mensi
onofapar
t.Thet
erm hol
eref
ersnotonl
ytot
hedi
amet
erofaci
rcul
ar
hol
e,buti
tisal
sousedt
odesi
gnat
eanyi
nter
nal
dimensi
onofapar
t.
I
mpor
tantTer
msusedi
nLi
mitSy
stem
Thef
oll
owi
ngt
ermsusedi
nli
mitsy
stem (
ori
nter
changeabl
esy
stem)ar
eimpor
tantf
rom t
he
subj
ectpoi
ntofv
iew:

Fi
g.Li
mit
sofsi
zes.
1.Nomi
nalsi
ze.I
tis t
hesi
zeofapar
tspeci
fi
edi
n
t
hedr
awi
ngasamat
ter ofconv
eni
ence.
2.Basi
csi
ze.I
tist
he si
zeofapar
tto whi
chal
l
l
i
mit
s ofv
ari
ati
on (
i.
e. t
oler
ances)ar
e appl
i
ed t
o
ar
ri
veatf
inal
dimensi
oni
ngoft
hemat
ingpar
ts.Thenomi
nalorbasi
csi
zeofapar
tisof
tent
he

Dr.
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

same.
3.Act
ualsi
ze.I
tist
heact
ualmeasur
eddi
mensi
onoft
hepar
t.Thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
he
basi
csi
zeandt
heact
ualsi
zeshoul
dnotexceedacer
tai
nli
mit
;ot
her
wisei
twi
l
lint
erf
erewi
th
t
hei
nter
changeabi
l
ityoft
hemat
ingpar
ts.
4.Li
mit
sofsi
zes.Ther
ear
etwoext
remeper
missi
blesi
zesf
oradi
mensi
onoft
hepar
tas
showni
nFi
g.Thel
argestper
missi
blesi
zef
oradi
mensi
onoft
hepar
tiscal
l
edupperorhi
ghor
maxi
mum l
imi
t,wher
east
hesmal
l
estsi
zeoft
hepar
tisknownasl
owerormi
nimum l
imi
t.
5.Al
lowance.I
tist
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hebasi
cdi
mensi
onsoft
hemat
ingpar
ts.The
al
l
owancemaybeposi
ti
veornegat
ive.Whent
heshaf
tsi
zei
slesst
hant
hehol
esi
ze,
thent
he
al
l
owancei
sposi
ti
veandwhent
heshaf
tsi
zei
sgr
eat
ert
hant
hehol
esi
ze,
thent
heal
l
owance
i
snegat
ive.

Fi
g.Met
hodofassi
gni
ngTol
erances
6.Tol
erance.I
tist
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
heupperl
i
mitandl
owerl
i
mitofadi
mensi
on.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,i
tist
hemaxi
mum per
missi
blev
ari
ati
oni
nadi
mensi
on.Thet
oler
ancemaybe
uni
lat
eralorbi
lat
eral
.Whenal
lthet
oler
ancei
sal
l
owedononesi
deoft
henomi
nal
size,
e.g.
+0.
000

20 –0.004,theniti
ssai
dtobeuni
lat
eralsy
stem oftoler
ance.Theuni
l
ateralsystem i
smostl
y
usedini ndustr
iesasi
tper
mit
schangingthet
oleranceval
uewhilest
il
lretai
ningthesame
al
l
owanceort
ypeoff
it
.Whent
het
oler
ancei
sal
l
owedonbot
hsi
desoft
henomi
nal
siz
e,e.
g.
+0.
002

20–0.002,theni
tissaidtobebil
ater
alsyst
em oft
oler
ance.I
nthiscase+0.
002istheupper
l
imitand–0. 002isthelowerl
imit.
7.Toler ancezone.Iti
sthezonebetweenthemaximum andminimum l
i
mitsi
ze.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fi
g.Tol
eranceZone
8.Zer
oli
ne.I
tisast
rai
ghtl
i
necor
respondi
ngt
othebasi
csi
ze.Thedev
iat
ionsar
emeasur
ed
f
rom t
hisl
i
ne.Theposi
ti
veandnegat
ivedev
iat
ionsar
eshownabov
eandbel
owt
hez
erol
i
ne
r
espect
ivel
y.
9.Upperdev
iat
ion.I
tist
heal
gebr
aicdi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemaxi
mum si
zeandt
hebasi
csi
ze.
Theupperdev
iat
ionofahol
eisr
epr
esent
edbyasy
mbolES(
Ecar
tSuper
ior
)andofashaf
t,i
t
i
srepr
esent
edbyes.
Lowerdev
10. iat
ion.I
tist
heal
gebr
aicdi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemi
nimum si
zeandt
hebasi
csi
ze.
Thel
owerdev
iat
ionofahol
eisr
epr
esent
edbyasy
mbolEI(
Ecar
tInf
eri
or)andofashaf
t,i
tis
r
epr
esent
edbyei
.
Act
11. ualdev
iat
ion.I
tist
heal
gebr
aicdi
ff
erencebet
weenanact
ual
cor
respondi
ngbasi
csi
ze.
Meandev
12. iat
ion.I
tist
hear
it
hmet
ical
meanbet
weent
heupperandl
owerdev
iat
ions.
Fundament
13. aldev
iat
ion.I
tisoneoft
het
wodev
iat
ionswhi
char
econv
ent
ional
l
ychosent
o
def
inet
heposi
ti
onoft
het
oler
ancezonei
nrel
ati
ont
ozer
oli
ne,
asshowni
nFi
g.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fi
g.Fundament
aldev
iat
ion.
Fi
ts
Thedegr
eeoft
ight
nessorl
oosenessbet
weent
het
womat
ingpar
t sknownasaf
si itoft
he
par
ts.Thenat
ureoff
iti
schar
act
eri
zedbyt
hepr
esenceandsi
zeofcl
ear
anceandi
nter
fer
ence.
Thecl
ear
ancei
stheamountbywhi
cht
heact
ual
sizeoft
heshaf
tisl
esst
hant
heact
ual
sizeof
t
hemat
inghol
einanassembl
yasshowni
nFi
g.3.
5(a)
.Inot
herwor
ds,t
hecl
ear
ancei
sthe
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hesi
zesoft
hehol
eandt
heshaf
tbef
oreassembl
y.Thedi
ff
erencemust
beposi
ti
ve.
Thecl
ear
ancei
stheamountbywhi
cht
heact
ualsi
zeoft
heshaf
tisl
esst
hant
heact
ualsi
zeof
t
he

Fi
g.Ty
pesoff
it
s.
mat
inghol
einanassembl
yasshowni
nFi a)
g.( .I
not
herwor
ds,
thecl
ear
ancei
sthedi
ff
erence
bet
weent
hesi
zesoft
hehol
eandt
heshaf
tbef
oreassembl
y.Thedi
ff
erencemustbeposi
ti
ve.
Thei
nter
fer
encei
stheamountbywhi
cht
heact
ualsi
zeofashaf
tisl
argert
hant
heact
ual
f
ini
shedsi
zeoft
hemat
inghol
einanassembl
y asshowni
nFi b)
g.( .I
not
herwor
ds,t
he
I
nter
fer
encei
sthear
it
hmet
icaldi
ff
erencebet
weent
hesi
zesoft
hehol
eandt
heshaf
t,bef
ore
assembl
y.Thedi
ff
erencemustbenegat
ive.
Ty
pesofFi
ts
Accor
dingt
oIndi
anst
andar
ds,
thef
it
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hreegr
oups:
1.Cl
ear
ancef
it
.Int
hist
ypeoff
it
,thesi
zel
i
mit
sformat
ingpar
tsar
esosel
ect
edt
hat
cl
ear
ancebet
weent
hem al
way
soccur
,asshowni
nFi a)
g.( .I
tmaybenot
edt
hati
nacl
ear
ance
f
it
,thet
oler
ancezoneoft
hehol
eisent
ir
elyabov
ethet
oler
ancezoneoft
heshaf
t.I
na
Dr.
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

cl
ear
ancef
it
,thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemi
nimum si
zeoft
hehol
eandt
hemaxi
mum si
zeof
t
heshaf
tisknownasmi
nimum cl
ear
ancewher
east
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemaxi
mum si
ze
oft
hehol
eandmi
nimum si
zeoft
heshaf
ti edmaxi
scal
l mum cl
ear
anceasshowni
nFi a)
g.( .
Thecl
ear
ancef
it
smaybesl
i
def
it
,easysl
i
dingf
it
,runni
ngf
it
,sl
ackr
unni
ngf
itandl
oose
r
unni
ngf
it
.
2.I
nter
fer
encef
it
.Int
hist
ypeoff
it
,thesi
zel
i
mit
sfort
hemat
ingpar
tsar
esosel
ect
edt
hat
i
nter
fer
encebet
weent
hem al
way
soccur
,asshowni
nFi b)
g.( .I
tmaybenot
edt
hati
nan
i
nter
fer
encef
it
,thet
oler
ancezoneoft
hehol
eisent
ir
elybel
owt
het
oler
ancezoneoft
heshaf
t.
I
nani
nter
fer
encef
it
,thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemaxi
mum si
zeoft
hehol
eandt
hemi
nimum
si
zeoft
heshaf
tisknownasmi
nimum i
nter
fer
ence,wher
east
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
he
mi
nimum si
zeoft
hehol
eandt
hemax
imum si
zeoft
heshaf
ti edmaxi
scal
l mum i
nter
fer
ence,
asshowni
nFi b)
g.( .Thei
nter
fer
encef
it
smaybeshr
inkf
it
,heav
ydr
ivef
itandl
i
ghtdr
ivef
it
.
3.Tr
ansi
ti
onf
it
.Int
hist
ypeoff
it
,thesi
zel
i
mit
sfort
hemat
ingpar
tsar
esosel
ect
edt
hat
ei
theracl
ear
anceori
nter
fer
encemayoccurdependi
ngupont
heact
ualsi
zeoft
hemat
ing
par
ts,asshowni
nFi c)
g.( .I
tmaybenot
edt
hati
nat
ransi
ti
onf
it
,thet
oler
ancezonesofhol
e
andshaf
tov
erl
ap.Thet
ransi
ti
onf
it
smaybef
orcef
it
,ti
ghtf
itandpushf
it
.
Basi
sofLi
mitSy
stem
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etwobasesofl
i
mitsy
stem:
1.Hol
ebasi
ssy
stem.Whent
hehol
eiskeptasaconst i
antmember(e.whent
. hel
ower
dev
iat
ionoft
hehol
eiszer
o)anddi
ff
erentf
it
sar
eobt
ainedbyv
ary
ingt
heshaf
tsi
ze,
asshown
i
nFi a)
g.( ,
thent
hel
i
mitsy
stem i
ssai
dtobeonahol
ebasi
s.
2.Shaf
tbasi
ssy
stem.Whent
heshaf
tiskeptasaconst i
antmember(e.whent
. heupper
dev
iat
ionoft
heshaf
tiszer
o)anddi
ff
erentf
it
sar
eobt
ainedbyv
ary
ingt
hehol
esi
ze,
asshown
i
nFi
g.b)
( ,
Thent
hel
i
mitsy
stem i
ssai
dtobeonashaf
tbasi
s.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fi
g.Hol
eBasesofLi
mitSy
stem. Fi
g.Shaf
tbasesofLi
mitSy
stem
Thehol
ebasi
sandshaf
tbasi
ssy
stem mayal
sobeshownasi
nFi
g.wi
thr
espectt
othezer
o
l
i
ne.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatf
rom t
hemanuf
act
uri
ngpoi
ntofv
iew,
ahol
ebasi
ssy
stem i
sal
way
s
pr
efer
red.Thi
sisbecauset
hehol
esar
eusual
l
ypr
oducedandf
ini
shedbyst
andar
dtool
i
ngl
i
ke
dr
il
l,
reamer
s,et
c.,
whosesi
zei
snotadj
ust
abl
eeasi
l
y.Ont
heot
herhand,
thesi
zeoft
heshaf
t
(
whi
chi
stogoi
ntot
hehol
e)canbeeasi
l
yadj
ust
edandi
sobt
ainedbyt
urni
ngorgr
indi
ng
oper
ati
ons.
Load
I
tisdef
inedasanyext
ernalf
orceact
inguponamachi
nepar
t.Thef
oll
owi
ngf
ourt
ypesoft
hel
oadar
e
i
mpor
tantf
rom t
hesubj
ectpoi
ntofv
iew:
1.Deadorst
eadyl
oad.A l
oadi
ssai
dtobeadeadorst
eadyl
oad,wheni
tdoesnotchangei
n
magni
tudeordi
rect
ion.
2.Li
veorv
ari
abl
eload.
Aloadi
ssai
dtobeal
i
veorv
ari
abl
eload,
wheni
tchangescont
inual
l
y.
Dr.
RGM/V-
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

3.Suddenl
yappl
iedorshockl
oads.Al
oadi
ssai
dtobeasuddenl
yappl
i
edorshockl
oad,wheni
tis
suddenl
yappl
i
edorr
emov
ed.
4.I
mpactl
oad.Al
oadi
ssai
dtobeani
mpactl
oad,
wheni
tisappl
i
edwi
thsomei
nit
ial
vel
oci
ty

St
ress
Whensomeext
ernalsy
stem off
orcesorl
oadsact
sonabody
,thei
nter
nalf
orces(
equaland
opposi
te)ar
esetupatv
ari
oussect
ionsoft
hebody
,whi
chr
esi
stt
heext
ernalf
orces.Thi
s
i
nter
nalf
orceperuni
tar
eaatanysect
ionoft sknownasuni
hebodyi tst
ressorsi
mpl
ya
st
ress.I
tisdenot
edbyaGr
eekl
ett
ersi
gma(
σ).Mat
hemat
ical
l
y, St
r σ=P/
ess, A
eP=For
Wher ceorl
oadact
ingonabody
,and A=Cr
oss-
sect
ional
areaoft
hebody
.
I
nS.
I.uni
ts,t
hest
ressi
susual
l
yexpr
essedi
nPascal(
Pa)sucht m2.I
hat1Pa=1N/ nact
ual
pr
act
ice,
weusebi
ggeruni
tsofst
ressi
.
e.megapascal(
MPa)andgi
gapascal
(GPa)
,sucht
hat
1MPa=1×106N/
m2=1N/
mm2
And 1GPa=1×109N/
m2=1kN/
mm2
St
rai
n
Whenasy
stem off
orcesorl
oadsactonabody
,itunder
goessomedef
ormat
ion.Thi
s
def
ormat
ionperuni
tlengt
hisknownasuni
tst
rai
norsi yast
mpl rai
n.I
tisdenot
edbyaGr
eek
l
ett
erepsi
l
on(
ε).Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,
St
rai
n,ε=δl/l orδl
=ε.l
Whereδl=Changei
nlengt
hoft
hebody,and l
=Or
igi
nal
lengt
hoft
hebody
.
Tensi
leSt
ressandSt
rai
n

Fi
g.Tensi
l
est
ressandst
rai
n
Whenabodyi
ssubj
ect
edt
otwoequal
andopposi
teaxi
al sP(
pul
l alsocal
l
edt
ensi
l
eload)as
showni
n
Fi a)
g.( ,
thent
hest
ressi
nducedatanysect
ionoft sknownast
hebodyi ensi
lest
ressasshown

Dr.
RGM/V-
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

i
nFi b)
g.( .Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshowt
hatduet
othet
ensi
l
eload,t
her
ewi
l
lbeadecr
ease
i
ncr
oss-
sect
ional
areaandani
ncr
easei
nlengt
hoft
hebody
.Ther
ati
ooft
hei
ncr
easei
nlengt
h
t
otheor
igi
nal
lengt
hisknownast
ensi
l
est
rai
n.
Let P=Axi
alt
ensi
l
efor
ceact
ingont ,A =Cr
hebody oss-
sect
ional
areaoft
hebody
,

l
=Or
igi
nal
lengt
h,andδl
=Incr
easei
nlengt
h. st
ress,σt=P/A andt
ensi
l
est
r n, εt=δl/l
ai

Young'
sModul
usorModul
usofEl
ast
ici
ty
Hooke'
slaw*st
atest
hatwhenamat
eri
ali
sloadedwi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,thest
ressi
sdi
rect
ly
pr
opor
ti
onalt
ost
r n,i
ai .ewher
eEi
saconst
antofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyknownasYoung'
smodul
us
ormodul
usofel
ast
ici
ty.I
nS.
I.uni
ts,i
tisusual
l
yexpr nGPai
essedi . m2 orkN/
e.GN/ mm2.I
t
maybenot
edt
hatHooke'
slawhol
dsgoodf
ort
ensi
onaswel
lascompr
essi
on.
Thef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
eshowst
hev
aluesofmodul
usofel
ast
ici
tyorYoung'
smodul E)f
us( ort
he
mat
eri
als commonl
yused i
n engi
neer
ing pr
act
ice.Val
ues ofE f
ort
he commonl
yused
engi
neer
ingmat
eri
als.
Mat
eri
al Modul
usofel
ast
ici
ty(E)i
nGPai. m2f
e.GN/ or
2
kN/
mm
St
eel
andNi
ckel 200to220
Wr
oughti
ron 190t
o200
Casti
ron 100t
o160
Copper 90t
o110
Br
ass 80t
o90
Al
umi
nium 60t
o80
Ti
mber 10

ShearSt
ressandSt
rai
n
Whenabodyi
ssubj
ect
edt
otwoequalandopposi
tef
orcesact
ingt
angent
ial
l
yacr
osst
he
r
esi
sti
ngsect
ion,asar
esul
tofwhi
cht
hebodyt
endst
oshearof
fthesect
ion,t
hent
hest
ress
i
nducedi edshearst
scal
l ress.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fi
g.Si
ngl
eshear
ingofar
ivet
edj
oint
.
The cor
respondi
ng st
rai
nis known as shearst
rai
n and i
tis measur
ed byt
he angul
ar
def
ormat
ionaccompany
ingt
heshearst
ress.Theshearst
ressandshearst
rai
nar
edenot
edby
t
heGr
eekl
ett
erst
au(
τ)andphi
(φ)r
espect
ivel
y.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,
Shearst
ress,
τ=Tangent
ial
for
ce/Resi
sti
ngar
ea

Consi
derabodyconsi
sti
ngoft
wopl
atesconnect
edbyar
ivetasshowni
nFi a)
g.( .I
nthi
scase,
t
het
angent
ialf
orcePt
endst
oshearof
fther
ivetatonecr
oss-
sect
ionasshowni
nFi b)
g.( .I
t
maybenot
edt
hatwhent
het
angent
ialf
orcei
sresi
stedbyonecr
oss-
sect
ionoft
her
ivet(
or
whenshear
ingt
akespl
aceatonecr
oss-
sect
ionoft
her
ivet
),t
hent
her
ivet
sar
esai
dtobei
n
si
ngl
eshear
.Insuchacase,
thear
ear
esi
sti
ngt
heshearof
fther
ivet
,

Andshearst
ressont
her
ivetcr
oss-
sect
ion

Nowl
etusconsi
dert
wopl
atesconnect
edbyt
het
wocov
erpl
at t
h
esasshowniei
nFg.(
a).I
nthi
s
case,
thet
angent
ialf
orcePt
endstha
s
ost ca
os
hea
hs
e
re
a
o,
t
r
fh
o
fe
f
f
ta
t
hr
hea
err
i
vr
i
v
ee
e
ts
ti
s
a
at
t
ti
n
tgt
w he
ocrsh
ose
sa
-
sr
ect
ionsho
sa wnhowni
ss nFi
g.
(
b).I
tmaybenot
edt
hatwhent
het
angent
ial
for
cei
sresi
stedbyt
wocr
oss-e
sect
ci
t
io
on
ns
soft
her
ivet
(
orwhent
heshear
ingt
akespl
aceatTwocr
oss-
sect
ionsoft
her
ivet
),t
hent
her
ivet esai
sar d
t ndoubl
obei eshear
.Insuchacase,
thear
ear
esi
sti
ngt
heshearof
fther
ivet
,









(
Fordoubl
eshear
)
Andshearst
ressont
her
ivetcr
oss-
sect
ion.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Not
es:
1.Al
ll
apj
oint
sandsi
ngl
ecov
erbut
tjoi
ntsar
einsi
ngl
eshear
,whi
l
ethebut
tjoi
ntswi
thdoubl
e
cov
erpl
atesar
eindoubl
eshear
.
2.I
ncaseofshear
,thear
eai
nvol
vedi
spar
all
elt
otheext
ernal
for
ceappl
i
ed.
3.Whent
hehol
esar
etobepunchedordr
il
ledi
nthemet
alpl
ates,t
hent
het
ool
susedt
o
per
for
mthe
oper
ati
onsmustov
ercomet
heul
ti
mat
eshear
ingr
esi
stanceoft
hemat
eri
alt
obecut
.Ifahol
e
ofdi erd‘
amet ist
obepunchedi
namet
alpl
ateoft
hicknesst
‘,
thent
hear
eat
obeshear
ed,

Andt
hemaxi
mum shearr
esi
stanceoft
het
ool
ort
hef
orcer
equi
redt
opunchahol
e,

Wher
e τu=Ul
ti
mat
eshearst
rengt
hoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hepl
ate.

ShearModul
usorModulusofRigi
dity
I
thasbeenfoundexper
iment
all
ythatwit
hint
heel
ast
icl
i
mit
,theshearst
ressi
sdi
rect
ly
pr
opor
ti
onal
toshearst
rai
n.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y

Wher
eτ=Shearst
ress,
φ Shearst
rai
n,and
C=Const
antofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty,
knownasshearmodul
usormodul
usofr
igi
dit
y.I
tisal
so
edbyNorG.
denot
Thef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
eshowst
hev
aluesofmodul
usofr
igi
dit
y(C)f
ort
hemat
eri
alsi
nev
ery
day
use:
Val
uesofCf
ort
hecommonl
yusedmat
eri
als.

Mat
eri
al Modul
usofr
igi
dit
y(C)i
nGPai
. m2orkNmm2
e.GN/

Dr.
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

St
eel 80t
o100
Wr
ought 80t
o90
i
ronCast 40t
o50
i
ronCopper 30t
o50
Br
ass 30t
o50

Ti
mber 10

Li
nearandLat
eralSt
rai
n
Consi
deraci
rcul
arbarofdi erdandl
amet hl
engt ,
subj
ect
edt
oat
ensi
l
ef cePasshowni
or n
Fi a)
g.( .

Fi
g.Li
nearandl
ater
alst
rai
n.

Dr.
RGM/V-
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshowt
hatduet
otensi
l
efor
ce,
thel
engt
hoft
hebari
ncr
easesbyan
amountδl
andt
hedi
amet easesbyanamountδd,
erdecr asshowni
nFi b)
g.( .si
mil
arl
y,i
fthe
bari
ssubj
ect
edt
oacompr
essi
vef
orce,
thel
engt
hofbarwi
l
ldecr
easewhi
chwi
l
lbef
oll
owed
byi
ncr
easei
ndi
amet
er.
I
tist
husobv
ious,
thatev
erydi
rectst
ressi
saccompani
edbyast
rai
nini
tsowndi
rect
ionwhi
ch
sknownasl
i inearst
rai
nandanopposi
teki
ndofst
rai
ninev
erydi
rect
ion,
atr
ightangl
est
oit
,is
knownasl
ater
alst
rai
n.

4.
18Poi
sson'
sRat
io
I
thasbeenf
oundexper
iment
all
ythatwhenabodyi
sst
ressedwi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,thel
ater
al
st
rai
nbear
saconst
antr
ati
otot
hel
i
nearst
rai
n,Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,
Lat
eralSt
rai
n/Li
nearSt
rai
n=Const
ant
Thi
sconst
anti
sknownasPoi
sson'
srat
ioandi
sdenot m orµ.
edby1/

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethev
aluesofPoi
sson'
srat
iof
orsomeoft
hemat
eri
alscommonl
yusedi
n
engi
neer
ingpr
act
ice.
Val
uesofPoi
sson‘
srat
iof
orcommonl
yusedmat
eri
als
S.
No. Mater
ial Poi
sson'
srati
o(1/
m or)
1 Steel 0.
25to0.33
2 Casti
ron 0.
23t
o0.
27
3 Copper 0.
31t
o0.
34
Vol
umet
ri
cSt
rai
n 4 Br
ass 0.
32t
o0.
42
When a body i
s 5 Al 0.
32t
o0.
36 subj
ect
edt
oasy
stem
umi ni
um
off
orces,
itunder
goes 6 Concret
e 0.
08t
o0.
18 some changes i
nit
s
di
mensi
ons.I
n ot
her 7 Rubber 0.
45t
o0.
50 wor
ds,t
hev
olumeof
t
hebodyi
schanged.Ther
ati
ooft
hechangei
nvol
umet
otheor
igi
nalv
olumei
sknownas
vol
umet
ri
cst
rai
n.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,v
olumet
ri
cst
rai
n,
vV/V

eδV=Changei
Wher nvol andV=Or
ume, igi
nal
vol
ume

Not
es:1.Vol
umet
ri
cst
rai
nofar
ect
angul
arbodysubj
ect
edt
oanaxi
alf
orcei
sgi
venas

Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

2.Vol
umet
ri
cst
rai
nofar
ect
angul
arbodysubj
ect
edt
othr
eemut
ual
l
yper
pendi
cul
arf
orcesi
s
gi
venby

wher
eεx,
εyandεzar
ethest
rai
nsi
nthedi
rect
ionsx-
axi
s,y
- sandz-
axi axi
srespect
ivel
y.

Bul
kModul
us
Whenabodyi
ssubj
ect
edt
othr
eemut
ual
l
yper
pendi
cul
arst
resses,
ofequali
ntensi
ty,
thent
he
r
ati
ooft
hedi
rectst
resst
othecor
respondi
ngv
olumet
ri
cst
rai
nisknownasbul
kmodul
us.I
tis
usual
l edbyK.Mat
ydenot hemat
ical
l
y,bul
kmodul
us,

Rel
ati
onBet
weenBul
kModul
usandYoung’
sModul
us

Thebul
kmodul K)andYoung'
us( smodul E)ar
us( erel
atedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ion,

Rel
ati
onbetweenYoung’
sModulusandModul
usofRigidi
ty
TheYoung'
smodulus(E)andmodul
usofr
igi
dit
y(G)arerel
atedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ion,

Fact
orfSafety
I
tisdefi
ned,i
ngeneral,
astherati
oofthemaxi mum st
resstotheworki
ngstress.
Mathemati
cal
ly,
Factorofsaf
ety=Maxi mum st
ress/Worki
ngordesignstr
ess
I
ncaseofductil
emat er
i se.
al g.mil
dsteel
,wheretheyi
eldpoi
ntiscl
earl
ydefi
ned,thef
act
orof
saf
etyi
sbasedupont
hey
iel
dpoi
ntst
ress.I
nsuchcases,
Fact
orofsafet
y=Yieldpoi
ntst
ress/Worki
ngordesi
gnstress
I
ncaseofbr
it
tl
emateri
alse.
g.castir
on,
theyi
eldpoi
ntisnotwel
ldef
inedasforduct
il
e
mat
eri
als.Ther
efor
e,t
hef
act
orofsaf
etyf
orbr
it
tl
emat
eri
alsi
sbasedonul
ti
mat
est
ress.
Fact
orofsaf
ety=Ul
ti
mat
est
ress/Wor
kingordesi
gnst
ress
Thi
srel
ati
onmayal
sobeusedf
orduct
il
emat
eri
als.
Theabov
erel
ati
onsf
orf
act
orofsaf
ety
ar
eforst
ati
cloadi
ng.

Dr
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
St
ressesduet
oChangei
nTemper
atur
e-Ther
mal
Str
esses
Whenev
ert
her
eissomei
ncr
easeordecr
easei
nthet
emper
atur
eofabody
,itcausest
hebody
t
oexpandorcont
ract
.Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshowt
hati
fthebodyi
sal
l
owedt
oexpandor
cont
ractf
reel
y,wi
tht
her
iseorf
all
oft
het
emper
atur
e,nost
ressesar
einducedi
nthebody
.But
,
i
fthedef
ormat
ionoft
hebodyi
spr
event
ed,somest
ressesar
einducedi
nthebody
.Such
st
r eknownast
essesar her
malst
resses.
Let l
=Or
igi
nal
lengt
hoft
hebody
,t=Ri
seorf
all
oft
emper
atur
e,and
α=Coef
fi
cientoft
her
mal
expansi
on,δl
Incr
easeordecr
easei
nlengt
h,

I
ftheendsoft
hebodyar
efi
xedt
ori
gidsuppor
ts,sot
hati
tsexpansi
oni
s
pr
event
ed,
thencompr
essi
vest
rai
ninducedi
nthebody
,

Ther
mal
str
ess,

1. W
henabodyi
scomposedoft
woordi
ff
erentmat
eri
alshav
ingdi
ff
erentcoef
fi
cientoft
her
mal
ex
pansi
ons,
thenduet
other
isei
ntemper
atur
e,t
hemat
eri
alwi
thhi
ghercoef
fi
cientoft
her
mal
ex
pansi
onwi
l
lbesubj
ect
edt
ocompr
essi
vest
resswher
east
hemat
eri
alwi
thl
owcoef
fi
ci
entof
ex
pansi
onwi
l
lbesubj
ect
edt
otensi
l
est
ress.
2. W
henat
hint
yrei
sshr
unkont
oawheelofdi erD,
amet itsi
nter
naldi erdi
amet sal
i
ttl
elesst
han

t
hewheel
diamet
er.Whent
het
ypei
sheat
ed,
itsci
rcumf
erenceπdwi
l
lincr
easet
oπ
D.I
nthi
scondi
ti
on,
iti
ssl
i
ppedont
othewheel
.Wheni
tcool
s,i
twant
stor
etur
ntoi
tsor
igi
nal
ci
rcumf
erenceπd,
butt
hewheel
ifi
tisassumedt
ober
igi
d,pr
event
sitf
rom doi
ngso.
Thi
sstrai
nisknownasci
rcumf
erent
ialorhoopst
rai
n.Ther
efor
e,Ci
rcumf
erent
ialorhoop
st
ress,

I
mpactSt
ress

Dr
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Somet
imes,machi
nemember
sar
esubj
ect
edt
othel
oadwi
thi
mpact
.Thest
resspr
oducedi
n
t
hememberduet
othef
all
i
ngl sknownasi
oadi mpactst
ress.Consi
derabarcar
ryi
ngal
oad
W atahei
ghthandf
all
i
ngont
hecol
l
arpr
ovi
dedatt
hel
owerend,
asshowni
nFi
g.
LetA=Cr
oss-
sect
ional
areaoft
hebar
,
E=Young'
smodul
usoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hebar
,
l=Lengt
hoft
hebar
,
δl
=Def
ormat
ionoft
hebar
,
P=Forceatwhi
cht
hedef
lect
ionδl
is
pr
oduced,
σi=Stressi
nducedint
hebarduet
othe
appl
icati
onofimpactl
oad,
and
h=Hei
ghtt
hroughwhi
cht
hel
oadf
all
s.
Weknowt
hatener
gygai
nedbyt
hesy
stem i
nthef
orm ofst
rai
nener
gy

Andpot
ent
ial
ener
gyl
ostbyt
hewei
ght

Sincetheener
gygai
nedbyt
hesy
stem i
sequal
tot
hepot
ent
ial
ener
gyl
ostbyt
hewei
ght
,
theref
ore

Fr
om t
hisquadr
ati
cequat
ion,
wef
indt
hat

Whenh=0,
thenσi=2W/
A.Thi
smeanst
hatt
hest
ressi
nthebarwhent
hel
oadi
nappl
i
ed
suddenl
yisdoubl
eoft
hest
ressi
nducedduet
ogr
adual
l
yappl
i
edl
oad.

Resi
li
ence
Whenabodyi
sloadedwi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,itchangesi
tsdi
mensi
onsandont
her
emov
aloft
he
l
oad,i
tregai
nsi
tsor
igi
naldi
mensi
ons.Sol
ongasi
tremai
nsl
oaded,i
thasst
oredener
gyi
n

Dr
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
i
tsel
f.Onr
emov
ingt
hel
oad,t
heener
gyst
oredi
sgi
venof
fasi
nthecaseofaspr
ing.Thi
s
ener
gy,whi
chi
sabsor
bedi
nabodywhenst
rai
nedwi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,isknownasst
rai
n
ener
gy.Thest
rai
nener
gyi
sal
way
scapabl
eofdoi
ngsomewor
k.
Thest
rai
nener
gyst
oredi
nabodyduet
oext
ernall
oadi
ng,wi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,isknownas
r
esi
li
enceandt
hemaxi
mum ener
gywhi
chcanbest
oredi
nabodyupt
otheel
ast
icl
i
miti
s
edpr
cal
l oofr
esi
li
ence.Thepr
oofr
esi
l
ienceperuni
tvol
umeofamat
eri sknownasmodul
ali us
ofr
esi
li
ence.I
tisani
mpor
tantpr
oper
tyofamat
eri
alandgi
vescapaci
tyoft
hemat
eri
alt
obear
i
mpactorshocks.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,st
rai
nener
gyst
oredi
nabodyduet
otensi
l
eorcompr
essi
ve
l
oadorr
esi
l
ience,

AndModul
usofr
esi
l
ience

Wher
eσ=Tensi
l
eorcompr
essi
vest
ress,
V=Vol
umeoft
hebody
,and
E=Young'
smodul
usoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hebody
.
Whenabodyi
ssubj
ect
edt
oashearl
oad,
thenmodul
usofr
esi
l
ience(
shear
)

Wher
eτ=Shearst
ress,
and
C=Modul
usofr
igi
dit
y.
Whent
hebodyi
ssubj
ect
edt
otor
sion,
thenmodul
usofr
esi
l
ience

Theabov
eequat
i sknownast
oni orsi
onequat
ion.I
tisbasedont
hef
oll
owi
ngassumpt
ions:
1.Themat
eri
aloft
heshaf
tisuni
for
mthr
oughout
.
2.Thet
wistal
ongt
hel
engt
hoft
heshaf
tisuni
for
m.
3.Thenor
malcr
oss-
sect
ionsoft
heshaf
t,whi
chwer
epl
aneandci
rcul
arbef
oret
wist
,remai
n
pl
aneandci
rcul
araf
tert
wist
.
4.Al
ldi
amet
ersoft
henor
malcr
oss-
sect
ionwhi
chwer
est
rai
ghtbef
oret
wist
,remai
nst
rai
ght
wi
tht
hei
rmagni
tudeunchanged,
aft
ert
wist
.
Dr
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
5.Themaxi
mum shearst
ressi
nducedi
ntheshaf
tduet
othet
wist
ingmomentdoesnot
exceedi
tsel
ast
icl
i
mitv
alue.
Not
e:1.Si
ncet
het
orsi
onalshearst
ressonanycr
oss-
sect
ionnor
malt
otheaxi
sisdi
rect
ly
pr
opor
ti
onalt
othedi
stancef
rom t
hecent
reoft
heaxi
s,t
her
efor
ethet
orsi
onalshearst
ressat

adi
stancexf
rom t
hecent
reoft
heshaf
tisgi
venby

Fr
2. om equat
i i
on()
,weknowt
hat

Forasol
i
dshaf
tofdi
amet d)
er( ,
thepol
armomentofi
ner
ti
a,

Ther
efor
e,
I
ncaseofahol
l
ow shaf
twi
thext
ernaldi
amet do)andi
er( nter
naldi
amet di)
er( ,thepol
ar
momentofi
ner
ti
a,

3.Theexpr
essi C×J)i
on( edt
scal
l orsi
onalr
igi
dit
yoft
heshaf
t.
Thest
rengt
hoft
heshaf
tmeanst
hemaxi
mum t
orquet
ransmi
tt
edbyi
t.Ther
efor
e,i
nor
dert
o
desi
gnashaf
tforst
rengt
h,t
heabov
eequat
ionsar
eused.Thepowert
ransmi
tt
edbyt
heshaf
t
(
inwat
ts)i
sgi
venby

Dr
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

eT=Tor
Wher quet
ransmi
tt
edi
nN-
m,andω=Angul
arspeedi
nrad/
s.
Bendi
ngStress
I
nengineer
ingpract
ice,
themachi
nepar
tsofst
ruct
uralmember
smaybesubj
ect
edt
ost
ati
cor
dy
nami
cloadswhi
chcausebendi
ngst
ressi
nthesect
ionsbesi
desot
hert
ypesofst
resses
suchast
ensi
l
e,compr
essi
veandshear
ingst
resses.Consi
derast
rai
ghtbeam subj
ect
edt
oa
ngmomentM asshowni
bendi nFi
g.
Thef
oll
owi
ngassumpt
ionsar
eusual
l
ymadewhi
l
eder
ivi
ngt
hebendi
ngf
ormul
a.
1.Themat
eri
aloft
hebeam i
sper
fect
l i
yhomogeneous(e.oft
. hesamemat
eri
alt
hroughout
)
and
i
sot
ropi
c(i
e.ofequalel
. ast
icpr
oper
ti
esi
nal
ldi
rect
ions)
.
2.Themat
eri
aloft
hebeam obey
sHooke‘
slaw.
3.Thet
ransv
ersesect
i i
ons(e.BCorGH)whi
. chwer
epl
anebef
orebendi
ngr
emai
npl
aneaf
ter
bendi
ngal
so.
4.Eachl
ayeroft
hebeam i
sfr
eet
oex
pandorcont
ract
,independent
ly,oft
hel
ayer
,abov
eor
bel
owi
t.
5.TheYoung‘
smodul E)i
us( sthesamei
ntensi
onandcompr
essi
on.
6.Thel
oadsar
eappl
i
edi
nthepl
aneofbendi
ng.

Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshow t
hatwhenabeam i
ssubj
ect
edt
othebendi
ngmoment
,the
f
ibr
esont
heuppersi
deoft
hebeam wi
l
lbeshor
tenedduet
ocompr
essi
onandt
hoseont
he
l
owersi
dewi
l
lbeel
ongat
edduet
otensi
on.I
tmaybeseent
hatsomewher
ebet
weent
het
op
andbot
tom f
ibr
est
her
eisasur
faceatwhi
cht
hef
ibr
esar
enei
thershor
tenednorl
engt
hened.

Dr
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Suchasur
facei edneut
scal
l ralsur
face.Thei
nter
sect
ionoft
heneut
ralsur
facewi
thany
nor
malcr
oss-
sect
ionoft sknownasneut
hebeam i ralaxi
s.Thest
ressdi
str
ibut
ionofabeam
i
sshowni
nFi
g.Thebendi
ngequat
ioni
sgi
venby

eM =Bendi
Wher ngmomentact
ingatt
hegi
vensect
ion,
σ=Bendi
ngst
ress,
I=Momentofi
ner
ti
aoft
hecr
oss-
sect
ionaboutt
heneut
ral
axi
s,
y=Di
stancef
rom t
heneut
ralaxi
stot
heext
remef
ibr
e,E=Young‘
smodul
usoft
hemat
eri
alof
t andR=Radi
hebeam, usofcur
vat
ureoft
hebeam.
Fr
om t
heabov
eequat
ion,
thebendi
ngst
ressi
sgi
venby

nceEandR ar
Si econst
ant
,ther
efor
ewi
thi
nel
ast
icl
i
mit
,thest
ressatanypoi
nti
sdi
rect
ly
pr
opor
ti
onal
toy
,ie.t
. hedi
stanceoft
hepoi
ntf
rom t
heneut
ral
axi
s.
Al
sof
rom t
heabov
eequat
ion,
thebendi
ngst
ress,

Therat
ioIyi
/ sknownassecti
onmodul
usandi
sdenotedbyZ.
Notes:
1.Theneutr
alaxi
sofasect
ional
way
spassest
hroughi
tscent
roi
d.
2.I
ncaseofsy
mmet
ri
calsect
ionssuchasci
rcul
ar,squar
eorr
ect
angul
ar,t
heneut
ralaxi
s
passest
hroughi
tsgeomet
ri
calcent
reandt
hedi
stanceofext
remef
ibr
efr
om t
heneut
ralaxi
s
sy=d/2,wher
i edi
sthedi
amet
eri
ncaseofci
rcul
arsect
ionordept
hincaseofsquar
eor
r
ect
angul
arsect
ion.
3.
Incaseofunsy
mmet
ri
calsect
ionssuchasL-
sect
ionorT-
sect
ion,t
heneut
ralaxi
sdoesnot
passt
hroughi
tsgeomet
ri
calcent
re.I
nsuchcases,f
ir
stofal
lthecent
roi
doft
hesect
ioni
s
cal
cul
atedandt
hent
hedi
stanceoft
heext
remef
ibr
esf
orbot
hloweranduppersi
deoft
he
sect
ioni
sobt
ained.Outoft
heset
wov
alues,
thebi
ggerv
aluei
susedi
nbendi
ngequat
ion.
Pr
inci
palSt
ressesandPr
inci
palPl
anes
I
nthepr
evi
ouschapt
er,
wehav
edi
scussedaboutt
hedi
rectt
ensi
l
eandcompr
essi
vest
ressas
wel
lassi
mpl
eshear
.Al
sowehav
eal
way
sref
err
edt
hest
ressi
napl
anewhi
chi
satr
ight
angl
est
othel
i
neofact
ionoft
hef
orce.Buti
thasbeenobser
vedt
hatatanypoi
nti
nast
rai
ned
Dr
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
mat
eri
al,t
her
ear
ethr
eepl
anes,mut
ual
l
yper
pendi
cul
art
o eachot
herwhi
chcar
rydi
rect
st
ressesonl
yandnoshearst
ress.I
tmaybenot
edt
hatoutoft
heset
hreedi
rectst
resses,
one
wi
l
lbemaxi
mum andt
heot
herwi
l
lbemi
nimum.Theseper
pendi
cul
arpl
aneswhi
chhav
eno
shearst
r eknownaspr
essar inci
palpl
anesandt
hedi
rectst
ressesal
ongt
hesepl
anesar
e
knownaspr
inci
palst
resses.Thepl
anesonwhi
cht
hemaxi
mum shearknownaspl
anesof
maxi
mum shear
.

Themaxi
mum andmi
nimum pr
inci
pal
str
essesmaynowbeobt
ainedbysubst
it
uti
ngt
he

v
aluesofsi
n2θandcos2θi
nequat
i i
on()
.So,
Maxi
mum pr
inci
pal
(ornor
mal
)st
ress,
Andmi
nimum pr
inci
pal
(ornoral
)st
ress,

Thepl
anesofmaxi
mum shearst
ressar
eatr
ightangl
est
oeachot
herandar
eincl
i
nedat45°
t
othe pr
inci
palpl
anes.The maxi
mum shearst
ress i
s gi
ven by one-
hal
fthe al
gebr
aic

Dr
.RGM/
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UNI
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hepr
inci
palst
resses,
i.
e.

Not
es:1.whenamemberi
ssubj
ect
edt
odi
rectst
ressi
nonepl
aneaccompani
edbyasi
mpl
e
shearst
ress,
thent
hepr
inci
palst
ressesar
eobt
ainedbysubst
it
uti
ngσ2=0i
nequat
i i
on(v)
,(v)
vi
and( )
.

Not es:
1.Whenτ=0asi
nthecaseoft
hincy
li
ndr
ical
shel
lsubj
ect
edi
nint
ernal
flui
dpr
essur
e,t
hen
σtmax=σt

2.Whent
heshaf
tissubj
ect
edt
oanax
ial
l P)i
oad( naddi
ti
ont
obendi
ngandt
wist
ingmoment
s
asi
nthepr
opel
l
ershaf
tsofshi
pandshaf
tsf
ordr
ivi
ngwor
m gear
s,t
hent
hest
ressduet
oaxi
al
l
oadmustbeaddedt
othebendi
ngst
ress(
σb)
.Thi
swi
l
lgi
vet
her
esul
tantt
ensi
l
est
ressor
compr
essi
vest
ress(
σtorσc)dependi
ngupont
het
ypeofaxi
all i
oad(e.pul
. lorpush)
.

Fact
orofSaf
ety

I
tisdef
ined,
ingener
al,
ast
her
ati
ooft
hemaxi
mum st
resst
othewor
kingst
ress.

Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,
Fact
orofsaf
ety=Maxi
mum st
ress/Wor
kingordesi
gnst
ress
I
ncaseofduct
il
emat
eri
alse.
g.mi
l
dst
eel
,wher
ethey
iel
dpoi
nti
scl
ear
lydef
ined,
thef
act
orof
saf
etyi
sbasedupont
hey
iel
dpoi
ntst
ress.I
nsuchcases,
Fact
orofsaf
ety=Yi
eldpoi
ntst
ress/Wor
kingordesi
gnst
ress
I
ncaseofbr
it
tl
emat
eri
alse.
g.casti
ron,t
hey
iel
dpoi
nti
snotwel
ldef
inedasf
orduct
il
e
mat
eri
als.Ther
efor
e,t
hef
act
orofsaf
etyf
orbr
it
tl
emat
eri
alsi
sbasedonul
ti
mat
est
ress.
Fact
orofsaf
ety=Ul
ti
mat
est
ress/Wor
kingordesi
gnst
ress
Thi
srel
ati
onmayal
sobeusedf
orduct
il
emat
eri
als.
Theabov
erel
ati
onsf
orf
act
orofsaf
ety
ar
eforst
ati
cloadi
ng.

Desi
gnf
orst
rengt
handr
igi
dit
y:
Desi
gnf
orst
rengt
h:

Al
ltheconcept
sdi
scussedsof
arandt
hepr
obl
emsdonear
est
rengt
hbased,i
.
e.,t
her
e
wi
l
lbesomeper
missi
blest
ressorst
rengt
handourt
aski
stol
i
mitt
hest
ressesbel
ow t
he

Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
gi
venper
missi
blev
alueandaccor
dingl
ysi
zi
ngt
hemachi
neel
ement
.

Desi
gnf
orr
igi
dit
yorst
if
fness:
I
ttheabi
l
ityt
oresi
stdef
ormat
ionsundert
heact
ionofext
ernall
oad.Al
ongwi
thst
rengt
h,
r
igi
dit
yisal
sov
eryi
mpor
tantoper
ati
ngpr
oper
tyofmanymachi
necomponent
s.Ex:hel
i
caland
l
eafspr
ings,
elast
icel
ement
sinv
ari
ousi
nst
rument
s,shaf
ts,
bear
ings,
toot
hedandwor
m gear
s
andsoon.
I
nmanycases,t
hispar
amet
erofoper
ati
ngcapaci
typr
ovest
obemosti
mpor
tantandt
o
ensur
eitt
hedi
mensi
onsoft
hepar
thav
etobei
ncr
easedt
osuchanext
entt
hatt
heact
ual
i
nducedst
ressesbecomemuchl
owert
hatt
heal
l
owabl
eones.Ri
gidi
tyal
sonecessar
yto
ensur
ethatt
hemat
edpar
tsandt
hemachi
neasawhol
eoper
ateef
fect
ivel
y.
For
cessubj
ectt
hepar
tst
o el
ast
icdef
ormat
ions:shaf
tsar
ebentandt
wist
ed,bol
tsar
e
st
ret
chedect
.,
1.Whenashaf
tisdef
lect
ed,i
tsj
our
nal
sar
emi
sal
i
gnedi
nthebear
ingst
her
ebycausi
ngt
he
unev
enwearoft
heshel
l
s,heat
ingandsei
zur
eint
hesl
i
dingbear
ings.
2.Def
lect
ionsandangl
esoft
urnofshaf
tsatt
hepl
aceswher
egear
sar
efi
tt
edcausenon-
uni
for
mloaddi
str
ibut
ionov
ert
hel
engt
hoft
het
eet
h.
3.Wi
tht
hedef
lect
ionofani
nsuf
fi
cient
lyr
igi
dshaf
t,t
heoper
ati
ngcondi
ti
onsorant
if
ri
cti
on
bear
ingsshar
plydet
eri
orat
eift
hebear
ingscannotsel
fal
i
gni
ng.
4.Ri
gidi
tyi
spar
ti
cul
arl
yimpor
tantf
orensur
ingt
headequat
eaccur
acyofi
temspr
oducedon
machi
net
ool
s.
Ri
gidi
tyofmachi
neel
ement
sisf
oundwi
tht
hehel
poff
ormul
aef
rom t
het
heor
yofst
rengt
hof
mat
eri
als.Theact
ualdi
spl
acement
sli
kedef
lect
ions,
angl
esoft
urn,
angl
esoft
wistshoul
dnot
bemor
ethatt
heal
l
owabl
eval
ues.Themosti
mpor
tantdesi
gnmet
hodsf
ori
ncr
easi
ngt
he
r
igi
dit
yofmachi
neel
ement
sar
easf
oll
ows.
a)Thedecr
easei
nthear
msofbendi
ngandt
wist
ingf
orces.
b)Thei
ncor
por
ati
onofaddi
ti
onal
suppor
ts.
c)Theappl
i
cat
ionofcr
osssect
ionswhi
chef
fect
ivel
yresi
stt
orsi
on(
closed t
ubul
ar)and
bendi
ng(
inwhi
cht
hecr
osssect
ioni
sremov
edasf
araspossi
blef
rom t
heneut
ral
axi
s).
d)Thedecr
easeoft
hel
engt
hoft
hepar
tsi
ntensi
onandt
hei
ncr
easeoft
hei
rcr
osssect
ion
ar
ea.
Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Fr
om t
heabov
eit
‘scl
eart
hatt
hest
if
fnessofamemberdependsnotonl
yont
heshapeand
si
zeofi
tscr
osssect
ionbutal
soonel
ast
icmodul
usoft
hemat
eri
alused.
Pr
efer
redNumber
s
Whenamachineist
obemadei
nsev
eralsi
zeswi
thdi
ff
erentpower
sorcapaci
ti
es,i
tis
necessar
yto deci
dewhatcapaci
ti
eswi
l
lcov
eracer
tai
nrangeef
fi
cient
lywi
thmi
nimum
numberofsi
zes.I
thasbeenshownbyexper
iencet
hatacer
tai
nrangecanbecov
ered
ef
fi
cient
lywheni
tfol
l
owsageomet
ri
calpr
ogr
essi
onwi
thaconst
antr
ati
o.Thepr
efer
red
number
sar
etheconv
ent
ional
l
yroundedof
fval
uesder
ivedf
rom geomet
ri
cser
iesi
ncl
udi
ngt
he
i
ntegr
alpower
sof10andhav
ingascommonr
ati
ooft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:

Theser
ati
osar
eappr
oxi
mat
elyequalt
o1.
58,1.
26,1.
12and1.
06.Theser
iesofpr
efer
red
number
sar
edesi
gnat
edas*
R5,R10,R20andR40r
espect
ivel
y.Thesef
ourser
iesar
ecal
l
ed
basi
cser
ies.Theot
herser
i edder
escal
l ivedser
iesmaybeobt
ainedbysi
mpl
ymul
ti
ply
ingor
di
vi
dingt
hebasi
csi
zesby10,100,et
c.Thepr
efer
rednumber
sint
heser
iesR5ar
e1,1.
6,
2.
5,4.
0and6.
3.

Pl
ane-
Str
ainandPl
ane-
Str
ess
Whenamat
eri
alwi
thacr
acki
sloadedi
ntensi
on,
themat
eri
alsdev
eloppl
ast
icst
rai
nsast
he
y
iel
dst
ressi
sexceededi
nther
egi
onneart
hecr
ackt
ip.Mat
eri
alwi
thi
nthecr
ackt
ipst
ress
f
iel
d,si
tuat
edcl
oset
oaf
reesur
face,candef
orml
ater
all
y(i
nthez-
dir
ect
ionoft
hei
mage)
becauset
her
ecanbenost
ressesnor
malt
othef
reesur
face.Thest
ateofst
resst
endst
o
bi
axi
alandt
hemat
eri
alf
ract
uresi
nachar
act
eri
sti
cduct
il
emanner
,wi
tha45oshearl
i
pbei
ng
f
ormedateachf
reesur
face.Thi
scondi
ti
oni
scal
l
ed―pl
ane-
str
ess"andi
toccur
sinr
elat
ivel
y
t
hinbodi
eswher
ethest
resst
hrought
het
hicknesscannotv
aryappr
eci
abl
yduet
othet
hin
sect
ion.Howev
er,mat
eri
alawayf
rom t
hef
reesur
facesofar
elat
ivel
ythi
ckcomponenti
snot
f
reet
odef
orml
ater
all
yasi
tisconst
rai
nedbyt
hesur
roundi
ngmat
eri
al.Thest
ressst
ateunder
t
hesecondi
ti
onst
endst
otr
iaxi
alandt
her
eiszer
ost
rai
nper
pendi
cul
art
obot
hthest
ressaxi
s
andt
hedi
rect
ionofcr
ackpr
opagat
ionwhenamat
eri
ali
sloadedi
ntensi
on.Thi
scondi
ti
oni
s
cal
l
ed―pl
ane-
str
ain‖andi
sfoundi
nthi
ckpl
ates.Underpl
ane-
str
aincondi
ti
ons,mat
eri
als
behav
eessent
ial
l
yel
ast
icunt
ilt
hef
ract
urest
ressi
sreachedandt
henr
api
dfr
act
ureoccur
s.
Dr
.RGM/
V-SEM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Si
ncel
i
ttl
eornopl
ast
icdef
ormat
ioni
snot
ed,
thi
smodef
ract
urei
ster
medbr
it
tl
efr
act
ure.
Pl
ane-
Str
ainFr
act
ureToughnessTesti
ng
Whenper
formi
ngafract
uret
oughnesstest
,themostcommont
estspeci
menconf
igur
ati
ons
ar
ethesi
ngl
eedgenot
chbend(
SENBort
hree-
poi
ntbend)
,andt
hecompactt
ensi
on(
CT)
speci
mens.Fr
om t
heabov
edi
scussi
on,
iti
scl
eart
hatanaccur
atedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
hepl
ane-
st
rai
nfr
act
uret
oughnessr
equi
resaspeci
menwhoset
hicknessexceedssomecr
it
ical
t
hickness(
B).Test
inghasshownt
hatpl
ane-
str
aincondi
ti
onsgener
all
ypr
evai
lwhen:
Wher
e:Bi
sthemi
nimum t
hicknesst
hatpr
oducesacondi
ti
onwher
epl
ast
icst
rai
nener
gyatt
hecr
ack
t
ipi
nmi
nimal
KICi
sthef
ract
uret
oughnessoft
hemat
eri
al
syi
sthey
iel
dst
ressofmat
eri
al

Whenamat
eri
alofunknownf
ract
uret
oughnessi
stest
ed,aspeci
menoff
ullmat
eri
alsect
ion
t
hicknessi
stest
edort
hespeci
meni
ssi
zedbasedonapr
edi
cti
onoft
hef
ract
uret
oughness.I
f
t
hef
ract
uret
oughnessv
aluer
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
het
estdoesnotsat
isf
yther
equi
rementoft
he
abov
eequat
ion,t
het
estmustber
epeat
edusi
ngat
hickerspeci
men.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s
t
hicknesscal
cul
ati
on,t
estspeci
fi
cat
ionshav
esev
eralot
herr
equi
rement
sthatmustbemet
(
suchast
hesi
zeoft
heshearl
i
ps)bef
oreat
estcanbesai
dtohav
eresul
tedi
naKICv
alue.
Whenat
estf
ail
stomeett
het
hicknessandot
hert
est
requi
rement t
hat ar
e i
n pl
ace t
o
i
nsur
e pl
ane-
str
aincondi
ti
on,
thef
ract
uret
oughnessv
aluespr
oducedi
sgi
vent
hedesi
gnat
ion
KC.Somet
imesi
tisnotpossi
blet
opr
oduceaspeci
ment
hatmeet
sthet
hicknessr
equi
rement
.
Forexampl
ewhenar
elat
ivel
ythi
npl
atepr
oductwi
thhi
ght
oughnessi
sbei
ngt
est
ed,i
tmi
ght
notbepossi
blet
opr
oduceat
hickerspeci
menwi
thpl
ain-
str
aincondi
ti
onsatt
hecr
ackt
ip.

Pl
ane-
Str
essandTr
ansi
ti
onal
-St
ressSt
ates
Forcaseswher
ethepl
ast
icener
gyatt
hecr
ackt
ipi
snotnegl
i
gibl
e,ot
herf
ract
uremechani
cs
par
amet
ers,suchast
heJi
ntegr
alorR-
cur
ve,canbeusedt
ochar
act
eri
zeamat
eri
al.The
t
oughnessdat
apr
oducedbyt
heseot
hert
est
swi
l
lbedependantont
het
hicknessoft
he
pr
oductt
est
edandwi
l
lnotbeat
ruemat
eri
alpr
oper
ty.Howev
er,
plane-
str
aincondi
ti
onsdonot
exi
sti
nal
lst
ruct
uralconf
igur
ati
onsandusi
ngKIC v
aluesi
nthedesi
gnofr
elat
ivel
ythi
nar
eas
mayr
esul
tinexcessconser
vat
ism andawei
ghtorcostpenal
ty.I
ncaseswher
etheact
ual
Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
st
ressst
atei
spl
ane-
str
essor
,mor
egener
all
y,somei
nter
medi
ate-ort
ransi
ti
onal
-st
ressst
ate,
i
tismor
eappr
opr
iat
etouseJi
ntegr
alorR-
cur
vedat
a,whi
chaccountf
orsl
ow,
stabl
efr
act
ure
(
duct
il
etear
ing)r
athert
hanr
api
d(br
it
tl
e)f
ract
ure.
UsesofPl
ane-
Str
ainFr
act
ureToughness
KIC v
aluesar
eusedt
odet
ermi
net
hecr
it
icalcr
ackl
engt
hwhenagi
venst
ressi
sappl
i
edt
oa

component
.Cr
ackmaydev
elopundert
heact
ionofr
epeat
edl
oadandt
hecr
ackwi
l
lleadt
o
f
ail
ureoft
hemember
.
St
ressConcent
rat
ionduet
oHol
esandNot
ches
Consi
derapl
atewi
tht
ransv
erseel
l
ipt
icalhol
eandsubj
ect
edt
oat
ensi
l
eloadasshowni
n
Fi
g.1(
a).Weseef
rom t
hest
ress-
dist
ri
but
iont
hatt
hest
ressatt
hepoi
ntawayf
rom t
hehol
eis
pr
act
ical
l
yuni
for
m andt
hemaxi
mum st
resswi
l
lbei
nducedatt
heedgeoft
hehol
e.The
maxi
mum st
ressi
sgi
venby

Andt
het
heor
eti
cal
str
essconcent
rat
ionf
act
or,

Fi
g.2.St
ressconcent
rat
ionduet
onot
ches.

Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
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ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Thest
ressconcent
rat
ioni
nthenot
chedt
ensi
onmember
,asshowni
nFi
g.2,i
sinf
luencedby
t
hedept
haoft
henot
chandr
adi
usratt
hebot
tom oft
henot
ch.Themaxi
mum st
ress,whi
ch
appl
i
est
omember
shav
ingnot
chest
hatar
esmal
lincompar
isonwi
tht
hewi
dthoft
hepl
ate,
maybeobt
ainedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngequat
ion,

Met
hodsofReduci
ngSt
ressConcent
rat
ion
Whenev
ert
her
eisachangei
ncr
oss-
sect
ion,suchasshoul
der
s,hol
es,not
chesorkey
way
s
andwher
ether
eisani
nter
fer
encef
itbet
weenahuborbear
ingr
aceandashaf
t,t
henst
ress
concent
rat
ionr
esul
ts.Thepr
esenceofst
ressconcent
rat
ioncannotbet
otal
l
yel
i
minat
edbuti
t
mayber
educedt
osomeext
ent
.A dev
iceorconceptt
hati
susef
uli
nassi
sti
ngadesi
gn
engi
neert
ovi
sual
i
zet
hepr
esenceofst
ressconcent
rat
ionandhowi
tmaybemi
ti
gat
edi
sthat
ofst
ressf
lowl
i
nes,asshowni
nFi
g.3.Themi
ti
gat
ionofst
ressconcent
rat
ionmeanst
hatt
he

st
ressf
lowl
i
nesshal
lmai
ntai
nthei
rspaci
ngasf
araspossi
ble.

Fi
g.3stressf
lowli
nes
I
nFi
g.3(
a)weseet
hatst
ressl
i
nest endtobunchupandcutv
erycl
oset
otheshar
pre-
ent
rant
cor
ner
.
I
nor
dert
oimpr
ovet
hesi
tuat
ion,
fil
l
etsmaybepr
ovi
ded,
asshowni
nFi
g.3(
b)and

Dr
.RGM/
V-SEM/
ME8593-
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
(
c)t
ogi
vemor
eequal
l
yspacedf
lowl
i
nes.

Fi
g.r
educi
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
ncy
li
ndr
ical
member
swi
thshoul
der
s

Fi
g.Reduci
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
ncy
li
ndr
ical
member
swi
thhol
es.

Fi
g.Reduci
ngst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
ncy
li
ndr
ical
member
swi
thhol
es
Compl
etel
yRev
ersedorCy
cli
cSt
resses
Consi
derar
otat
ingbeam ofci
rcul
arcr
oss-
sect
ionandcar
ryi oadW,asshowni
ngal nFi
g1.
Thi
sloadi
nducesst
ressesi
nthebeam whi
char
ecy
cli
cinnat
ure.Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
l
showt
hatt
heupperf
ibr
esoft i
hebeam (.
e.atpoi
ntA)ar
eundercompr
essi
vest
ressandt
he
l
owerf
ibr i
es(.
e.atpoi
ntB)ar
eundert
ensi
l
est
ress.Af
terhal
far
evol
uti
on,t ntB
hepoi
occupi
est
heposi
ti ntA andt
onofpoi ntA occupi
hepoi est
heposi
ti ntB.Thust
onofpoi he
ntBi
poi snow undercompr
essi
vest
ressandt ntAundert
hepoi ensi
l
est
ress.Thespeedof
v
ari
ati
onoft
hesest
ressesdependsupont
hespeedoft
hebeam.
Fr
om abov
eweseet
hatf
oreachr
evol
uti
onoft
hebeam,
thest
ressesar
erev
ersedf
rom
compr
essi
vet
otensi
l
e.
Thest
resseswhi
chv
aryf
rom onev
alueofcompr
essi
vet
othesamev
alueoft eorv
ensi
l ice
ver
sa,
areknownascompl
etel
yrever
sedorcy
cli
cst
resses.Thest
resseswhi
chv
aryf
rom a
mi
nimum v
aluet
oamaxi
mum v
alueoft
hesamenat
ure,
(i.
e.t
ensi
l
eorcompr
essi
ve)ar
ecal
l
ed

Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
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DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
f
luct
uat
ingst
resses.Thest
resseswhi
chv
aryf
rom zer
otoacer
tai
nmaxi
mum v
aluear
ecal
l
ed
r
epeat
edst
resses.
Thest
resseswhi
chv
aryf
rom ami
nimum v
aluet
oamaxi
mum v
alueoft
he
opposi
tenat
ur i
e(.
e.f
rom acer
tai
nmi
nimum compr
essi
vet
oacer
tai
nmaxi
mum t
ensi
l
eor
f
rom ami
nimum t
ensi
l
etocompr
essi
ve)ar edal
ecal
l ter
nat
ingst
resses.

Fi
g.1.Shaf
tsubj
ect
edt
ocy
cli
cloadamaxi
mum
Fat
igueandEnduranceLi
mit
I
thasbeenf oundexperi
ment
all
ythatwhenamat
eri
ali
ssubj
ect
edt
orepeat
ed st
resses;i
t
f
ail
satst
ressesbel
owt
hey
iel
dpoi
ntst
resses.Sucht
ypeoff
ail
ureofamat
eri
ali
sknownas
f
ati
gue.Thef
ail
urei
scausedbymeansofapr
ogr
essi
vecr
ackf
ormat
ionwhi
char
eusual
l
yfi
ne
andofmi
croscopi
csi
ze.Thef
ail
uremayoccurev
enwi
thoutanypr
iori
ndi
cat
ion.Thef
ati
gue
ofmat
eri
ali
s ef
fect
ed byt
he si
ze oft
he component
,rel
ati
ve magni
tude ofst
ati
cand
f
luct
uat
ingl
oadsandt
henumberofl
oadr
ever
sal
s.

Fi
g.2.Ti
me-
str
essdi
agr
ams.
I
nor
dert
ost
udyt
heef
fectoff
ati
gueofamat
eri
al,ar
otat
ingmi
rr
orbeam met
hodi
s

Dr
.RGM/
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
used.I
nthi
smet
hod,
ast
andar
dmi
rr
orpol
i
shedspeci
men,
asshowni
nFi
g. a)
2( ,
isr
otat
edi
na
f
ati
guet
est
ingmachi
newhi
l
ethespeci
meni
sloadedi
nbendi
ng.Ast
hespeci
menr
otat
es,
the
bendi
ngst
ressatt
heupperf
ibr
esv
ari
esf
rom maxi
mum compr
essi
vet
omaxi
mum t
ensi
l
e
whi
l
ethebendi
ng st
ressatt
hel
owerf
ibr
esv
ari
esf
rom maxi
mum t
ensi
l
eto maxi
mum
compr
essi
ve.I
not
herwor
ds,
thespeci
meni
ssubj
ect
edt
oacompl
etel
yrev
ersedst
resscy
cle.
Thi
sisr
epr
esent
edbyat
ime-
str
essdi
agr
am asshowni
nFi
g. b)
2( .Ar
ecor
diskeptoft
he
numberofcy
clesr
equi
redt
opr
oducef
ail
ureatagi
venst
ress,andt
her
esul
tsar
epl
ott
edi
n
st
ress-
cycl
ecur
veasshowni
nFi
g. c)
2( .Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshow t
hati
fthest
ressi
s
keptbel
ow acer
tai
nval
ueasshownbydot
tedl
i
nei
nFi
g. c)
2( ,t
hemat
eri
alwi
l
lnotf
ail
what
evermaybet
henumberofcy
cles.Thi
sst
ress,
asr
epr
esent
edbydot
tedl
i
ne,
isknownas
endur
anceorf
ati
guel
imi
t(σe)I
tisdef
inedasmaxi
mum v
alueoft
hecompl
etel
yrev
ersed
bendi
ngst
resswhi
chapol
i
shedst
andar
dspeci
mencanwi
thst
andwi
thoutf
ail
ure,f
ori
nfi
nit
e
numberofcy
cles(
usual
l
y107cy
cles)
.
I
tmaybenot
edt
hatt
het
erm endur
ancel
i
miti
susedf
orr
ever
sedbendi
ngonl
ywhi
l
efor
ot
hert
ypesofl
oadi
ng,
thet
erm endur
ancest
rengt
hmaybeusedwhenr
efer
ri
ngt
he

f
ati
guest
rengt
hoft
hemat
eri
al.I
tmaybedef
inedast
hesaf
emaxi
mum st
resswhi
chcanbe
appl
i
edt
othemachi
nepar
twor
kingunderact
ual
condi
ti
ons.
Wehav
eseent
hatwhenamachi
nememberi
ssubj
ect
edt
oacompl
etel
yrev
ersed
st
ress,t
hemaxi
mum st
ressi
ntensi
oni
sequalt
othemaxi
mum st
ressi
ncompr
essi
onas
showni
nFi
g. b)
2( .I
nact
ualpr
act
ice,manymachi
nemember
sunder
godi
ff
erentr
angeof
st
resst
hant
hecompl
etel
yrev
ersedst
ress.Thest
ressv
ersest
imedi
agr
am f
orf
luct
uat
ing
st
resshav
ingv
aluesσminandσmaxi
sshowni
nFi
g. e)
2( .Thev
ari
abl
est
ress,
ingener
al,
maybe
consi
der
edasacombi
nat
ionofst
eady(
ormeanorav
erage)st
ressandacompl
etel
yrev
ersed
st
resscomponentσv
.Thef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ionsar
eder
ivedf
rom Fi e)
g.2( :
1.Meanorav
eragest
ress,

2.Rev
ersedst
resscomponentoral
ter
nat
ingorv
ari
abl
est
ress,

Dr
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UNI
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Forr
epeat
edl
oadi
ng,t
hest
ressv
ari
esf
rom maxi
mum t
ozer
o(i
.e.σmi
n=0)i
neachcy
cleas
showni
nFi
g. d)
2( .

3.St
ressr
ati
o,R=σmax/
σmin.Forcompl
etel
yrev
ersedst
r R=–1and
esses,
f
orr
epeat
edst
r R=0.I
esses, tmaybenot hatRcannotbegr
edt eat
ert
hanuni
ty.
4.Thef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ionbet
weenendur
ancel
i
mitandst
ressr
ati
omaybeused

Ef
fectofLoadi
ngonEndur
anceLi
mit
—LoadFact
or
Theendur
ancel
i
mi σe)ofamat
t( eri
alasdet
ermi
nedbyt
her
otat
ingbeam met
hodi
sfor
r
ever
sedbendi
ngl
oad.Ther
ear
emanymachi
nemember
swhi
char
esubj
ect
edt
oloadsot
her
t
hanr
ever
sedbendi
ngl
oads.Thust
heendur
ancel
i
mitwi
l
lal
sobedi
ff
erentf
ordi
ff
erentt
ypes
ofl
oadi
ng.Theendur
ancel
i
mitdependi
ngupont
het
ypeofl
oadi
ngmaybemodi
fi
edas
di
scussedbel
ow:
Let Kb=Loadcor
rect
ionf
act
orf
ort
her
ever
sedorr
otat
ingbendi
ngl
oad.I
tsv
aluei
susual
l
y
t
akenasuni
ty.
Ka=Loadcor
rect
ionf
act
orf
ort
her
ever
sedaxi
al l
oad.It
svaluemaybetakenas0.
8.
Ks=Loadcor
rect
ionf
act
orf
ort
her
ever
sedtor
sionalorshearl
oad.I
tsv
alue
maybet
akenas0.
55f
orduct
il
emat
eri
alsand0.
8forbr
it
tl
emat
eri
als.

Ef
fectofSur
faceFi
nishonEndur
anceLi
mit
—Sur
faceFi
nishFact
or
Whenamachi
nememberi
ssubj
ect
edt
ovar
iabl
eloads,
theendur
ancel
i
mitoft
hemat
eri
alf
or
t
hatmemberdependsupont
hesur
facecondi
ti
ons.Fi
g.showst
hev
aluesofsur
facef
ini
sh
f
act
orf
ort
hev
ari
oussur
facecondi
ti
onsandul
ti
mat
etensi
l
est
rengt
h.

Dr
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DME/
UNI
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Whent
hesur
facef
ini
shf
act
ori
sknown,
thent
heendur
ancel
i
mitf
ort
hemat
eri
aloft
he
machi
nemembermaybeobt
ainedbymul
ti
ply
ingt
heendur
ancel
i
mitandt
hesur
facef
ini
sh
f
act
or.Weseet
hatf
orami
rr
orpol
i
shedmat
eri
al,t
hesur
facef
ini
shf
act
ori
suni
ty.I
not
her
wor
ds,t
heendur
ancel
i
mitf
ormi
rr
orpol
i
shedmat
eri
ali
smaxi
mum andi
tgoesonr
educi
ng
duet
osur
facecondi
ti
on.
LetKsur=Sur
facef
ini
shact
or.Then,
Endur
ancel
i
mit
,

Ef
fectofSi
zeonEndur
anceLi
mit
—Si
zeFact
or

Al
i
ttl
econsi
der
ati
onwi
l
lshowt
hati
fthesi
zeoft
hest
andar
dspeci
menasshowni
nFi
g. a)
2(
i
sincr
eased,
thent
heendur
ancel
i
mitoft
hemat
eri
alwi
l
ldecr
ease.Thi
sisduet
othef
actt
hat
al
ongerspeci
menwi
l
lhav
emor
edef
ect
sthanasmal
l
erone.
LetKsz=Si
zef
act
or.Then,
Endur
ancel
i
mit
,

Thev
alueofsi
zef
act
ori
stakenasuni
tyf
ort
hest
andar
dspeci
menhav
ingnomi
naldi
amet
er
of7.
657mm.Whent
henomi
naldi
amet
eroft
hespeci
meni
smor
ethan7.
657mm butl
ess
Dr
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UNI
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
t
han50mm,
thev
alueofsi
zef
act
ormaybet
akenas0.
85.Whent
henomi
naldi
amet
eroft
he
speci
meni
smor
ethan50mm,
thent
hev
alueofsi
zef
act
ormaybet
akenas0.
75.

Ef
fectofMi
scel
laneousFact
orsonEndur
anceLi
mit
I
naddi
ti
ont
othesur
facef
ini
shf
act Ksur)
or( ,si
zef
act Ksz)andl
or( oadf
act
orsKb,Ka andKs,
t
her
ear
emanyot
herf
act
orssuchasr
eli
abi
l
ityf
act Kr)
or( ,temper
atur
efact Kt)
or( ,impact
f
act Ki)et
or( c.whi
chhasef
fectont
heendur
ancel
i
mitofamat
eri
al.Consi
der
ingal
lthese
f
act
ors,
theendur
ancel
i
mitmaybedet
ermi
nedbyusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngexpr
essi
ons:
Fort
1. her
ever
sedbendi
ngl
oad,
endur
ancel
i
mit
,

Fort
2. her
ever
sedaxi
all
oad,
endur
ancel
i
mit
,

Fort
3. her
ever
sedt
orsi
onal
orshearl
oad,
endur
ancel
i
mit
,

I
nsol
vi
ngpr
obl
ems,
ift
hev
alueofanyoft
heabov
efact
orsi
snotknown,
itmaybet
akenas
uni
ty.
Rel
ati
onbet
weenEndur
anceLi
mitandUl
ti
mat
eTensi
leSt
rengt
h
I
thasbeenf
oundexper
iment
all
ythatendur
ancel
i
mit(
σe)ofamat
eri
alsubj
ect
edt
ofat
igue
l
oadi
ngi
saf
unct
ionoful
ti
mat
etensi
l
est
rengt
h(σu)
.

Fact
orofSaf
etyf
orFat
igueLoadi
ng
Whenacomponenti
ssubj
ect
edt
ofat
iguel
oadi
ng,t
heendur
ancel
i
miti
sthecr
it
eri
onf
or
f
ail
ure.Ther
efor
e,t
hef
act
orofsaf
etyshoul
dbebasedonendur
ancel
i
mit
.Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,

Dr
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UNI
T–INOTES Page43
 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS

Fat
igueSt
ressConcent
rat
ionFact
or
Whenamachi
nememberi
ssubj
ect
edt
ocy
cli
corf
ati
guel
oadi
ng,t
hev
alueoff
ati
guest
ress
concent
rat
ionf
act
orshal
lbeappl
i
edi
nst
eadoft
heor
eti
calst
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
or.Si
nce
t
hedet
ermi
nat
ionoff
ati
guest
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
ori
snotaneasyt
ask,t
her
efor
efr
om
ex
per
iment
alt
est
siti
sdef
inedas
Fat
iguest
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
or,

Not
chSensi
ti
vi
ty
I
ncy
cli
cloadi
ng,
theef
fectoft
henot
chort
hef
il
leti
susual
l
ylesst
hanpr
edi
ctedbyt
heuseof
t
het
heor
eti
calf
act
orsasdi
scussedbef
ore.Thedi
ff
erencedependsupont
hest
ressgr
adi
enti
n
t
her
egi
onoft
hest
ressconcent
rat
ionandont
hehar
dnessoft
hemat
eri
al.Thet
erm not
ch
sensi
ti
vi
tyi
sappl
i
edt
othi
sbehav
iour
.Itmaybedef
inedast
hedegr
eet
owhi
cht
het
heor
eti
cal
ef
fectofst
ressconcent
rat
ioni
sact
ual
l
yreached.Thest
ressgr
adi
entdependsmai
nlyont
he
r
adi
usoft
henot
ch,hol
eorf
il
letandont
hegr
ainsi
zeoft
hemat
eri
al.Si
ncet
heext
ensi
vedat
a
f
orest
imat
ingt
henot
chsensi
ti
vi
tyf
act q)i
or( snotav
ail
abl
e,t
her
efor
ethecur
ves,
asshowni
n
Fi
g.,maybeusedf
ordet
ermi
ningt
hev
aluesofqf
ort
wost
eal
s.Whent
henot
chsensi
ti
vi
ty
f orqi
act susedi
ncy
cli
cloadi
ng,
thenf
ati
guest
ressconcent
rat
ionf
act
ormaybeobt
ainedf
rom
t
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elat
ions:

eKt=Theor
Wher eti
cal
str
essconcent
rat
ionf
act
orf
oraxi
alorbendi
ngl
oadi andKts=
ng,
Dr
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 CHENNAII
NSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY,CHENNAI–600069
DEPARTMENTOFMECHANICALENGINEERI
NG
ME8593-DESIGNOFMACHINEELEMENTS
Theor
eti
cal
str
essconcent
rat
ionf
act
orf
ort
orsi
onal
orshearl
oadi
ng.

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.RGM/
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ME8593-
DME/
UNI
T–INOTES Page45