Chapter One

Computer Organization

Computer

A computer is a high-speed electronic device, operating under the control of stored

program in its primary memory that can accept data (input), process the data
accordingly such as mathematical operations, logical operation, duplication, storage,
reporting, sharing and a lot more to produce information (output), and store the
information for later use.

The "computer" is an ensemble of different machines that you will be using to get your
job done. A computer is primarily made of the Central Processing Unit (usually referred
to as the computer), the monitor, the keyboard, and the mouse. Other pieces of
hardware are commonly referred to as peripherals.

Functionalities of a computer
• Accepts input data
• Stores data
• Process data
• Generates information

Uses of Computers

People use computers in many ways; business, computers are used to track inventories
with bar codes and scanners, check the credit status of customers, and transfer funds
electronically, homes, tiny computers embedded in the electronic circuitry of most
appliances control the indoor temperature, operate home security systems, tell the time,
and turn video cassette recorders (VCRs) on and off, automobiles regulate the flow of
fuel, thereby increasing gas mileage, they also entertain, creating digitized sound on
stereo systems or computer-animated features from a digitally encoded laser disc.
Computer programs, or applications, exist to aid every level of education, from
programs that teach simple addition or sentence construction to programs that teach
advanced calculus. Educators use computers to track grades and communicate with
students; with computer-controlled projection units, they can add graphics, sound, and
animation to their communications. Computers are used extensively in scientific
research to solve mathematical problems, investigate complicated data, or model
systems that are too costly or impractical to build, such as testing the air flow around the
next generation of aircraft. The military employs computers in sophisticated
communications to encode and unscramble messages, and to keep track of personnel
and supplies.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world.
Some of the major application areas include:

Scientific, Engineering and Research:

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are
used in areas which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather
forecasting, and complex mathematical and engineering applications. Computer Aided
Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing robotics,
automobile manufacturing, automatic process control dev ices etc.

Business:
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts
are all the areas of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent.
Database management is one of the major area where computers are used on a large
scale. The areas of application here include banking, airline reservations, etc. where
large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted, searched from large
databases.
Medicine:
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient
data like, pulse rate, blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis.
Modern day medical equipment are highly computerized today. Computers are also
widely used in medical research.

Information:
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet,
networks are all based on computers.

Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students
develop the habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving
techniques. CDs on a variety of subjects are available to impart education. On line
training programs for students are also becoming popular day by day. All the major
encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in the digital form and
therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity in drawing, painting,
designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.

Games and Entertainment:

Computer games are popular with children and adults alike.
Computers are nowadays also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports,
advertising etc.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Advantages of Computers:

Speed:
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of
instructions that it can perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are
measured in milli-seconds (10~3 sec), micro-seconds (10*6 sec), and nano-seconds
(10~9sec). Computers are superfast machines and can process millions of instructions
per second. Smaller computers can execute thousands of instructions per second, while
the more complex machines can execute millions of instructions per second.

Accuracy:
Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds
of instructions without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations.
They perform each and every calculation with the same accuracy.

Efficiency:
The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers
can perform repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without
exhausting their selves. Even if they are instructed to execute millions of instructions,
they are capable of executing them all with the same speed and efficiency without
exhaustion.

Storage Capability:
Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage
devices. These dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in
condensed forms. These storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard
disks, CDs etc., the data stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused
whenever it is required in future

Versatility:
Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing
complex mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other nonnumerical
operations fielding air-line reservation, electricity bills, data base management etc.

Limitations of Computers:
Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated they
have their own limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does not have
its own brain. It can only do what is has been programmed to do. It can execute only
those jobs that can be expressed as a finite set of instructions to achieve a specific
goal. Each of the steps has to be clearly defined. The computers do not learn from
previous experience nor can they arrive at a conclusion without going through all the
intermediate steps. However, the impact of computers on today’s society in phenomenal
and they are today an important part of the society.

Elements of Data Processing

1. Data/Information
2. Process
3. Hardware
4. Software
5. Peopleware

• Data refers to raw facts and statistics collected together for reference or analysis.
These are the quantities, characters, or symbols on which operations are performed by
a computer, being stored and transmitted in the form of electrical signals and recorded
on magnetic, optical, or mechanical recording media. Information refers to processed
data. They are genetically transmitted information. Though, information are knowledge
obtained from investigation, study, or instruction.
• A process is a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular
end. A process is a series of progressive and interdependent steps by which an end is
attained. A process is a program that is running on your computer.

Any kind of computer consists of HARDWARE and SOFTWARE.

Computer hardware refers to the physical components that constitutes a computer

system such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, monitor, Central Processing Unit (CPU),
data storage. These are tangible materials that wear out.

Input device is any piece of computer hardware equipment that provide data and control
signals for the computer to process. It translates data from electrical signals that the
computer understands to a human readable form. Most common devices are keyboard
and mouse.
Example of Input Devices:
Keyboard MIDI Keyboard Trackballs
Mouse Trackball Barcode Reader
Microphone Graphics Tablets Digital Camera
Touch Screen Web Cameras Joystick
Scanner Light Pen Gamepad
Webcam Video Capture Hardware Electronic Whiteboard
Touchpads OCR MICR (magnetic ink
character recognition)

The most commonly used keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard Generally standard
Keyboard has 104 keys.

Types of KEYBOARDS
1. Gaming Keyboard - designed for avid PC gamers, offering extra durable and the
quickest key response times for split-second action often incorporate enhanced
elements from other keyboard types, such as backlit keys and ergonomic
configurations.
2. Mechanical Keyboard - have switches under the keys.
3. Ergonomic Keyboard - refer to any keyboards designed to reduce strain on the
body from typing. These kinds of keyboards are often laid out so that you can
rest your hands in a more comfortable, natural position as you type.
 4. Multimedia Keyboard - one with media keys — additional buttons, typically along
the top, for controlling audio playback, for starting common applications (e.g. e-
mail client and Web browser) and other auxiliary functionality.
5. Hand Keyboard - idea of one-hand typing is to touch type using only one hand
(e.g. the left one), or mainly one hand.
6. Flexible Keyboard - designed for maximum portability usually made of silicon, so
you can roll them up and take them anywhere.
7. Wireless keyboard – rely on a radio frequency antenna or infrared to keep you
connected.
8. Laptop keyboard - arranged differently than a desktop keyboard to accommodate
the laptop's narrower footprint.
9. Virtual keyboard - a user operates by typing on or within a wireless- or optical-
detectable.
10. Magic Keyboard – offered by Apple Company which brings a polished look and
rechargeable battery to the table. These Bluetooth-enabled keyboards connect to
Mac computers automatically.
11. Membrane Keyboard - designed without space between the individual keys. The
keys are pressure-sensitive, with the different characters outlined on a flat
surface.

Output device is a computer hardware equipment used to generate the results of data
processing carried out by the computer which converts the electronically generated
information into readable form.
Example on OUTPUT DEVICES:
Monitor Headphones
LCD Projection Panels GPS
Printer Speech Generating Device
Computer Output Microfilm (COM) Braille Reader
Plotters Plotter
Speaker Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Projector Television

Types of MONITOR:
1. LCD - made of liquid crystals. It is the most used monitor worldwide, as it
requires less space, consumes less electricity, and produces relatively less heat
than an old CRT monitor.
2. LED - latest innovation in the market today’s market competing with LCDs and
Plasma Monitors. These types of monitors are slightly curved or flat panel
displays that use light-emitting diodes for backlighting on the screen instead of
cold cathode fluorescent (CCFL) for back-lighting.
3. OLED - made of organic material (such as carbon, plastic, wood, and polymers),
that used to convert electric current into light.
4. Plasma - made of Plasma technology is another latest type of computer monitor
technology. Display of plasma made with cells. These cells are filled with
‘electrically charged Ionized Gas‘. Such cells are called Plasma.
5. CRT - Its main part is the cathode Ray tube which is called the “Generally Picture
tube”. The above image is of the CRT monitor and was used in a few decades
ago as a desktop computer or to watching TV.

Types of PRINTER:
1. Laser - uses a laser to draw images onto a copier drum was first considered.
Laser printers are still widely used in large offices as they are traditionally more
efficient than inkjet printers.
2. Solid Ink - utilize a unique form of ink technology, designed to save space and
money on packaging. The printers melt solid ink sticks during the printing process
– a method which can help produce more vibrant tones.
3. LED - similar to laser printers but use a light emitting diode rather than a laser to
create images on the print drum or belt. Due to their fewer moving parts – LED
printers are often considered more efficient and reliable than laser printers.
4. Business Inkjet - Utilizing inkjet technology on a large scale to accommodate the
needs of a busy office with heavy reliance on printed output, inkjet printers are
enduringly popular due to their reliability and robust nature.
5. Home Inkjet - Inkjet printers are one of the most common types of printers used
in both professional and domestic settings.
6. Multifunction- known as all-in-one printers, multifunction printers are often
capable of performing printing, copying, scanning, and faxing tasks. This can
simplify the completion of multiple tasks within an office or domestic environment,
with no need for more than one unit.
7. Dot Matrix - oldest established type of printers still available on the market.
Images and text are drawn out in tiny dots when a print head strikes an ink-
soaked cloth against the paper in the required pattern or formation.
8. 3D - One of the most exciting developments in printing technology history, 3D
printing is becoming more affordable for professional and domestic users.
Modern 3D printers are capable of producing 3D objects and items using high
quality resin.