Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463

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Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Water quality assessment around a coal-fired power plant in

southern coast of Java, Indonesia
∗
Widyarani , Sudaryati Cahyaningsih, Diana Rahayuning Wulan, Tarzan Sembiring
Research Unit for Clean Technology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jl. Cisitu 21/154D, Bandung 40135, Indonesia

highlights

• Operation of coal-fired power plant in Palabuhanratu Bay influences water quality.

• TSS value increases due to the change of sedimentation pattern caused by a breakwater.
• Thermal discharge does not significantly increase seawater temperatures.
• Long term measurement is required to monitor impact of chlorine and temperature.

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Starting 2014, a coal-fired power plant has been operating in Palabuhanratu Bay, at the southern part
Received 6 June 2018 of Java Island and adjacent to the estuary of Cimandiri River. Thermal power plants in the coastal area
Received in revised form 29 November 2018 can influence seawater quality through the change of sea current patterns and thermal discharge from
Accepted 4 December 2018
the cooling systems, therefore monitoring of seawater quality is required. The monitoring was performed
Available online 10 December 2018
from December 2014 through November 2017. The total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations of sea-
Keywords: water inside and around the breakwater were 41–99 mg/l, while TSS concentrations in the estuary were
Coal-fired power plant 59–157 mg/l. The breakwater that was constructed alongside the power plant changed the sedimentation
Palabuhanratu bay pattern in Cimandiri Estuary, therefore it increased the TSS concentration compared to values measured
Water quality from 1993–2008 before the start of the power plant operation. The sampling location was the determining
TSS
factor influencing TSS concentration, while season influenced temperature variability in all locations
Thermal discharge
despite the average not changing. While chlorine was observed below the set standards, measurement of
chlorine derivative compounds may be required, especially if significant changes occur in marine life.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Previous studies showed a decrease in phytoplankton numbers

The presence of coal-fired power plants has a significant in-
fluence on the surrounding environment. These power plants are
often located in a coastal area in order to use seawater for the
cooling system. The plants use a single pass cooling system where
the seawater intake is pre-treated to remove debris and microor-
ganisms, pumped into the steam condenser, and finally discharged
back to the ocean (Raptis and Pfister, 2016). A large quantity of
thermal discharge can influence seawater temperature and marine
aquatic life (Chew et al., 2015). Water desalination processes and
domestic activities (kitchen, toilets, laundry) generate wastewater
that may affect seawater quality if not appropriately treated. Power
plants are often equipped with jetties or small harbors to facilitate
construction and fuel transport. This can result in the alteration
of sea currents and sedimentation patterns, which also influences
seawater quality.
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: widyarani@lipi.go.id (Widyarani).
and productivity due to either high temperature or chlorine from
condenser discharge, but no synergistic effect from both tempera-
ture and chlorine was observed. Higher temperatures even aided
chlorine decomposition, therefore the impact on phytoplankton
was mainly due to the residual chlorine and chlorine derivatives
(Poornima et al., 2006, 2005). However, a decrease in phytoplank-
ton productivity was observed even when the chlorine concen-
tration could not be detected (Fox and Moyer, 1975). This might
be because, with the current method of chlorine measurement,
only free chlorine was measured and not disinfection by-products
whereas some chlorine derivatives might still pose a potential
hazard to marine life (Chang et al., 2006; Palin, 1957).
A power plant in Palabuhanratu Bay, at the southern coast of
Java Island, Indonesia, started operating in 2014 and occupies an
area of approximately 83 ha. The power plant uses low-rank coal
with a heating rate of 2064 kcal/kWh. The coal is shipped two
times a day from Kalimantan, a nearby island, using tug boats
to deliver 13500–14400 metric tonnes coal per day. The power
plant is equipped with a jetty and breakwater (Fig. 1) to enable of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2018.100463
2352-4855/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463
Fig. 1. Power plant location and sampling points. (1) Breakwater-north; (2) Breakwater-inside; (3) Breakwater-south; (4) Estuary; (A) Cooling water inlet; (B) Cooling water
and wastewater outlets; (C) Cimandiri River.
coal offloading. Comparison of the sea shoreline before and after
breakwater building shows an accumulation of sediments in the
area up to 1.4 kilometers to the south of the breakwater (Perkasa,
2016).
The location of the coal-fired power plant (CPP) is next to the
estuary of Cimandiri River (Fig. 1). Cimandiri catchment area is
dominated by forests and agricultural land. A part of the catchment
area covers approximately 50,000 ha that is the location of approx-
imately 100 large industries and more than 1000 small-medium
industries, as well as residential areas with approximately one
million inhabitants (Fathiyah et al., 2017; Setiawan and Redjekin-
ingrum, 2011). Cimandiri catchment area also has a high erosion
potential (Hikmanto, 2003). These two factors greatly influence the
quality of water in the Cimandiri Estuary. Cimandiri Estuary is a
natural habitat for glass eels that are collected and cultivated by
the local inhabitants (Honda et al., 2016). Palabuhanratu Bay is also
one of the main fishing bases in the southern coast of Java.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of CPP
operation on water quality in the surrounding area. Periodic moni-
toring was performed for parameters that were expected to change
significantly: suspended solids, temperature, ammonia–nitrogen,
and residual chlorine. The monitoring results were compared to
the quality of water before the CPP operation from 2006 (own
measurement) and between 1993 and 2008 (literature data) that
are compiled in Table 1.
2. Methods
2.1. Study location and period
The study took place at the coastal area around Palabuhanratu
Coal-fired Power Plant (106◦ 32′ E, 07◦ 01′ S), on the region of Suk-
abumi Regency, Indonesia.
Water quality samplings were performed in the estuary and
the areas to the north, south, and inside of breakwater (Fig. 1).
The measurements were performed once a month from December
2014 through November 2017. On September 2006, before the
CPP operation, a measurement was performed at the location that
currently is the south of breakwater (unpublished result).
Samples were also taken from cooling water outlet and
Cimandiri River (Fig. 1). The measurement of cooling water out-
let was performed once a month from December 2014 through
1
November 2017. The measurement of river water quality was
performed every three months during the same period.
The study period was divided into the west-monsoon or wet
season (December to February), east-monsoon or dry season (June
to August), and two transition periods (March to May and Septem-
ber to November).
2.2. Sampling and analytical methods
Grab samples were drawn using a 2-liter water sampler. Water
temperature and pH were measured in situ. Samples for other anal-
yses were transferred into sample bottles. Samples for ammonia–
nitrogen (NH3 – N) analysis were acidified with sulfuric acid to pH
< 2. All samples were stored in an ice box until being transported
to the testing laboratory.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS), NH3 – N, and residual chlorine
were analyzed using the gravimetric method (Standard Method
2540 D), titrimetric method (Standard Method 4500-NH3 C), and
colorimetric method with N,N-diethyl-p-phenylamine (Standard
Method 4500-Cl G), respectively (APHA , 2005).
2.3. Calculations and data analysis
Rainfall data were obtained from the Bulletin of West Java
Monthly Rain Forecast available at
http://jabar.hidromet.sih3.bmkg.go.id/dokumen.
The concentration of the soluble NH3 gas as the fraction (f, in
%) of the total ammonia (NH3 – N) was calculated as a function of
pH and temperature (T, in K) according to the following equations
(Emerson et al., 1975):
f = 10(pH −pKa) x100%
pKa = 0.09018 + 2729.92/T
Data distribution was examined with boxplots. Before the compar-
ison of central values, normality and equality of variances were
tested with Shapiro–Wilk and Levene’s test, respectively. Statis-
tical tests including t-test, ANOVA, and Kruskal Wallis test were
used to compare values; the latter was used when the assumption
of normality was violated. The p-value less than 0.05 was regarded
as significant. The correlation was tested with linear regression.
Microsoft Excel 2016 and Jamovi version 0.9.2.8 (https://www.
jamovi.org/) were used in the calculations and data processing.
2 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463

Table 1
Water quality in the study area prior to CPP operation.
Year Month Location Parameter Reference
TSS (mg/l) Temperature (◦ C) pH NH3 – N (mg/l)
Wet season (December–February)
1993 12 Breakwater-northa 22.5 29.2 8.2 0.01 Sanusi (2004)
Estuary 328 28.8 8.0 0.03
2002 12 Estuary 498 27 8 0.45 Ameliawati (2003)
2007 12 Estuary n.a. 27 7.6 n.a.
Anwar (2008)
2008 01 Estuary n.a. 26 7.8 n.a.
02 n.a. 26 7.9 n.a.
Transition 1 (March–May)
2002 04 Estuary 8.6 29.4 6.5 n.a. Mony (2004)
05 6.4 29.4 6.5 n.a.
2005 05 Estuary 166 n.a. n.a. n.a. Desmawati (2006)
2008 03 Estuary n.a. 27 7.8 n.a. Anwar (2008)
04 n.a. 26 7.8 n.a.
Dry season (June–August)
1994 07 Breakwater-northa 19.2 27 n.a. 0.02 Sanusi (2004)
Estuary 28.2 27 n.a. 0.03
2002 06 Estuary 4.2 26.8 6 n.a. Ameliawati (2003)
08 15 27 7.5 0.16 and Mony (2004)
2002 06 Pelabuhan 5.2 – 15.9 29.5 - 30 8.0 n.a. Anindita (2002)
Perikanan
Nusantarab
Transition 2 (September–November)
2002 09 Estuary 23 28.5 7 1.39 Ameliawati (2003)
10 13 28 7 0.06
11 336 29 7 0.06
2006 09 Breakwater-southa 7.5 28 7.4 <0.005 Own measurement
2007 11 Estuary n.a. 26 7.8 n.a. Anwar (2008)

n.a. = data not available.

a
Approximate location compared to the current CPP location.
b
4 km to the north of the current CPP location.

3. Results and discussions
3.1. Total suspended solids (TSS)
Fig. 2 shows that the TSS concentrations at the north (point 1;
Fig. 1), inside (point 2), and south (point 3) of breakwater were in
the range of 41–99 mg/l. These locations had a nearly equal median,
narrow variability and symmetric distribution of TSS concentration
(Fig. 3a).
TSS concentrations in the estuary (point 4) were 3%–126%
higher than the other sampling locations, except between January–
May 2017 (Fig. 2). Fig. 3a shows a high variability of TSS concentra-
tion at the estuary compared with the other locations. Fig. 3c shows
that the yearly variation was higher than the seasonal variation
(Fig. 3b); while the upper outliers were attributed to the estuary
values. One-way ANOVA tests for TSS concentration at different
locations also show no significant differences between seasons (p
> 0.05) but significant differences between years (p < 0.01).
Before the CPP operation, TSS concentrations at the estuary
were 328–498 mg/l in the wet season and 4–28 mg/l in the dry sea-
son (Table 1). During the two transition periods, concentrations as
low as 6 mg/l and as high as 366 mg/l had been observed. After the
start of CPP operation, TSS concentrations at the estuary during the
dry season (69–157 mg/l) were higher than before CPP operation.
During the wet season, on the other hand, the TSS concentration
before CPP operation was already very high (Table 1).
Previous studies suggested that TSS concentrations in the estu-
ary were mainly influenced by the sediment from the erosion on
the water catchment area of Cimandiri River, which was estimated
to be 13 million tonnes of sediment per year (Fathiyah et al.,
2017; Hikmanto, 2003). Furthermore, the Cimandiri River flow rate
of 0.63 m/s was higher than the coastal sea current velocity of
0.1–0.2 m/s at Palabuhanratu Bay (Fathiyah et al., 2017; PT PLN
(Persero), 2010). TSS concentration at Cimandiri River fluctuated
between 120 and 204 mg/l; one-way ANOVA shows no significant
difference between seasons (p > 0.05). Linear regression between
TSS concentration at Cimandiri River and the estuary gives the
R2 value of 0.67, which suggests a correlation despite influences
of other factors. The TSS concentration was also influenced by
the presence of the breakwater that altered the pattern of sed-
iment distribution carried by Cimandiri River flow. Breakwater
presence reduced the velocity of sediment transport, accelerated
the sedimentation around the breakwater area and consequently
increased the TSS concentration.
Before the CPP operation, TSS concentrations at the south of
breakwater, north of breakwater, and the area 4 km to the north
of current CPP location were in the range of 5–22 mg/l (Table 1).
The average TSS concentrations after the start of CPP operation,
particularly at the north and south of breakwater, were higher than
the TSS concentrations before CPP operation. CPP activities that
could increase TSS concentration were leachate formation at the
coal pond, spilt coal during transport, and fly ash suspension. The
change of land cover at the CPP area might also increase the runoff
that brought debris and other particulates.
Fig. 2 shows a significant (p < 0.001) decrease of TSS concentra-
tion between the periods of December 2015–July 2016 and August
2016–November 2017 at all sampling locations; the changes in the
estuary from 119 ± 25 mg/l to 75 ± 8 mg/l were the most apparent.
The decrease might be attributed to operational changes (e.g. good
housekeeping practices), the CPP entering the stable phase after
the initial operation, or the decrease of runoff from newly grown
vegetation at the CPP area.
3.2. Temperature
Seawater is used in the CPP as a once-through cooling system.
The cooling water is drawn through the inlet located inside the
 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463 3

Fig. 2. TSS concentration in north (■), inside ( ), and south (▲) of breakwater and estuary (_).

Fig. 3. Distribution of TSS concentration based on sampling location (a), season (b), and year (c).

breakwater (point A; Fig. 1) at the flow rate of 36 m3 /s. Table 1
indicates the background temperature before CPP operation was
in the range of 26 to 29 ◦ C.
Fig. 4a shows the range of temperature was between 20 and
30 ◦ C, with a median temperature of 26 ◦ C at all sampling locations.
There were no significant differences between seasons (p > 0.05).
However, the wet season had a higher variability compared with
the other seasons (Fig. 4b). Fig. 4c shows that on average, the
temperature in 2015 was higher than in 2016 and 2017 (p < 0.001).
Fig. 5 shows the water temperatures at the condenser outlet
(point B), as well as the breakwater area and the estuary. The
estuary was the closest sampling location to the condenser outlet.
Due to the presence of breakwater, the concentration of thermal
discharge at the south of breakwater and around the estuary was
expected. On the other hand, the flow of the Cimandiri River helped
to spread the thermal discharge to areas further from the break-
water. The environmental impact assessment study estimated the
temperature increase around the estuary to be 2–6 ◦ C (PT PLN
(Persero), 2010). However, between December 2014 and Novem-
ber 2017 the observed seawater temperature at the estuary did
not increase and sometimes even lower than the temperature
before CPP operation (Table 1); the highest observed temperature
was 28.6 ◦ C (January 2016). The temperature at the estuary was
not directly correlated with the temperature of the condenser
discharge (R2 = 0.18).
The northern part of the breakwater was the farthest sampling
location from the condenser outlet and was also protected by
the breakwater. Similar to the estuary, the observed temperatures
4 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463

Fig. 4. Distribution of temperature based on sampling location (a), season (b), and year (c).

Fig. 5. The temperature of the condenser discharge (+) and seawater temperatures in north (■), inside ( ), and south (▲) of breakwater and estuary (_).

during the study period were similar or lower than the temper-
atures before CPP operation, except on January and April 2015.
The observed temperature on these two instances was 30 ◦ C, an
increase higher than the estimated increase of 0.5 ◦ C (PT PLN
(Persero), 2010). This might be due to the changes in the flow
and sedimentation patterns around the breakwater that trapped
the thermal discharge at the location between the north-end of
breakwater and the shoreline.
Between July and December 2016, condenser discharge tem-
peratures were higher than the average during the study period
(Fig. 5). This might be attributed to an operational problem at the
CPP since there was no increase observed in water temperature at
the sampling locations. Between March 2016 and February 2017,
rainfall ranged from 107 to 553 mm/month and each month was
higher than the 30-year monthly average except for November
2016 (Fig. 6). The most notable was August 2016 when the rain-
fall was 167 mm, 2.6 times higher than the monthly average for
August. The higher rainfall might explain the lower impact of
condenser discharge on the surrounding temperature.
The composition of marine life can be influenced by the increase
of seawater temperature and residual chlorine from the condenser
discharge. The increased temperature may favor species that are
more tolerant to heat and eliminate the species that are less toler-
ant. The influence of increased temperatures on marine life in the
tropical region might not be as evident as in the subtropical region;
this is because the initial temperature in the tropical region is
 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463
Fig. 6. Rainfall occurrence between March 2016 and February 2017 (■). White bars (2) indicate the average 30-years rainfall during respective months (1981–2010).
* indicates forecast data instead of actual data (BMKG, 0000).
already high enough without the contribution of thermal discharge
(Chew et al., 2015). During the study period, the temperature was
still within the range before CPP operation (Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Table 1).
3.3. Ammonia–nitrogen
Ammonia concentration as nitrogen (NH3 – N) at the estuary
and breakwater area ranged from the detection limit at 0.02 to 0.18
mg/l (Fig. 7). Dependent on the pH and temperature, ammonia can
be present in water as a soluble gas (NH3 ) or ammonium ion (NH+4 ).
The pH at all sampling locations was mildly alkaline, fluctuated
between 7.1 and 8.9 (average 7.8) except at the estuary on June
and August 2017 (pH 6.7 and 6.8, respectively). At these pH levels
and respective temperatures, 1%–18% of NH3 – N was present in
the form of soluble NH3 gas.
Comparison between NH3 – N concentration at Cimandiri River
with concentrations at the estuary and breakwater area shows
poor correlation (R2 = 0.04–0.32). However, Fig. 7 shows a pe-
riodic fluctuation of NH3 – N concentration that might result from
agricultural input from the river catchment area (upstream). The
maxima and minima occurred every three months; all sampling
locations showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the
maximum and minimum values.
The agricultural area in the catchment area of Cimandiri River
consisted of rice fields (43%) and plantations and horticultures
(57%) (Fathiyah et al., 2017). The cropping period for rice (from
seeding to harvesting) is four months with an annual pattern of
rice–rice–rice or rice–rice–maize (Redjekiningrum et al., 2010).
The cropping pattern of rice does not seem to match the NH3 –
N flux. Crops that grew in the catchment area and might have
had a three-monthly fertilizing pattern were tea and cloves (BPS-
Statistics of Sukabumi Regency, 2015).
There were no concentration maxima observed in October 2016
(Fig. 7). The rainfall during this month was 350 mm (Fig. 6), twice
higher than the 30-years monthly average and might have con-
tributed to the lower NH3 – N concentration.
3.4. Residual of chlorine
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is added to the cooling water as a
disinfectant to prevent the growth of undesirable microorganisms
on the outer wall of the condenser. Excess NaOCl that has not been
reacted is discharged through the condenser outlet.
Fig. 8 shows the residual concentration of NaOCl (as free chlo-
rine, Cl2 ) in the condenser discharge ranged from 0.1–0.5 mg/l.
Lower residual chlorine concentrations (average 0.16 mg/l) were
5
observed during 2017 dry season compared with the other pe-
riods. Low chlorine concentration might be caused by the added
chlorine dosage was too low, or indicating the low quality of the
cooling water influent that required a higher chlorine dosage. The
location of cooling water inlet (point A) was inside the breakwater,
therefore the change of water quality should also be found at the
sampling point 2. The average TSS concentration during dry season
2017 (73 mg/l) was higher than the other seasons in 2017 (56–
66 mg/l). However, one-way ANOVA shows the difference was
not significant at 0.05 level. Furthermore, no changes in other
parameters were found.
The Indonesian water quality standard for residual chlorine
in condenser discharge from thermal power plants is 0.5 mg/l
(Minister of Environment, 2009) and Fig. 8 shows the residual
chlorine concentrations met the standard. The high temperature
of condenser discharge may aid chlorine decomposition, however,
no correlation (R2 = 0.02) between condenser temperature and
residual chlorine concentration was observed. Measurement of
chlorine derivative compounds may be required, especially if sig-
nificant changes occur in marine life. The impact of the thermal
discharge on marine life occurred mainly in the area around the
condenser outlet or mixing zone (Fox and Moyer, 1975). However,
a broader impact might occur when the power plant operated for
an extended period (Chew et al., 2015).
4. Conclusions
The presence and activities of a coal-fired power plant in Pal-
abuhanratu Bay influence water quality in the surrounding area.
The most evident change is the increase of TSS concentration
due to the change of the sedimentation pattern at the Cimandiri
River Estuary. The sampling location was the determining factor
influencing TSS concentration, while a significant seasonal varia-
tion was not observed. On the other hand, the season influenced
temperature variability at all sampling locations despite the av-
erage not changing. The thermal discharge does not significantly
increase the surrounding seawater temperature, however, residual
chlorine in the thermal discharge may still influence marine life.
While chlorine was observed below the standard, measurement
of chlorine derivative compounds may be required, especially if
significant changes occur in marine life. The operation of the power
plant in the long term may result in a cumulative impact that
can only be observed after a certain period. Future measurements
should include metrics that can measure the diversity and quantity
of marine life.
6 Widyarani, S. Cahyaningsih, D.R. Wulan et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 25 (2019) 100463
Fig. 7. Ammonia–nitrogen (NH3 – N) concentration in north (■), inside ( ), and south (▲) of breakwater and estuary (_).
Fig. 8. The concentration of residual chlorine in the condenser discharge.
Acknowledgments
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The
authors are grateful to PT PLN (Persero), Java-Bali Generation Unit
for their support that enabled this study. We would like to thank
Diah Radini Noerdjito for the invaluable discussion and Robby
Wahyu Sophian for his assistance in data documentation. The
authors also would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for the
time and effort spent in reviewing the manuscript and providing
helpful and constructive comments.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found
online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2018.100463.
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‘‘An International Policy Dialogue on Advancing Water Policy Reform in Agri-
culture with Focus on Indonesia, ’’ Bogor, Indonesia.