WC

Unit - 1

Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems

Q1) Explain cellular system components?

A1) The cellular system components are listed below

i) Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): It has

exchange area network, local networks and long-haul networks that are
interconnected to other devices. Fig Cellular System Components

Ii) Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO): It has MSC in

it. It is the main center office. It has relay station for switching calls to
PSTN. Q2) Explain the directivity of antenna?

Iii) Cell site with antenna system: It is the location of radio
equipment which provides coverage within the cell. It consists of
transmitters, receivers and antennas.
Iv) Mobile subscriber unit (MSU): It consists of transceiver
which has the task of transmitting and also to receive radio transmission
to and from cell site. The mobile telephone, portable and transportable
are the types of MSUs.
A2) An antenna is a device that radiates equally in all directions. AN
isotropic radiator is a small area considered. The gain is given as
DBi= Gain compared to isotropic radiator. It has gain 1db
DBd= gain compared to half wave dipole antenna.
The antenna which is not isotropic is directive. Directivity is
D= Maximum received power/Power received if the antenna was
isotropic.

D= Pr(maximum)/Pr(isotropic)

Q3) Describe channel assignment strategies?

A3) In Cellular network, channel allocation schemes are required to Fig: Cellular
allocate bandwidth and communication channels to base stations, access Structure
points and terminal equipment.

 The objective is to achieve maximum system spectral efficiency in

bit/s/Hz/site by means of frequency reuse, but still assure a For having the
certain grade of service by avoiding co-channel communication in
interference and adjacent channel interference among nearby cellular structure,
cells or networks that share the bandwidth. we need Mobile
 The basic concept being that a given geography is divided into
station (MS). In these
polygons called cells. types of structures,
 Each cell is allocated a portion of the total frequency spectrum. As the MS
users move into a given cell, they are then permitted to utilize the communicates with the BS of cell. This is the location of MS in a BS cell.
channel allocated to that cell. The virtue of the cellular system is This BS acts as a gateway. For establishing connections, the MS needs to
that different cells can use the same channel given that the cells be in the range of the system. The figure below shows the same.
are separated by a minimum distance according to the
system propagation characteristics; otherwise, intercellular or
cochannel interference occurs.

The minimum distance necessary to reduce cochannel interference is

called the reuse distance. The reuse distance is defined as the ratio of the
distance, D, between cells that can use the same channel without causing
interference and the cell radius, R. Note that R is the distance from the
center of a cell to the outermost point of the cell in cases when the cells
are not circular.

Q4) Draw and explain cellular infrastructure?

A4) The cellular system is replaced by large number of base stations (BS) Fig: Cellular system infrastructure
which are hexagonal cells. They cover certain range of areas.

Each base station controller (BSC) consists of MS and a BS. These BSC are
then connected to the Mobile switching Centre (MSC). These MSC are
then connected to a Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN) and the Whenever there is a call it is directed to HLR where home MS is
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). registered. This is then forwarded to VLR of MSC where MS is located
currently.
A base station consists of several base transceiver stations (BTS) and a
BSC. The antenna and tower are the parts of BTS. The BTS system consists
of towers and antennas.
Q5) What is frequency reuse?
Fig:
A5)

 It is process of combining analog and digital signal to send over

shared medium.

 It divides the capacity of communication channel into multiple

channels

 Multiplexing is divided into space division, frequency division and

time division multiplexing.

Space Division Multiplexing

 In wired medium, separate point to point conductors are used to

each channel.

Generic block diagram of cell structure
The Home location register (HLR) is located at MSC. The MS is registered
there only in the home location. The visitor location register (VLR) and
HLR support mobility and helps to use one number i.e., same number
anywhere in world. The VLR has information about all MS.
 In wireless medium multiple elements of antennas are used such that
it forms phased array antenna.
 Multiple output, multiple input and single input multiple output are
the examples of this.

The authentication and encryption are provided by Authentication centre

Frequency Division Multiplexing
(AUC). The database which provides identity and information about the
mobile is equipment identity register (EIR).  In these multiple signals are send in distinct frequency in single
medium.
 The signals are electrical. Three strategies have been proposed

 Radio, television broadcasting are the examples of FDM. 1. In mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)
2. In network-controlled handoff (NCHO)
 The service provides can send several channels or signals 3. In mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)
continuously to all subscribers even the customer has single cable
connection.

1. In mobile-controlled handoff (MCHO)

Time Division Multiplexing
 In this for separation of data streams the time is used instead of
frequency and space.
 It consists of group of bits in sequence one after another.
The MS continuously monitors the signal of surrounding BSs and initiate
the handoff process when some handoff criteria are met. MCHO is used
in DECT
(Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications)

 Each sequence is associated with each receiver.

2. In network-controlled handoff (NCHO)
 Carriers sense multiple access and multidrug are the examples of
time division multiplexing. The surroundings BSs measure the signal from the MS, 7 the network
initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are met.

Q6) What is Handoff strategy?

3. In mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO)
A6) If you’re a fan of the Olympics, I am sure you have watched plenty of
track events – especially the exciting 400 and 800 meter relays. Four The network asks the MS to measure the signal from the surrounding BSs.
athletes run in each event and hand a baton off to the next athlete until the The network makes the handoff decision based on report from the MS.
race is complete. Although the handoffs are usually done without mishap. MAHO is used in GSM & IS-95 CDMA

When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in

progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only
involves identifying a new base station, but also requires that the voice
and control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base
station.
Inter-BS Handoff
In inter-BS handoff, the new & old BSs are connected to same MSC.
Assume that the need for handoff is detected by the MS therefor the
following actions are to be considered.
 1. The MS temporarily suspend conversation & initiates the handoff Fig:
procedure by signalling on free channel in new BS. Then it 120o sectoring
resumes the conversation on the old BS. As in fig below.
2. Upon receipt of the signal, the MCS transfer the encryption
information to the selected idle channel of the new BS & set up the
Q8) Explain
new conversation path to the MS through that channel.as in fig
multipath
below
fading?
3. After the MS has been transferred to the new BS, it signals the
network and resume conversation using the new channel. A8)
4. Upon receipt of the handoff completion signal the network
removes the bridge from the path and release resources  Multi path
associated with the old channel as in fig below. causes large and
rapid fluctuations
in a signal
 These fluctuations are not the same as the propagation path loss.
This handoff procedure is used with mobile controlled handoff strategy.
For network controlled handoff signalling messages are exchanged
between the MS & old BS through the falling link. The whole process is
completed as quickly as possible to ensure that new link Multipath causes three major things in wireless communication

 Rapidchanges in signal strength over a short distance or time.

Q7) How a cell is sectorized in cellular communication explain?
A7) In this the frequency reuse is increased by reducing number of cells
in cluster. The capacity is improved. The CCI is reduced by replacing
omni-directional antenna by directional antenna.
 Random frequency modulation due to Doppler Shifts on different
multipath signals.
 Time dispersion caused by multipath delays
 These are called “fading effects
Multipath propagation results in small-scale fading.

Q9) What are the types of channel assignment strategies?

A9)

There are two channel assignment strategies in cellular system.

A. Fixed channel assignment:

 1. In fixed channel assignment each cell is permanently allocated
predetermined group of channels. Any call attempt within cell can
only be served by unused channels in that particular cell.
2. If all channels are occupied, the call is blocked and subscriber
does not receive service.
3. Borrowing technique where a cell is allowed to borrow channels
from a neighbouring cell if all channels are already occupied is
always used with this type of strategy. Mobile Base station (MSC)
monitors the function of base station including borrowing
ensuring that borrowing does not interfere with any call in
progress in donor cell.
B. Dynamic channel assignment:
1. In dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not
allocated permanently.
2. Entire pool of frequency channels lies with MSC and each time a
call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel
from the MSC. Switch then allocates a channel to the requested
cell following an algorithm.
3. MSC allocates frequency channels on dynamic basis if that
frequency channel is not presently in use in the cell or any other
cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of
frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.
4. It reduces chances of blocking which increases trunking capacity
of system as all available channels are accessible to all cells.
5. In this MSC has to collect real time data on channel occupancy,
traffic distribution, radio signal strength indication of all channels
on continuous basis, thus increasing the computational load on
MSC.
Q10) Explain general model of communication link?
A10) Mobile computing is an interaction between human and computer
by which a computer is expected to be motivating during normal usage.
Mobile computing involves software, hardware and mobile
communication. Respectively, mobile software deals with the
requirements of mobile applications. Also, hardware includes the
components and devices which are needed for mobility. Communication
issues include ad-hoc and infrastructure networks, protocols,
communication properties, data encryption and concrete technologies.
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice
and video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without
having to be connected to a fixed physical link.
In the last 10 years, the rise of mobile phones as well as laptops has
dramatically, Increased the availability of mobile devices to businesses
and home users. More recently, Smaller portable devices such as PDAs
and especially embedded devices (e.g., washing Machines, sensors)
have slowly changed the way humans live and think of computers.
Mobile computing is associated with the mobility of hardware, data and
software in computer applications. The study of this new area of
computing has prompted the need to rethink carefully about the way in
which mobile network and systems are conceived. Even though mobile
and traditional distributed systems may appear to be closely related,
there area number of factors that differentiate the two, especially in terms
of type of device (fixed/mobile), network connection
(permanent/intermittent) and execution context (static/dynamic)
A cellular or mobile phone is a long range portable electronic device for
communication over long distance. Current Mobile Phones can support
many latest services such as SMS, GPRS, MMS, email, packet switching,
WAP, Bluetooth and many more. Most of the mobile phones connect to the
cellular networks and which are further connected with the PSTN (Public
switching telephone network). Besides mobile communications, there is
a wide range of mobile products available such mobile scanners, mobile A12) Satellites are used to transfer information from one place to another
printers and mobile labellers. using communication satellite on Earth’s orbit. Satellite communication
began in 1957 and the first artificial satellite launched was Sputnik I by the
Conceptually, computing can be seen as: USSR. The satellite communication can be one way as well. In this case the
USER ⇔ COMP.SYS ⇔ ENVIRONMENT transmission of signal from the transmitter of first earth satellite and the
receiver of the second earth satellite is in one direction.

In two-way communication the information is exchanged between the two

Q11) Explain the wifi wireless communication systems with its
earth stations. There are two uplinks and two downlinks required to
implementation?
achieve two ways communication.
A11)
The main elements of communication satellite are
 Wifi(also WiFi, Wi-fi or wifi), is a brand originally licensed by the
i) Uplink
Wi-Fi Alliance to describe the underlying technology of wireless
local area networks (WLAN) based on the IEEE 802.11 Ii) Transponders
specifications.
 Wi-Fi was intended to be used for mobile computing devices, such Iii) Downlink
as laptops, in LANs, but is now often used for increasingly more
applications, including Internet and VoIP phone access, gaming,
and basic connectivity of consumer electronics such as televisions The block diagram of satellite communication is shown below. A
and DVD player communication satellite is basically a R.F repeater.
 Thetypical Wi-Fi setup contains one or more Access Points (APs)
and one or more clients. An AP broadcasts its SSID (Service Set
Identifier, "Network name") via packets that are called beacons,
which are broadcast every 100 ms. The beacons are transmitted
at 1 Mbit/s, and are of relatively short duration and therefore do
not have a significant influence on performance. Since 1 Mbit/s is
the lowest rate of Wi-Fi it assures that the client who receives the
beacon can communicate at least 1 Mbit/s.

Q12) As application of cellular networks explain its application in

satellite system?
  The communication can be set up in every part of earth with the help

of satellites.
 The network is controlled by the user.
 The elasticity of these circuits is excellent

Applications

The applications of satellite communication are

 Telephone

 Television

 Digital cinema
 Radio broadcasting
 Amateur radio
Fig: Block Diagram of Satellite Communication
 Internet access

The uplink frequencies used are of range 5.9GHz-6.4GHz these  Military

frequencies are converted to lower frequencies and amplified. The  Disaster Management

mixers and local oscillators are used to convert the higher frequency
uplink signals to lower frequency signals. The com satellite receives this
signal amplifies it and then transmits it so that there is no interference in
Q13) How radio astronomy and remote sensing are implemented
the uplink and down link signals.
with the help of cellular network?
The transponders provide the medium for two-way communication. The
A13)
downlink frequency used for transmission is from the range of 3.7GHz to
4.2GHz. The number of transponders per satellite depends upon the task  CORF has a substantial interest in this proceeding, as it represents
which the satellite needs to do. For television broadcast two transponders the interests of the scientific users of the radio spectrum,
are used in a satellite. including users of the RAS and the EESS bands. Both RAS and EESS
observers perform extremely important, yet vulnerable research
d by scientists to study our universe. It was through the use of
Advantages radio astronomy that scientists discovered the first planets
outside the solar system, circling a distant pulsar. Measurements
The advantages of satellite communication are of radio spectral line emission have identified and characterized
the birth sites of stars in our own galaxy, and the complex
 They are easy to install.
 distribution and evolution of galaxies in the universe. Radio
astronomy measurements have discovered ripples in the cosmic
microwave background, generated in the early universe, which
later formed the stars and galaxies we know today.
 Observations of supernovas have allowed us to witness the creation
and distribution of heavy elements essential to the formation of
planets like Earth, and of life itself. The EESS is a critical and
unique resource for monitoring Earth’s global atmospheric and
surface state. Satellite-based microwave remote sensing
represents the only practical method of obtaining uniform-quality
atmospheric and surface data encompassing the most remote
oceans as well as densely populated areas of Earth. EESS data
have contributed substantially to the study of meteorology,
atmospheric chemistry, oceanography, and global change.
 Currently, instruments operating in the EESS bands provide regular
and reliable quantitative atmospheric, oceanic, and land
measurements to support an extensive variety of scientific,
commercial, and government (civil and military) data users.
Applications of the data include aviation forecasts, hurricane and
severe storm warning and tracking, seasonal and interannual
climate forecasts, decadal scale monitoring of climate variability,
medium-range forecasting, and studies of the ocean surface and
internal structure, as well as many others. The emissions that radio
astronomers study is extremely weak--a typical radio telescope
receives only about one-trillionth of a watt from even the strongest
cosmic source.
 Because radio astronomy receivers are designed to pick up such
remarkably weak signals, such facilities are therefore particularly
vulnerable to interference from spurious and out-of-band
emissions from licensed and unlicensed users of neighboring
bands, and those that produce harmonic emissions that fall into
the RAS bands. Similarly, the emissions received by passive EESS
radiometers in Earth orbit are weak by comparison with
emissions from other services. In addition to the gains in scientific
knowledge that result from radio astronomy and Earth sensing,
CORF notes that such research enables technological
developments that are of direct and tangible benefit to the public.
 For example, radio astronomy techniques have contributed
significantly to major advances in the following areas: --
Computerized tomography (CAT scans) as well as other
technologies for studying and creating images of tissue inside the
human body; --Abilities to forecast earthquakes by very-long-
baseline interferometric (VLBI) measurements of fault motions;
and --Use of VLBI techniques in the development of wireless
telephone geographic location technologies, which can be used
in connection with the Commission’s “E911” requirements.
 Continued development of new critical technologies enabled by
passive scientific observation of the spectrum depends on
scientists having continued access to interference-free spectrum.
More directly, the underlying science undertaken by RAS and
EESS observers cannot be performed without access to
interference-free spectrum. Loss of such access constitutes a loss
for the scientific and cultural heritage of all people, as well as for
the practical civil and military applications arising from the
information learned and the technologies developed.
Q14) Explain the working and application of Zigbee as it is the upper
layer for control and sensors?
A14) Zigbee forms the upper layer for control and sensor applications.
It is built above the IEEE 802.15.4. Zigbee can provide security and
flexibility due to its design. It has now become an open alliance. Its setup
was developed in 2002 by Zigbee Alliance.
Basic of Zigbee
As ZigBee forms the upper layer it offers services like messaging. In
security aspects and application of profile layers also this configuration
can be implemented. IEEE 802.15.4 mainly focuses on security, control
and monitoring where low levels of data are needed. The star, mesh and
cluster tree network topologies are supported by ZigBee.
The
star
networks are simple networks. In this topology the outer nodes
communicate with the centre node. The mesh topology consists of nodes
placed according to the requirements. They provide a high degree of
reliability. Here different stations are formed as relays to transmit
messages. In case of interference at one section another can be used. The
combination of mesh and star network is a cluster network.
Zigbee is designed for plow power consumption purposes. This increases
the battery life and reduces the frequent maintenance cost.
Zigbee protocol features
 They support network topologies such as star, mesh and cluster.
 The design increases the battery life.
 Low latency
 It uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 128-bit AES encryption for secure data connections
 It reduces collisions.
Application of Zigbee
Sensors, lighting controls, security and many more applications are all
candidates for the new technology. They are also implemented in fields
such as smart grid, lighting controls, high voltage AC control and in few
medical devices.
Q15) What is paging and what are its types explain?
A15) While mobile devices perform updates according to their location
update scheme, the network needs to be able to precisely determine the
current cell location of a user to be able to route an incoming call. This
requires the network to send a paging query to all cells where the mobile
device may be located, to inform it of the incoming transmission. It is
desirable to minimize the size of this paging area, to reduce the cost
incurred on the network with each successive paging message. Ideally
the paging area will be restricted to a known group of cells, such as with
the currently implemented location area scheme. An optimum paging
area size calculation involves a trade-off between location update cost
and paging cost. This technique is used in many location- management Q16) Explain the block diagram of cordless system?
schemes to reduce the location management costs incurred. The most
commonly used paging schemes are summarized below. These have A16)
seen extensive use in real world telecommunications networks.

Simultaneous Paging

The simultaneous paging scheme, also known as blanket paging, is the

mechanism used in current GSM network implementations. Here all cells
in the users’ location area are paged simultaneously, to determine the
location of the mobile device. This requires no additional knowledge of
user location but may generate excessive amounts of paging traffic.
Implementations of simultaneous paging favour networks with large cells
and low user population and call rates. This scheme does not scale well
to large networks with high numbers of users, necessitating the
development of more advanced paging techniques.

Fig: Block Diagram of Cordless System

Sequential Paging
Sequential paging avoids paging every cell within a location area by
segmenting it into a number of paging areas, to be polled one-by-one. It
is found in that the optimal paging mechanism, in terms of network
utilization, is a sequential poll of every cell in the location area
individually, in decreasing probability of user residence. The individual
delays incurred in this scheme may be unacceptable however, and hence
it is suggested that paging areas are formed from a larger number of cells.
The number of cells per paging area is a factor which needs to be
optimized and may lead to excessive call delays, particularly in large
networks. The order by which each area is paged is central to the
performance of the sequential paging
 Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems
that use radio to connect a portable handset to a dedicated base
station, which is then connected to a dedicated telephone line
with a specific telephone number on the public switched
telephone network.
 First generation cordless telephone systems in the 1980s had the
portable unit communicating only to the dedicated base unit and
only over distances of a few tens of meters. Early cordless
telephones operated solely as extension telephones to a
transceiver connected to a subscriber line on the PSTN and were
primarily for in-home use. Second generation cordless
telephones allow subscribers to use their handsets at outdoor
locations within urban centers.
  Modern cordless telephones are sometimes combined with paging
receivers so that a subscriber may first be paged and then
respond to the page using the cordless telephone.
 Cordless telephone systems provide the user with limited range
and mobility as it is usually not possible to maintain a call if the
user travels outside the range of the base station.
 Typical second-generation base stations provide a coverage of up
to a few hundreds of meters.
 Basically,all first generation systems use the transport architecture
A typical example of a cellular telephone system is the Advance
Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) system used in the United States.
In 1971, Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murry Hill, New Jersey,
proposed the cellular telephone concept as the Advanced Mobile
Telephone System (AMPS). AMPS is a standard cellular telephone
service (CTS) initially placed into operation on October 13, 1983,
by Illinois Bell that incorporated several large cell areas to cover
approximately 2100squaremilesin the Chicago area.
shown in the figure

Q17) Explain the application and block diagram of first generation

cellular system?

A17) First-generation analog cellular telephone

 First generation cellular and cordless telephone networks are

based on analog circuit switching technology. The first 1Gmobile
phone was introduced in the USA in 1980. FDMA was the multiple
access technique used and worked mainly in the 800-900 MHz
Fig: Architecture
frequency bands. The 1Gmobile phone had only voice facility.
 Examples of 1G systems are AMPS (Advanced mobile phone
service) and TACS (total access communication systems)
 The limitations of 1 Gare:
 Supports Speech only

 Low traffic capacity

 Unreliable handover

 Long call setup time

 Frequent call drops

 Inefficient
bandwidth usage
 Poor battery life

 Poor voice quality

 Large size of handset

 Allowed users to make voice calls within a country only
 signalling channels for exchange of location, validation and call
signalling information. First generation wireless systems provide analog
speech and inefficient low-rate data transmission between the base
station and the mobile user. The speech signals are usually digitized
using a standard TDM format for transmission between the base station
and the MSC and are always digitized for distribution from the MSC to the
PSTN.

Q18) What are second generation cellular systems. Explain the

advancements it has compared to first generation?

A18) Second-generation wireless telephone networks

 First-generation cellular telephone systems were designed

primarily for a limited customer base, such as business customers
and a limited number of affluent residential customers. The
problems inherent with these cellular telephones were poor
battery performance and channel unavailability. Improved
batteries were also needed to reduce the size and cost of mobile
units, especially those that were designed to be handheld. Weak
signal strengths resulted in poor performance and ahigh rate of
falsely initiated handoffs (false handoffs).
 It was determined that improved battery performance and higher
Fig: Block Diagram of First-Generation Cellular System signal quality were possible only by employing digital
technologies.
The block diagram of a first-generation cellular telephone network is
 In the United States, the shortcomings of the first-generation cellular
shown in the figure. The system control for each market resides in the
systems led to the development of several second-generation
MSC which maintains all mobile related information and controls each
cellular telephone systems, such as narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)
mobile handoff. The MSC also performs the functions of network
and systems employing the IS-54, IS-136, and IS-95 standards.
management, call handling and processing, billing and fraud detection
 A second-generation standard, known as Global System for Mobile
within the market.
Communications (GSM), emerged in Europe. The U.S Standards
The MSC is interconnected with the PSTN via the landline trunked lines of TDMA and CDMA also belong to this generation.
and a tandem switch. MSCs are connected with other MSCs via dedicated
 Other second-generation wireless standard includes, the British
Cordless telephone standard CT2, Personal access
Communication System (PACS) and the European standard for
cordless and office telephony Digital European Cordless
telephone (DECT).
 2 G technology supports data, speech, fax, SMS and WAP services.
 The architecture employed in second generation networks have
reduced the computational burden on the MSC.
 GSM for example uses a base station controller (BSC) which allowed
the data interface between the BSC and MSC to be standardized.
This allows carriers to use different manufacturers for MSC and
BSC components.
 All
Second-generation systems use digital voice coding and digital
modulation. The systems employ dedicated control channels
within the air interface for simultaneously exchanging voice and
control information between the subscriber, the base station and
the MSC while the call is in progress.
 Second generation networks also provide dedicated voice and
signaling trunks between MSCs and between each MSC and the
PSTN.
 The first-generation systems were designed primarily for voice
whereas the second-generation systems are specifically
designed to provide paging, Fax and high data rate internet
access.
 The network controlling structure is more distributed in second
generation networks since mobile stations assume greater control
functions.
 Thehandoff process is more mobile controlled and is known as
Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO). The mobile units perform
additional functions of received power reporting, adjacent base
station scanning, data encoding and encryption.
 DECT (Digital European Cordless telephone) is an example of a
second-generation cordless standard. It allows each cordless
phone to communicate with any number of base stations. The base
station with the greatest signal level is selected. The base stations
have greater control in terms of switching, signaling and
controlling handoffs.
 Ingeneral, second generation systems have been designed to
reduce the computational and switching burden at the base
station or MSC. They also provide more flexibility in the channel
allocation scheme so that systems may be deployed rapidly and
in a less coordinated manner.
 The limitations of 2Gare
 Low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 28.8kbps
 Circuit switched network
 End systems are dedicated for the entire call duration
 Inefficient usage of bandwidth and resources
Q19) Explain the third and fourth generation wireless telephone
networks?
A19) Third-generation wireless telephone networks
 Theaim of third generation wireless networks is to provide a single
set of standards that can meet a wide range of wireless
applications and provide universal access throughout the world.
 In 3 G networks the distinctions between cordless telephones and
cellular telephones disappear and a universal personal
communicator or personal handset provides access to a variety of
voice, data and video communication services.
 3rd generation systems use the Broadband ISDN to provide access
to information networks such as the internet and other private and
public databases.
 3 G networks carry all types of information like voice, data and
video.
 Theyoperate in densely populated and sparsely populated areas.
  They serve both stationary users and vehicular users travelling at 4 G allows for video conferencing, streaming picture-perfect video
high speeds. for telemetric applications
 Packet radio communication is used in the 3 G networks  OFDMA multi-carrier transmission methods, frequency-domain
 Personal communication System (PCS), International Mobile equalization (FDE) methods, MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Telecommunication (IMT-2000) and Universal Mobile Output) and Turbo Code techniques are used in 4 G networks.
telecommunication System (UMTS) are examples of 3G wireless  Peak data rates for 4G networks must be close to 100 megabit per

networks. UMTS is also known as W-CDMA (Wideband CDMA)
Fourth-generation wireless telephone networks
 4th-generation networks emerged as a data-optimized technology
with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over
existing 3G technologies.
 It is basically the extension in the 3G technology with more
bandwidth and services offers in the 3G.
 The expectation for the 4G technology is basically the high-quality
audio/video streaming over end to end Internet Protocol. The
transmission rates of 4G will be up to 20Mbps higher than that
of3G.
Q20) Compare various wireless systems?
 The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were
second for a user on a highly mobile network and 1 gigabit per
second for a user with local wireless access or a nomadic
connection.
 True 4G must also be able to offer smooth hand overs across
differing networks without data loss and provide high quality of
service for next-gen media.
 One of the most important aspects of 4G technology is the
elimination of parallel circuit-switched and packet-switched
network nodes using Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). The
currently used standard, IPv4, has a finite limitation on the
number of IP addresses that can be assigned to devices

the WiMAX standard and the LTE standard. LTE – Advanced is the A20)
newest version of LTE.
 One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G
Servic Covera Requir Complex Hardw Carrier Functiona
was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an
e ge ed ity are cost Frequen lity
all-IP network. 4G utilizes packet switching over internet, LAN or
cy
WAN networks via VoIP. Range Infra-
 4G technology is meant to provide what is known as “ultra- structu
broadband” access for mobile devices. It is set to deliver 100 re
Mbps to a roaming mobile device and up to 1 Gbps to a stationary
TV Low Low Low Low Infra-red Transmitte
device.
Remot r
 4G will bring the perfect real-world wireless inter networking
e
called World Wide Wireless Web.
control
 Federal Communications Commission (FCC), PCS is the system by which
Garag Low Low Low Low <100 Transmitte
every user can exchange information with everyone, at anytime, in any
e Door MHz r
place, through any type of services, using a single personal
opene
telecommunication number (PTN). Key factors of PCS are:
r
1. Reachability with respect to Location (Home, office, in public, in transit)
Paging High High Low Low <1 GHz Receiver
system 1. Accessibility with respect to Device (Cellular phone, wired phone, fax
etc.)
Cordle Low Low Moderate Low <100 Transceive
ss MHz r 2. Management of Service.
phone
Architecture consists of two parts Radio Network PCS users carry mobile
Cellul High High High Modera 1< GHz Transceive stations (MS) to communicate with a BS in a PCS n/w. MS is also referred
ar te r to as handset or mobile phone. The radio coverage of a base station is
phone called cell. In GSM n/w each cell is controlled by BSC which are
connected to MS through BS. The BSCs are connected to MSC by
WC
landlines.

Unit - 2 Wireline Transport Network

Introduction to Personal Communication Services (PCS)
Q1) Draw and explain the PCS Network Architecture. Also explain
their objective?
A1) PCS stands for Personal Communication System. The objective of PCS
is to enable communication with a person at any time, at any place & in
any form. It also manages their individual call services according to their
service by providing unlimited reachability & accessibility. Sprint was the
first company to set up a PCS network, which was a GSM-1900 network in
the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area in the USA. PCS promises to
provide a wide range of locations and equipment-independent services
to a large number of users. According to the definition given by the US
An MSC is a telephone exchange configured specially for mobile
applications. It interfaces the MSC (via BS) with PSTN. MSCs are also
connected with mobility database to track the location of MS and roaming
management. The databases are HLR & VLR. HLR contains the
authentication information like IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity), identification information like name, address of the subscriber,
billing information like prepaid or post-paid, operator selection, denial
of service to a subscriber etc. VLR gives information about the location
area of the subscriber while on roaming and power off status of the
handset.
 Fig 2 Inter-BS link Transfer

Inter-System Handoff/Inter-MSC Handoff

MS moves from one BS to another connected to two different MSCs. Action

Fig 1 PCS Network Architecture taken for communication:

1. MSC1 requests MSC2 to perform handoff measurement on the call in

progress.
Q2) What is inter BS hands-off and inter MSC hands-off?
2. MSC2 then selects a BS by interrogating the signal quality and sends
A2) Inter-BS Handoff/ Inter Cell Handoff: Here MS usually moves from the information to MSC1.
one BS to another BS under one MSC. Action taken for communication:
3. Then MSC1 asks MSC2 to setup a voice channel.
1. The MS momentarily suspends conversation & initiates the hand-off
4. Assuming that a voice channel is available in BS2.MSC2 instructs MSC1
procedure by picking a channel in new BS. Then is resumes the
to start radio link transfer. 5. MSC1 sends the MS a handoff order. Now MS
conversation in old BS.
can access BS2 of MSC2.MSC2 informs MSC1 that handoff is
2. When MSC receives that signal, he transfers the information to the new successful.MSC1 then connects call path to MSC2.
BS & sets up new conversation path to MS through that channel.
6. In the intersystem handoff process, anchor MSC is always in call path
3. After MS has been transferred to new BS, it starts the conversation before & after handoff.
channel with new BS & then MSC disconnect the link with old BS.
 Registration Procedure includes following steps:

1. When mobile user enters into new PCS n/w, it must register in VLR of
new system.

2. The new VLR informs mobile user's HLR regarding the current location
& address of user. The HLR sends an acknowledgement which includes
MS's profile, to the new VLR.

3. New VLR informs MS about successful registration.

Fig 3 Inter system handoff
4. HLR sends a deregistration message to cancel the location record of MS
in old VLR. The old VLR acknowledges the deregistration.

Q3) Explain the registration process carried out in PCS systems?

A3) When a mobile user moves from one PCS system to another, then the
system should be informed of the current location of the user. Otherwise,
it is impossible to deliver services. Two basic operations are performed
under roaming management.

1. Registration (location update): Where MS informs the system its current

location.

2. Location tracking: Process during which a system locates MS. Location

tracking is required when n/w attempts to deliver call to a mobile user. Fig 4 MS Registration Process
The roaming management follows a two-level strategy where two tier
systems of home and visited databases are used. When a user subscribes
to the services of a network, a record is created in the system’s database
To originate a call, MS first contacts with MSC in the new PCS n/w. The
called HLR. This is referred to as home system of the mobile user. HLR is
call request is forwarded to VLR for approval. If it is approved, MSC sets
a n/w database, where MS's identity, profile, current location & validation
up the call to the user following the standard PSTN procedures.
period is stored. When the mobile user visits a new network other than
home system, a temporary record for the mobile user is created in the 1. If a wireline phone attempts to call a mobile subscriber, the call is
VLR of visited system. VLR temporarily stores information for visiting forwarded to switch called the originating switch in PSTN. The switch
subscribers so that corresponding MSC can provide service.
masses a query to HLR to find current VLR of MS. The HLR queries the VLR
in which MS resides to get a communicable address.
Path Minimization- When MS moves to MSC3, MSC2 may be removed
2. The VLR returns the address to switch through HLR. from the call path. The link between MSC1 and MSC2 is disconnected and
MS connects to MSC3 directly. This process is called path minimization.
3. Based on address, a communication link is established between MS
through visited MSC.

Fig 5 Call Delivery Procedure

Q4) What is path minimisation? Draw and explain with help of

diagram?

A4) Mobility management function handles the function that arises due to
mobility of the subscriber. Main objective of MM is location tracking &
call set up. There are two aspects of mobility in a PCS n/w.

HANDOFF:
When a mobile user is engaged in conversation, the MS is connected to
BS via radio link. If the user moves to the coverage area of another BS, the
radio link to old BS is disconnected and radio link to new BS is established
to continue conversation. This process is called automatic link transfer or
handoff.
Q5) Explain the SS7 signalling points in details?
A5) All nodes in the SS7 network are called Signalling Points (SPs). Each
SP is identified by a unique address called a Point Code (PC). SPs have
the ability to read a Point Code and determine if the message is for that
node and the ability to route SS7 messages to another SP. Each
signalling point in the SS7 network is uniquely identified by a numeric
point code. Point codes are carried in signalling messages exchanged
between signalling points to identify the source and destination of each
message. Each signalling point uses a routing table to select the
appropriate signalling path for each message. There are three kinds of
signalling points in the SS7 network
applications using primitives. A primitive is an interface that provides
access from one level of a protocol to another level. The protocol used to
access and interface a database application is TCAP.

 SSP (Service Switching Point or Signal Switching Point) SS7 Signalling Links:
 STP (Signal Transfer Point)
All SPs (signalling points) are connected using (typically) pairs of Links.
 SCP (Service Control Point)
Each Link type is identified with a letter as defined below:

Type A—Access Links (used to connect SSPs to STPs or STPs to SCPs)

Service Switching Point (SSP)
An “A” (access) link connects a signalling end point (for example, an SCP
SSPs are switches, for example, Class 5 (local) and Class 4 (tandem) with or SSP) to an STP. Only messages originating from or destined to the
SS7 interfaces. SSPs convert global title digits (i.e., a dialled number) signalling end point are transmitted on an A link.
from a subscriber line to SS7 signalling messages. SSPs setup, manage
and release voice circuits required to make a call. SSPs send messages
using the ISDN User Part (ISUP) and Transaction Capabilities Application Type B—Bridge
Part (TCAP) protocols to summarize, an SSP’s function is to use a global Links (used to
title to determine how to connect a call using its routing table. connect paired
STPs to other
paired STPs).
Signal Transfer Point (STP): An STP is a router and/or a gateway in the
A “B” (bridge) link connects an STP to another STP. Typically, a quad of
SS7 network. Messages are not originated by an STP. STPs switch SS7
“B” links interconnect peer (or primary) STPs (for example, the STPs from
messages between signalling points. If an originating SSP does not know
one network to the STPs of another network). The distinction between a B
the address of a destination SSP, the STP must provide it using Global Title
link and a D link is rather arbitrary. For this reason, such links may be
Translation. Gateway STPs serve as the interface into another network and
referred to as B/D links
they can provide protocol conversion. STPs also provide traffic and usage
measurements.

Service Control Point (SCP) An SCP provides application access. It is an

interface to applications such as databases. An SCP communicates with
 Type C—Cross Type E—
Links (used to Extended Links
connect paired (connects SSPs
STPs) to alternate or
remote STPs for
A “C” (cross) link increased
connects STPs performing identical functions into a mated pair. A C link resilience and
is used only when an STP has no other route available to a destination load sharing)
signalling point due to link failure(s). Note that SCPs may also be
deployed in pairs to improve reliability; unlike STPs, however, mated An “E” (extended) link connects an SSP to an alternate STP. E links
SCPs are not interconnected by signalling links. provide an alternate signalling path if an SSP’s home STP cannot be
reached via an A link. E links are not usually provisioned unless the
benefit of a marginally higher degree of reliability justifies the added
expense.
Type D—
Diagonal Links
(used to connect
paired STPs at Type F—Fully
one in the Associated Links
hierarchy to paired STPs at another level in the hierarchy) (used to connect
SSPs when
A “D” (diagonal) link connects a secondary (local or regional) STP pair to significant traffic
a primary (for example, inter-network gateway) STP pair in a quad-link flows between
configuration. Secondary STPs within the same network are connected via them) An “F” (fully associated) link connects two signalling end points
a quad of D links. The distinction between a B link and a D link is rather (i.e., SSPs and SCPs). F links are not usually used in networks with STPs.
arbitrary. For this reason, such links may be referred to as B/D links. In networks without STPs, F links directly connect signalling points.
 *Signal Transfer Point (STP) is a switch that relays SS7 messages between
network switches and databases. Based on the address fields of the SS7
Q6) Explain SS7 messages, the STPs route the messages to the correct outgoing signalling
signalling links. To meet the stringent reliability requirements, STPs are provisioned
protocol in detail? in mated pairs. Service Control Point (SCP) contains databases for
providing enhanced services. An SCP accepts queries from an SSP and
A6) Common
returns the requested information to the SSP. In mobile.
channel signalling
which provides Applications, an SCP may contain an HLRor a VLR. There are six types of
control and SS7 signalling links. Two types of the links are introduced in this article.
management in the Each SSP and SCP will have a minimum of one signal link to each STP pair.
telephone network. The signal link is referred to as the Access Link (A-link). The number of
CCS consists of A-links between an SSP and an STP pair can be up to 128 though most
supervisory functions, addressing, and providing call information. A CCS switch suppliers have limited the number to 16. Signalling links that
channel conveys messages to initiate and terminate calls, check on the connect STPs of different networks (e.g., PCN and PSTN in our example)
status of some part of the network, and control the amount of traffic are called Diagonal Links (D-links). D-links are deployed in a quad
allowed. CCS uses a separate out-of-band signalling network to carry arrangement with three-way path diversity. The maximum link set size is
signalling messages. In all figures of this article, the signal links will be 64.
represented by dashed lines, and the trunks will be represented by solid
links. SS7 is a CCS system developed to satisfy the telephone operating
companies’ requirements for an improvement to the earlier
signalling systems (which lacked the sophistication required to deliver
much more than Plain Old Telephone Service or POTS). This section
provides a brief introduction to the SS7 network architecture and protocol
from the perspective of PCN interconnection

Figure below illustrates an example of the SS7 signalling network. The

figure only shows the parts that involve the interconnection between a
PCN and the PSTN. The network consists of three distinct components.

*Service Switching Point (SSP) is a telephone switch

interconnectedbySS7links.TheSSPsperformcallprocessingoncalls that
originate, tandem, or terminate at that node. In this article, an SSP in a
Fig 6 Architecture
PCN are called a Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
The basic parts of the SS7 protocol and the corresponding OS1 layers are
shown in Fig. Below. In the protocol hierarchy, the Operations,
Maintenance, and Administration Part (OW) and Mobile Application Part
(MAP) are TCAP (i.e., Transaction Capabilities Application Part; to be
defined) applications. The MAP will be elaborated based on the IS41
protocol. The other parts of the SS7 protocol are described below.
Fig 7
The
SS7
signalling protocol
The Message Transfer Part (MTP) consists of three levels corresponding
to the OS1 physical layer, data link layer, and network layer, respectively.
The MTP Level 1 defines the physical, electrical, and functional
characteristics of the signalling links connecting SS7 components. The
MTP Level 2 provides reliable transfer of signalling messages between
two directly connected signalling points. The MTP Level 3 provides the
functions and procedures related to message routing and network
management.
 TheSignaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) provides additional
functions such as Global Title Translation to the MTP to transfer
non-circuit-related signaling information such as PCS registration
and cancellation.
 The Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) provides the
ability to exchange information between applications using non-
circuit related signaling.
 Integrated Services Digital Network User Part (ISUP) establishes
circuit-switched network connections (e.g., call setupirelease).
Pass-along signaling service sends the signaling information to
each switching point involved in a call connection. The IS-41
protocol is implemented in the MAP as an application of the TCAP.
The wireless call setup/release is completed by using the ISUP.
The MTP and the SCCP provide routing services between a PCN
and the PSTN.
Q7) Explain basic cellular system with hexagonal cell structure?
A7)
 The design objective of early mobile radio systems was to achieve
a large coverage area using a single, high-powered transmitter
with an antenna mounted on a tall tower
 The cellular concept is a system-level idea which calls for replacing
a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power
transmitter (small cells) each providing a coverage to only a small
portion of the service area While it might seem natural to choose
a circle to represent the coverage of a BS, adjacent circles cannot
be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps or creating
overlapping regions Thus when considering geometric shapes
 which cover an entire region without overlap and with equal area,
there are three sensible choices – a square, an equilateral triangle
and a hexagon
 Theactual radio coverage of a cell is known as footprint and is
determined from field measurements or propagation prediction
models
Fig 8. The Cellular Model
 Why hexagon for theoretical coverage?
 For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest
perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area of the three
 Thus,by using hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells can
cover a geographic region, and hexagon closely approximates a
circular radiation pattern which would occur for an
omnidirectional BS antenna and free space propagation
 When using hexagons to model a coverage area, BS transmitters are
depicted as either being in the center of the cell (center-excited
cells) or on the three of the six cell vertices (edge-excited cells)
 Normallyomnidirectional antennas are used in center-excited cells
and directional antennas are used in corner-excited cells
Q8) Explain the frequency reuse concept in cellular networks?
A8)
 Each cellular BS is allocated a group of radio channels to be used
within a
Small geographic area called cell
 BSin adjacent cells are assigned channel groups which contain
completely
Different channels than neighbouring cells
 Bylimiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the
same
Groups of channels may be used to cover different cells that are
separated from
One another by distances large enough to keep the interference levels
within
Tolerable limits
 The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for
all of the
Cellular BSs is called frequency reuse or frequency planning
 Fig. 9 Cellular Frequency reuse Fig.10 A
concept single BS
for 100
MS users.

 Cells with the same letter use

the same set of frequencies.
 A cell cluster is outlined in bold. But now,
 In this Example, the cluster size as time
is N equal to 7 and frequency reuse passed
factor is 1/N=1/7 by, the
number
of mobile users in the same area increased from 100 to 700. Now if the
same BS has to connect to these 700 users’ MS, obviously the BS will be
Q9) Explain in detail the cell splitting phenomenon in cellular
overloaded. A single BS, which served for 100 users is forced to serve for
systems?
700 users, which is impractical. To reduce the load of this BS, we can use
A9) The concept of Cell Splitting is quite self-explanatory by its name cell splitting. That is, we will divide the above single cell into 7 separate
itself. Cell splitting means to split up cells into smaller cells. The adjacent cells, each having its own BS. This is shown in Fig below.
process of cell splitting is used to expand the capacity (number of
Fig.11 Single cell split
channels) of a mobile communication system. As a network grows, a quite
up into 7 cells.
large number of mobile users in an area come into picture. Consider the
following scenario.

There are 100 people in a specific area. All of them owns a mobile phone
(MS) and are quite comfortable to communicate with each other. So, a
provision for all of them to mutually communicate must be made. As there
are only 100 users, a single base station (BS) is built in the middle of the
area and all these users’ MS are connected to it. All these 100 users now
come under the coverage area of a single base station. This coverage
area is called a cell. This is shown in Figure.
Now, let us look into the
big picture. Until now,
we have discussed about cell splitting in a small area. Now, we use this
same concept to deal with large networks. In a large network, it is not
necessary to split up all the cells in all the clusters. Certain BSes can
handle the traffic well if their cells (coverage areas) are split up. Only
those cells must be ideal for cell splitting. Fig below shows network
architecture with a few numbers of cells split up into smaller cells, without
affecting the other cells in the network.
 Fig.12 Cell Splitting
The concept of cell splitting can further be
applied to the split cells as well. That is, the
split-up cells can further be split into a
number of smaller cells to improve the
efficiency of the BS even more. Fig above
shows a hierarchy of cell splitting.
Fig.13 Cell Splitting of Split up
cells.
Here, the master cells which
have been split up into smaller
cells are known as macro cells.
The split-up cells are known as
micro cells. The innermost
cells, split up by splitting the
micro cells are known as pico
cells.
Q10) How co-channel interference can be decreases in cellular
telephone systems?
A10) In cellular telephone system, co-channel interference can be
decreased by replacing a single omnidirectional antenna with several
directional antennas, each radiating within a smaller area.
Fig.14 Cell Sectoring
Another way of improving the channel capacity of a cellular system is to
decrease the D/R ratio while keeping the same cell radius. Improvement
in the capacity can be accomplished by reducing the number of cells in a
cluster, hence increasing the frequency reuse. To achieve this, the
relative interference must be minimized without decreasing the transmit
power.
For minimizing co-channel interference in a cellular network, a single
Omni-directional antenna is replaced with multiple directional antennas,
with each transmitting within a smaller region. These smaller regions are
called sectors and minimizing co-channel interference while improving
the capacity of a system by using multiple directional antennas is called
sectoring.
The amount up to which co-channel interference is minimized depends
on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is generally divided either into
three 120 degree or six 60-degree sectors. In the three-sector
arrangement, three antennas are generally located in each sector with
one transmit and two receive antennas.
When sectoring technique is used in cellular systems, the channels used
in a particular sector are actually broken down into sectored groups,
which are only used inside a particular sector. With 7-cell reuse pattern
and 120-degree sectors, the number of interfering cells in the
neighbouring tier is brought down from six to two.
Cell sectoring also improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thereby
increasing the capacity of a cellular system. This method of cell sectoring
is very efficient, because it utilized the existing system structures.
Cell sectoring also minimized the co-channel interference, with the use
Of directional antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit
only a fraction of the available co-channel cells.
Q11) What are repeaters and how they are used for range extension?
A11) Repeaters for rang extension
A wireless repeater (also called wireless range extender) takes an
existing signal from a wireless router or access point and rebroadcasts it
to create a second network. When two or more hosts have to be
connected with one another and the distance is too long for a direct
connection to be established, a wireless repeater is used to bridge the
gap. It can be a specialized standalone computer networking device.
Wireless repeaters are commonly used to improve signal range and
strength within homes and small offices.
Wireless operators want to provide dedicated coverage for users located
within buildings, or in valleys or tunnels as these areas are sometimes
very hard to reach. Radio retransmitters, also known as repeaters, are
frequently used to provide coverage in such areas where range extension
capabilities are required. Repeaters are bidirectional devices, as the
signals can be concurrently transmitted to and received from a base
station.
Repeaters may be installed anywhere as they function using over the air
signals, and are able repeat entire frequency band. After receiving
signals from base station, the repeater amplifies the signals before it
forwards them to the coverage area.
As repeaters can also reradiate the received noise, so repeaters must be
installed very carefully. Directional antennas or distributed antenna
system (DAS) are linked practically to the repeater inputs or outputs for
spot coverage, mainly in tunnels or buildings.
Q12) What are microcells explain in detail?
A12) Microcell Zone Concept
The micro-cell zone concept is associated with sharing the same radio
equipment by different micro-cells. It results in decreasing of cluster size
and, therefore, increase in system capacity. The micro-cell zone concept
is used in practice to improve the capacity of cellular systems.
To improve both capacity and signal quality of a cellular system, cell
sectoring depends upon correct setting up of directional antennas at the
cell-site. But it also gives rise to increase in the number of handoffs and
trunking inefficiencies. In a 3-sector or 6-sector cellular system, each
sector acts like a new cell with a different shape and cell.
Channels allocated to the un-sectored cell are divided between the
different sectors present in a cell, thereby decreasing number of
channels available in each sector. Furthermore, handoff takes place
every time a mobile user moves from one sector to another sector of the
same cell.
This results in significant increase of network load on BSC and MSC of the
cellular system. The problem of channel partitioning and increase in
network load become very hard if all the 3 or 6-sectored directional Q13) Compare FDM and TDM techniques?
antennas are placed at the centre of the cell.
A13) Differentiate between FDM and TDM
As shown in the Fig., three directional antennas are put at a point, Z1, also
called zone-site, where three adjacent cells C1, C2, and C3 meet with
each other. Z1, Z2 and Z3 are three zone-sites of the cell C1, and each
zone-site is using three 135 degree directional antennas. All the three Sr. FDM TDM
zone-sites also behave as receivers, which also receive signals No.
transmitted by a mobile user present anywhere in the cell.
1. Total frequency bands are Time is divided into several no. Of
Fig.15 Location of zone site divided into several users. users.
in sectored cell
2. Transmission via different Transmission of signal via same
All the three zone-sites are
frequency bands for each path at different times irrespective
linked to one common base
signal. of no. Of signal.
station, as shown in Fig.
This arrangement is known
3. Signals are multiplexed Bandwidth used to connect
as Lee's micro-cell zone
arrived from no. Of sources. channel to node with finite set of
concept
time slots.

4.

Q14) Explain the three types of channel allocation strategies?

A14) There are three types of strategies that are followed

Fig. 16 Lee’s Microcell zone concept
  FixedChannel Allocation,
 Dynamic Channel Allocation and
 Hybrid Channel Allocation which is a combination of the first two
methods.
Fixed Channel Allocation
Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) systems allocate specific channels to
specific cells. This allocation is static and cannot be changed. For efficient
operation, FCA systems typically allocate channels in a manner that
maximizes frequency reuse. Thus, in a FCA system, the distance between
cells using the same channel is the minimum reuse distance for that
system. The problem with FCA systems is quite simple and occurs
whenever the offered traffic to a network of base stations is not uniform.
Fig. 17 Reuse Distance
Consider a case in which two adjacent cells are allocated N channels
each. There clearly can be situations in which one cell has a need
for N+k channels while the adjacent cell only requires N-m channels (for
positive integers k and m). In such a case, k users in the first cell would
be blocked from making calls while m channels in the second cell would
go unused. Clearly in this situation of non-uniform spatial offered traffic,
the available channels are not being used efficiently. FCA has been
implemented on a widespread level to date.
Dynamic Channel Allocation
Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) attempts to alleviate the problem
mentioned for FCA systems when offered traffic is non-uniform. In DCA
systems, no set relationship exists between channels and cells. Instead,
channels are part of a pool of resources. Whenever a channel is needed
by a cell, the channel is allocated under the constraint that frequency
reuse requirements cannot be violated. There are two problems that
typically occur with DCA based systems.
 First,
DCA methods typically have a degree of randomness
associated with them and this leads to the fact that frequency
reuse is often not maximized unlike the case for FCA systems in
which cells using the same channel are separated by the
minimum reuse distance.
 Secondly, DCA methods often involve complex algorithms for
deciding which available channel is most efficient. These
algorithms can be very computationally intensive and may
require large computing resources in order to be real-time.
Hybrid Channel Allocation Schemes
The third category of channel allocation methods includes all systems that
are hybrids of fixed and dynamic channel allocation systems. Several
methods have been presented that fall within this category and in
addition, a great deal of comparison has been made with corresponding
simulations and analyses
Channel Borrowing is one of the most straightforward hybrid allocation
schemes. Here, channels are assigned to cells just as in fixed allocation
schemes. If a cell needs a channel in excess of the channels previously
assigned to it, that cell may borrow a channel from one of its neighbouring
cells given that a channel is available and use of this channel won't violate
frequency reuse requirements. Note that since every channel has a
predetermined relationship with a specific cell, channel borrowing
(without the extensions mentioned below) is often categorized as a
subclass of fixed allocation schemes. The major problem with channel
borrowing is that when a cell borrows a channel from a neighbouring cell,
other nearby cells are prohibited from using the borrowed channel
because of co-channel interference. This can lead to increased call
blocking over time. To reduce this call blocking penalty, algorithms are
necessary to ensure that the channels are borrowed from the most
available neighbouring cells; i.e., the neighbouring cells with the most
unassigned channels.
Rules for channel assignment
 Do not assign co-channels or adjacent channels at the same cell site
(not applicable for CDMA).
 Do not assign co-channels in adjacent cell sites (not applicable for
CDMA).
 Do not mix and match channel groups in a cell or sector.
 Avoid adjacent channel assignment in adjacent cell sites (not
applicable for CDMA).
 Maintain proper channel separation for any channel assignment for
a sector or site.
 Maximize the distance between reusing cell sites
Q15) What is co-channel interference and adjacent channel
interference in cellular networks explain in detail?
A15) Co-channel interference
Co-channel interference or CCI is crosstalk from two different radio
transmitters using the same frequency.
Co-channel interference occurs between two access points (APs) that are
on the same frequency channel. The reason that you should care is that
co-channel interference can severely affect the performance of your
wireless LAN (WLAN).
Co-channel interference is more problematic when you deploy your
WLAN to support voice or RFID location tagging. These types of scenarios
require a denser deployment of APs. Denser deployments mean that your
APs are closer together. And that creates a greater potential of two
devices that transmit on the same frequency channel will be close enough
to cause significant interference to each other's signals.
Fig 18 Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel Interference
Adjacent-channel interference (ACI) is interference caused by
extraneous power from a signal in an adjacent channel.
Adjacent channel interference (ACI) is interference between links that
communicate geographically close to each other using neigh boring
frequency bands. For instance, several network operators may deploy
their own networks in the same area and operate on frequency bands that
are close to each other. Hence, ACI needs to be taken into account in the
system specifications so that it will not hamper the system performance.
Adjacent channel interference: interference from adjacent in frequency Q16) What are the cause of co-channel interference explain all of the
to the desired signal. in detail?

– Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby frequencies to leak into the A16) There can be several causes of co-channel radio interference; four
passband examples are listed here.

– Performance degrades seriously due to near-far effect.  Cellular Mobile Networks:

In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for instance),

frequency spectrum is a precious resource which is divided into non-
Fig overlapping spectrum bands which are assigned to different cells (In
19 cellular communications, a cell refers to the hexagonal/circular area
around the base station antenna). However, after certain geographical
distance, the frequency bands are re-used, i.e., the same spectrum bands
are reassigned to other distant cells. The co-channel interference arises
in the cellular mobile networks owing to this phenomenon of Frequency
reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from within the cell, signals at
the same frequencies (co-channel signals) arrive at the receiver from the
undesired transmitters located (far away) in some other cells and lead to
deterioration in receiver performance.

 Adverse weather conditions:

Adjacent channel
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering
and channel assignment.
• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as
large as possible
• A channel separation greater than six is needed to bring the adjacent
channel interference to an acceptable level.
During periods of uniquely high-pressure weather, VHF signals which
would normally exit through the atmosphere can instead be reflected by
the troposphere. This tropospheric ducting will cause the signal to travel
much further than intended; often causing interference to local
transmitters in the areas affected by the increased range of the distant
transmitter.
 Daytime vs Night time:
In the Medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum where most AM
broadcasting is allocated, signals propagate full-time via
groundwave and, at night time, via sky wave as well. This means that
during the night time hours, co-channel interference exists on many AM
radio frequencies due to the medium waves reflecting off the ionosphere Fig. 20: Overall CDMA
and being bounced back down to earth. In the United 2000 standards
States, Canada, Mexico, and the Bahamas, there are international
agreements on certain frequencies which allocate "clear-channel"
broadcasting for certain stations to either have their respective
EV-DV
frequencies to themselves at night, or to share their respective
frequencies with other stations located over hundreds or even thousands 1x EV-DV provides some
of miles away. On other frequencies, there are "Regional Channels" benefits like :
where most stations on these frequencies either reduce power or change
to a directional antenna system at night time to help reduce co-channel  Pick data rate 3.1
interference to each other's signals. In the United States, there are six Mbps per sector.
"Local Channel" frequencies, also known as "grave yarders" where nearly  Support provided to real-time and non-real time both.

every station on those frequencies has the same power and antenna  Seamless backward compatibility.

pattern both day and night and, as a result of sky wave propagation, there  Same carrier utilized to support voice of data features.
is normally massive co-channel interference in rural areas on these  High forward link capacity.

frequencies, often making it difficult, if not impossible, to understand  Voice service and concurrent voice/data support.

what's being said on the nearest local station on the respective channel,  Backward compatibility to 15-95 CDMA 2000.

or the other distant stations which are bouncing on the same channel,  Multiple concurrent traffic types (i.e. FPDPH).
 Efficient support of all data services (e.g., V0 IP).
during the night time hours.
 Same new channels introduced are :

F-PDCH, F-PDCCH, R-ACKCH and R-CQICH.

Q17) What are CDMA 2000 standards explain them in detail?

A17)
FPDCH
 It
is developed by Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2).
It stands for Forward Packet Data Channel. It is main channel, 1
 AR1B, TTC (Japan), CWTS (China), TTA (Korea), TIA (North
channel/sector. It carries Data as well as L3 signalling.
Amerika) companies contributed in development from CDMA
one to CDMA 2000 with maintaining backward compatibility with
IS-95 B.
 Some of evolution of CDMA 2000 are 1x EV-DO stands for “1x F-PDDCH
Evolution Data Only” 1x EV-DV stands for “1x Evolution for Data
and Voice”.
It stands for Forward Packet Data Control Channel. It used to transmit
CDMA 2000 1x E V-D0 Max downlink Max uplink
demodulate decode, ARQ information to specific mobile 2 channel/sector
release/revision data rate data rate
exists.

Rev. 0 2.4 Mbps (300-600 153.4 Kbps (70-

Kbps) 90 kbps)
R-ACKCH
Rev. A 3.1 Mbps (600- 1.8 mbps (500-
It stands for reverse acknowledgement channel. ACK/NAK feedback for
1400 kbps) 800 kbps)
hybrid ARQ.

Rev. B (Software) 9.3 Mbps 5.4 Mbps

R-CQICH D0 Rev B (Hardware) 14.7 Mbps 5.4 Mbps

It stands for Reverse Channel Quality Indicator Channel. It provides

D0 Advanced 19.6 Mbps 7.2 Mbps
feedback which is further used as forward link modulation, scheduling
and coding etc.

Q18) Compare CDMA and GSM?

Lx-EV-D0
A18)
EV-D0 has Rev 0, Rev A, Rev B such three revisions.

Revision A has 3.1 MBPS peak data rate on downlink and 1.8 MBPS peak
data rate on uplink. It support low latency application.
CDMA GSM
Revision B improved to achieve higher data rates than Rev A. It support
multiple carriers Rev B. It has two upgrades : EV-D0 advanced and EV-D0 Stands for Code Division Multiple Global System for Mobile
Rev. C (Revision C). Access communication

Storage Internal Memory SIM

Type card (subscriber
Table: EV-D0 summary
identity module)
 A19) The number of customers or the amount of service which any system
Global 25% 75%
can provide is called its capacity. The CDMA has soft capacity as the
market
system operator can change the defined level of service to change the
share
maximum number of customers. That can obtain service from the system.
This helps the service provider to increase temporarily the system
Dominance Dominant standard in the Dominant standard
capacity in exchange for a reduction in the quality of voice. By increasing
U.S. worldwide except the U.S.
the speech compression and reducing the audio quality a CDMA service
provider can increase the number of customers in CDMS mobile
Data transfer EVDO/3G/4G/LTE GPRS/E/3G/4G/LTE communication. The data rate per user is reduced and maximum number
of users increases. The reduction in data rate reduces the interference.
Network There is one physical Every cell has a
channel and a special corresponding network The soft capacity limit for gradual decay of voice quality is shown below.
code for every device in tower, which serves the The voice quality decays gradually as the number of users increases. The
the coverage network. mobile phones in that lower bit rates are provided in order to increase the number of users than
Using this code, the signal cellular area. the capacity limit. As a result, assigning lower bit rates to users as service
of the device is demand increases trade off voice quality for increases in system capacity.
multiplexed, and the
same physical channel is Fig 21 Soft
used to send the signal. Capacity

International Less Accessible Most Accessible

roaming Q20) Compare
all the
Frequency Single (850 MHz) Multiple multiple
band (850/900/1800/1900 MHz) access
techniques?
Network Handset specific SIM specific. User has
service option to select handset of A20)
his choice.

Approach TDMA FDMA CDMA

Q19) What is soft capacity calculation in CDMA technology explain?
Idea Segment sending Segment the Spread the
time into disjoint frequency band spectrum using
Approach TDMA FDMA CDMA Approach TDMA FDMA CDMA
time-slots, into disjoint orthogonal used in many hopping lowered
demand driven sub-bands codes mobile networks patterns) and expectations:
or fixed patters SDMA will be
(frequency integrated with
All terminals can reuse) TDMA/FDMA
All terminals are
Every terminal be active at the
active for short
has its own same place at
Terminals periods of time
frequency. the same WC
on the same
Uninterrupted moment
frequency
uninterrupted.

Unit - 3
Synchronization Filtering in the Code plus
Signal
in the time frequency special
separation 2G Networks
domain domain receivers

Flexible, less Q1) Explain 2G technology in detail. Also mention the system it can
Simple, frequency support?
Established, fully
Advantages established planning
digital, flexible A1) Second-generation wireless telephone networks
robust needed, soft
handover  First-generation cellular telephone systems were designed
primarily for a limited customer base, such as business customers
Guard space Complex and a limited number of affluent residential customers. The
needed Inflexible, receivers, needs problems inherent with these cellular telephones were poor
(multipath frequencies are more battery performance and channel unavailability. Improved
Disadvantages
propagation), a scarce complicated batteries were also needed to reduce the size and cost of mobile
synchronization resource power control units, especially those that were designed to be handheld. Weak
difficult for senders signal strengths resulted in poor performance and ahigh rate of
falsely initiated handoffs (false handoffs).
Standard in fixed Typically Still faces some  It was determined that improved battery performance and higher
Comment networks, combined with problems, signal quality were possible only by employing digital
together with TDMA higher technologies.
FDMA/SDMA (frequency complexity,
 In the United States, the shortcomings of the first-generation cellular
systems led to the development of several second-generation
cellular telephone systems, such as narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)
and systems employing the IS-54, IS-136, and IS-95 standards.
 A second-generation standard, known as Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), emerged in Europe. The U.S Standards
of TDMA and CDMA also belong to this generation.
 Other second-generation wireless standard includes, the British
Cordless telephone standard CT2, Personal access
Communication System (PACS) and the European standard for
cordless and office telephony Digital European Cordless
telephone (DECT).
2 G technology supports data, speech, fax, SMS and WAP services.
 The architecture employed in second generation networks have
reduced the computational burden on the MSC.
 GSM for example uses a base station controller (BSC) which allowed
the data interface between the BSC and MSC to be standardized.
This allows carriers to use different manufacturers for MSC and
BSC components.
 All Second-generation systems use digital voice coding and digital
modulation. The systems employ dedicated control channels
within the air interface for simultaneously exchanging voice and
control information between the subscriber, the base station and
the MSC while the call is in progress.
 Second generation networks also provide dedicated voice and
signalling trunks between MSCs and between each MSC and the
PSTN.
 The first-generation systems were designed primarily for voice
whereas the second-generation systems are specifically
designed to provide paging, Fax and high data rate internet
access.
 The network controlling structure is more distributed in second
generation networks since mobile stations assume greater control
functions.
 The handoff process is more mobile controlled and is known as
Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO). The mobile units perform
additional functions of received power reporting, adjacent base
station scanning, data encoding and encryption.
 DECT (Digital European Cordless telephone) is an example of a
second-generation cordless standard. It allows each cordless
phone to communicate with any number of base stations. The base
station with the greatest signal level is selected. The base stations
have greater control in terms of switching, signalling and
controlling handoffs.
 In general, second generation systems have been designed to
reduce the computational and switching burden at the base
station or MSC. They also provide more flexibility in the channel
allocation scheme so that systems may be deployed rapidly and
in a less coordinated manner.
 The limitations of 2Gare
 Low data rates ranging from 9.6 kbps to 28.8kbps
 Circuit switched network
 End systems are dedicated for the entire call duration
 Inefficient usage of bandwidth and resources
Q2) Explain wireless GSM scheme and also the supplementary
services it supports?
A2) GSM
Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems
have been developed without the benefit of standardized specifications.
This presented many problems directly related to compatibility,
especially with the development of digital radio technology. The GSM
standard is intended to address these problems
Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted
standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a
standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European
mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-
European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz.
The basic requirement of GSM has been described in five aspects
1 Services
2 Quality of services and security
3 radio frequency utilization
4 Network
5 Cost
GSM Services & Features
The system will provide service portability that is mobile stations (MSs)
or mobile phone can be used in all participating countries. The system
will offer services that exist in the wire line network as well as service
specifies to mobile communication.
Basic Services
1 Voice services
2 Data Services
3 Short Message Services
GSM voice service started as a full rate voice service that allowed 8 users
per GSM radio channel. The original design allowed for the use of a half
rate voice service (lower quality audio) to increase the number of
simultaneous GSM voice users to 16 per radio channel.
GSM Data services support two data service groups short message
services & bearer services.
The GSM short message service (SMS) provides a connectionless transfer
of message with low-capacity & low-time performance. Every GSM short
message can contain up to 140 octets or 160 characters of GSM default
alphabet as defined in GSM.
The GSM barer services are similar ISDN services except that the
maximum data rate is limited to 9.6Kbps. These services can be employed
on notebook PCs or PDAs connected to the MS. Most mobile operator
offer short message service as part of the basic subscription package.
Additional Services
 Emergency number
 Group 3 fax
 Electronic mail
 Supplementary services
GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can
complement and support both telephony and data services.
Supplementary services are defined by GSM and are characterized as
revenue-generating features.
1. Call forwarding—This service gives the subscriber the ability to
forward incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not
reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed
unconditionally.
2. Barring of outgoing calls—This service makes it possible for a mobile
subscriber to prevent all outgoing calls.
3. Barring of incoming calls—This function allows the subscriber to GSM Specifications
prevent incoming calls. The following two conditions for incoming call
barring exist: baring of all incoming calls and barring of incoming calls Before looking at the GSM specifications, it is important to understand the
when roaming outside the home PLMN.
Following basic terms:
4. Advice of charge (AoC)—The AoC service provides the mobile
Bandwidth—the range of a channel's limits; the broader the
subscriber with an estimate of the call charges. There are two types of
AoC information: one that provides the subscriber with an estimate of the Bandwidth, the faster data can be sent
bill and one that can be used for immediate charging purposes. AoC for
data calls is provided on the basis of time measurements. • bits per second (bps)—a single on-off pulse of data; eight bits are
equivalent to one byte
5. Call hold—This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing
call and then subsequently re-establish the call. The call hold service is • frequency—the number of cycles per unit of time; frequency is
only applicable to normal telephony. measured in hertz (Hz)

6. Call waiting—This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified • kilo (k)—kilo is the designation for 1,000; the abbreviation kbps
of an incoming call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, represents 1,000 bits per second
reject, or ignore the incoming call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM
• megahertz (MHz)—1,000,000 hertz (cycles per second)
telecommunications services using a circuit-switched connection.
• milliseconds (ms)—one-thousandth of a second
7. Multiparty service—The multiparty service enables a mobile
subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation—that is, a simultaneous • watt (W)—a measure of power of a transmitter
conversation between three and six subscribers. This service is only
applicable to normal telephony.

Calling line identification presentation/restriction—These services Q3) Explain the IS-136 slot structure for downlink broadcast control
supply the called party with the integrated services digital network channel?
(ISDN) number of the calling party. The restriction service enables the
calling party to restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the A3)
presentation.

8. Closed user groups (CUGs)—CUGs are generally comparable to a

PBX. They are a group of subscribers who are capable of only calling
themselves and certain numbers.

Fig 1 IS-136 slot structure, downlink broadcast control channels

The slot format of these control channels appears in Fig. Above. Note that
each slot carries the same 28-bit synchronization field and a total of 260
bits of data as does the digital traffic channel. The control slot format
differs, however, in having a CSFP field in place of the CDVCC, and 22
bits of SCF in place of the SACCH and DL fields. The SCF bits are, of
course, used to carry the SCF logical channel. SCF messages are thus
transmitted as part of a control channel slot, rather than in distinct control
slots, as is the case of the other downlink broadcast channel messages.

The SCF channel is used, as noted above, to respond to the mobile’s

random access attempt. We shall have more to say later about the
messages carried by this channel. Continuing our discussion of the
control channel slot format, we note that the 12-bit CSFP field (for coded
superframe phase) is used to indicate the location of a TDMA block within
a superframe. This field carries an 8-bit SFP (superframe phase) number
and four parity-check bits to protect this number against errors. Five of
Fig 2 Access procedure, IS-136
the eight bits are used to keep a modulo-32 count of the blocks within the
32-block superframe. The other three bits are reserved and set to 0.

We now move to considering the one uplink IS-136 control channel,

RACH. This channel is used by the mobile, as already noted earlier, for
originating calls, for registration, and for replying to page messages. Its
functions are obviously similar to those described previously in
discussing GSM. As is the case with the other (downlink) DCCHs
discussed above, this channel is carried in time slots 1 and 4 of frames in
selected frequency channels.

The IS-136 access procedure using the RACH, in conjunction with the
downlink channels, is diagrammed in Fig. Above. This procedure uses
the slotted-Aloha access protocol mentioned in discussing the GSM
access procedure. The mobile station listens to a downlink SCF channel
to determine a specific future time slot to use to send its RACH message.
It then sends the RACH message, as shown in Fig. Above.
A later SCF message, carried in a specified time slot, will indicate whether
the RACH message has been correctly received and access granted. If
access is granted, an ARCH message carried on the SPACH channel will
follow, indicating the specific digital traffic channel the mobile is to use
for communication. If the access is not successful (other mobiles might be
attempting access at the same time) the access attempt will be retried a
random time later.
Fig 3 Slot formats, IS-136 RACH
Q4) Explain the repetitive super frame structure of IS 136?
A4) This second-generation system was developed after GSM, and we
shall find, in fact, that the control channels have some similarity to the
control channels used in GSM. This system, as deployed in North
America, occupies the 25 MHz bands from 824–849 MHz uplink, and 869–
894 MHz downlink. Within these bands frequency channels are spaced 30
kHz apart, a frequency channel containing repetitive TDMA frames,
carrying six time slots each. An example of the slot structure for the digital
traffic channel, comparable with the TCHs in GSM, appears in Fig. Below.
As discussed previously, two slots per frame are allocated to each full-
rate traffic user. The system transmission rate is 48.6 kbps: 1944
bits/frame (324 bits per slot) are transmitted in 40 msec.
Full-rate users get to transmit 520 data bits per frame (260 data bits per
slot), so that the data transmission rate is 13 kbps, although sent at the 48.6
kbps rate. These numbers differ considerably, of course, from those for
GSM. Early on, it was decided that D-AMPS would use the same frequency
channel structure as the original analog AMPS system, so that, in areas of
low digital utilization, a dual-mode mobile phone could easily revert to
the analog system. Note from Fig. Below that the slot structure differs in
the two directions, uplink and downlink. The 6-bit guard time G in the
uplink direction is needed because mobiles in a given cell may be
moving with respect to the base station and could be located at varying
distances from that station.
Fig 4: IS-136 slot structure, digital traffic channel
It prevents terminals initiating communication at the same time from
interfering with one another. The power ramp-up time R in the same,
uplink, slot structure is needed to accommodate terminals that may not
be on, and that require time for their transmission power to ramp up to
the desired value, depending on location within the cell and measured A full-rate traffic channel, covering two slots in a frame, has 24 bits per
interference power, as dictated by the base station. Since the base station frame devoted to the SACCH. The SACCH control data transmission rate
(BS) is always on and always transmitting, these two fields are not needed is thus 600 bps in this case. A fast associated control channel, FACCH, is
in the downlink slot structure obtained, as in the GSM case, by replacing the 260-bits per slot data fields
in the traffic channel with control information. The rate of control data
transmission for this channel is then 13 kbps for full-rate channels of two
slots per frame.
Table DCCH logical control channels, IS-136
The SMS point-to-point, paging, and access response channel, SPACH, is
Downlink (BS -> MS)
a logical channel designed, as the name indicates, to carry paging and
1 Broadcast control channels, BCCH: access response control information, as well as point-to-point messages
concerning the SMS service. Finally, the shared control feedback, SCF,
Fast broadcast control channel, F-BCCH channel is used to carry downlink information, from BS to MS, as part of
the random access procedure.
Extended broadcast control channel, E-BCCH
It is used to both indicate to the mobile a random access time slot in which
SMS broadcast BCCH, S-BCCH
to request access, as well as to provide acknowledgement of the random
access request once made. Random access messages, used for call setup
or origination, as well as mobile registration and authentication, are
2 SMS point- to – point, paging, and access response channel, SPACH: carried over the one uplink channel, the random access channel, RACH.

Paging control channel, PCH

Access response channel, ARCH

SMS channel, SMSCH

Fig 5 Repetitive super frame structure, IS-136

3 Shared control feedback channel, SCF
These channels, in the full-rate version, are transmitted using two slots
Uplink (MS->BS) per frame, generally slots 1 and 4, on selected frequency channels. (We
focus here only on the full-rate category.) The broadcast channels are
Random access channel, RACH transmitted sequentially using a repetitive super frame structure. The
super frame format is diagrammed in Fig. Above. Each super frame
corresponds to 16 consecutive TDMA frames, for a total time interval of
640 msec.
The 6-slot TDMA frames are each grouped into two 3-slot blocks and one
slot per block (nominally slots 1 and 4, as noted above) is assigned to the
DCCH. Each super frame is thus 32 blocks long. As indicated in Fig.
Above, the first set of three to ten blocks is assigned to the F-BCCH logical
channel. This is followed, in order, by the E-BCCH, covering from one to
eight blocks, the S-BCCH, assigned from 0–15 blocks, a group of 0–7
blocks left reserved for other functions if needed, and, finally, the SPACH,
assigned the remainder of the 32-block super frame.

Q5) Explain the slot formats of IS 136 RACH in detail?

A5) The IS-136 access procedure using the RACH, in conjunction with the
downlink channels, is diagrammed in Fig. Above. This procedure uses
the slotted-Aloha access protocol mentioned in discussing the GSM
access procedure. The mobile station listens to a downlink SCF channel
to determine a specific future time slot to use to send its RACH message.
It then sends the RACH message, as shown in Fig. Above.
A later SCF message, carried in a specified time slot, will indicate whether
the RACH message has been correctly received and access granted. If
access is granted, an ARCH message carried on the SPACH channel will
follow, indicating the specific digital traffic channel the mobile is to use
for communication. If the access is not successful (other mobiles might be
attempting access at the same time) the access attempt will be retried a
random time later.
Fig 6 Slot formats, IS-136 RACH
Two slot formats are available for sending RACH messages: a normal slot
format, 324 bits long, as is the case for the IS-136 traffic and control
channels discussed above, and an abbreviated slot format. The two
formats appear in Figs above respectively. Note that they differ in the
length of the data fields. The normal format carries a total of 244 data bits;
the abbreviated format carries 200 bits. The latter carries instead an
added 38-bit equivalent guard time (AG) plus ramp-up time R of six bits.
The overhead fields G, R, and sync are the same guard, ramp-up, and
synchronization fields appearing in the uplink traffic channel. PREAM is a
preamble field consisting of successive −π/4 phase changes in the DPSK
modulation scheme, used to help with symbol synchronization. The
added synchronization field, sync+, is needed because the RACH is not
used continuously, as is the case with the digital traffic channel, hence
added synchronization time is needed.

The initial abbreviated RACH messages are 79 bits long and are then
brought up to the 200-bit data field size using the same procedure. There
are seven different types of normal RACH frames 117 bits long (including
the 16-bit CRC field) that may be transmitted. These include BEGIN, the multiplication process. It is left to the reader to show that mod-2
CONTINUE, END, and single BEGIN/END frames, among others. addition of binary 1s and 0s is identical to multiplication of the equivalent
bipolar (± 1) binary digits.
The BEGIN frame format appears, as an example. The 3-bit BT field is used
to distinguish among the seven different types of RACH frames: 000
indicates a BEGIN frame, for example. The mobile station id, MSID, has
three possible values: a 20-bit temporary MS id, a 34-bit mobile id
corresponding to the normal 10-digit North American telephone number
converted to binary format, and a 50-bit international mobile id. The 2-bit
IDT field indicates which of these three mobile ids appears in the MSID
field. The one-bit EH flag allows an extension header to be present: 0
means no extension header; 1 means it is present.

The 3-bit NL3M field indicates how many concatenated layer-3 messages
appear in this BEGIN frame. The L3LI field serves the same function as it
did in the F-BCCH format example of Fig. Above It indicates the length, in
bytes, of the actual message field, L3 data, following. Eighteen different
RACH messages are defined. The messages we have implicitly
mentioned, Authentication, Page Response, Origination (call setup), and
Fig 7 IS-95 reverse traffic channel diagram
Registration, are included in this group. Messages are distinguished by a
6-bit message type field included.

Q6) With proper block diagram explain IS 95 forward and reverse

traffic channels?

A6) IS-95 is a CDMA-based system. Its traffic and control channels are
defined as specified codes rather than time slots as in the case of GSM
and IS-136. The discussion here will thus differ substantially from the
description in the prior sections of those two TDMA-based cellular
systems. In Figs. Below a binary information stream is “multiplied” by a
pseudo-noise (PN) chip spreading sequence, the resulting output shaped
by an appropriate low-pass shaping filter, and then fed to a high-
frequency transmitter. Modulo-2 (mod-2) addition is used here instead of

Fig 8 IS-95 forward traffic channel
The diagrams of Figs. Above are those for full-rate traffic transmission of
8.6 kbps, as shown at the top left-hand side of each figure. Reduced
transmission rates of 4.0, 2.0, and 0.8 kbps are defined for IS-95 as well.
As also indicated at the top left-hand side of each figure, for the full-rate
case, IS-95 defines consecutive 172-bit traffic frames, 20 msec long. This
obviously equates to a traffic input rate of 8.6 kbps. Twelve forward error-
correction bits per frame are then added. In the case of the reverse traffic
channel of Fig. Above the resultant 9.2 kbps signal is fed into a rate-1/3,
constraint length K = 9, convolutional encoder, with eight all-zero tail bits
appended each frame.
Q7) Explain the block inter leaver operation of IS-95?
A7)
Fig 9 Block inter leaver operation
The block interleaver output at the 28.8 kbps rate is now fed into a 64-ary
Walsh encoder, as shown in Figure. Six consecutive bits in the 28.8 kbps
stream are stored and used to generate one of 64 orthogonal Walsh
functions, a set of binary waveforms (1s and 0s), each 64 bits long. The
28.8 kbps input stream is thus converted to a 307.2 kbps output stream.
Why uses this procedure? The Walsh encoder acts as an orthogonal
modulator, analogous to the case of using 64 orthogonal sinewaves, but
with binary waveforms used instead. This procedure enables non-
coherent demodulation to be used at the receiver, followed by
deinterleaving and decoding to recover the original message sent.
Straight binary PSK would have provided better performance, but would
have required coherent demodulation, with a phase reference, such as a
pilot signal, necessary to be sent, accompanying the normal signal. Given
the level of coherence of the wireless channels over which the IS-95 is
used, this was deemed to be impractical, because of the relatively large
energy required to send the pilot signal. Differential PSK, such as is used
in the IS-136 system provides performance inferior to the Walsh
orthogonal scheme used in this system.
Q8) How a call originates in IS 95 explain in detail?
A8)
Fig 10 IS-
95 Call
Origination
Channels in the forward, downlink direction are specified by the
appropriate one of 64 possible Walsh codes. And by their long-code
masks appearing as part of the PN chip sequences in the reverse, uplink
direction. As shown in Fig. Above, the mobile initiates call setup by
sending an Origination message over the access channel. Assuming this
message is received correctly, the base station responds by sending a
Channel Assignment message over the paging channel. This message
indicates to the mobile the forward traffic channel (Walsh code) on which
the base station will be transmitting, and to which its receiving code for
the traffic channel is to be set.
The mobile, on receipt of the Channel Assignment message, begins
sending a traffic channel preamble over the reverse traffic channel,
consisting of continuous zeros at the 9600 bps rate, which is used by the
base station to acquire that channel. The base station now sends a Base
Station Acknowledgement Order over the forward traffic channel, and
two-way conversation over the traffic channels may now begin.
Fig 11
IS-95
Signalling message format
Four frames are thus needed to carry this message. The first bit of the 88
signalling bits in each frame is used to indicate whether the frame in
question is the first frame of the message or a continuing frame. Eighty-
seven bits per frame thus remain to carry the signalling message. Two
hundred and sixty-one bits are thus carried in the first three frames; the
remaining 59 bits are carried in the fourth and last frame. The 28 bits left
over in that frame must then be filled by all-zero padding bits. The
message-length indicator is used by the base station, on receiving this
message, to delete the padded bits. There are a variety of reverse traffic
signalling messages defined in IS-95, each of varying length, depending
on the information to be sent.
Examples include a Pilot Strength Measurement message, that provides
to the base station a 6-bit indication of the mobile’s measurement of the
signal power of the pilot used by the mobile to derive its time reference;
a Power Measurement Report message that provides the base station with
the power measured by the mobile for each of the pilots in its active set,
as well as the number of frames used in making this measurement; an
Origination Continuation message that contains any dialled digits not
included in the Origination message sent over the access channel.

Fig 12 IS-95 Access channel message capsule
Signalling over the forward traffic channels is carried out much like
signalling over the reverse traffic channels just discussed: the forward
traffic channel is also organized into 172-bit frames. These frames carry a
combination of primary traffic (principally voice messages), signalling
traffic messages, and secondary traffic, and are organized in the same
manner as reverse traffic frames.
Fig 13 Signalling message carried over 4 frames
Q9) With the help of block diagram explain GSM architecture?
A9) Architecture
Fig.14 GSM Architecture
In this architecture, a mobile station (MS)
communicates with a base station system
(BSS) through the radio interface. The BSS
is connected to the network and switching
subsystem (NSS) by communicating with
a mobile switching centre (MSC).
The Switching System
The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing
and subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes the
following functional units:
• Home location register (HLR)—The HLR is a database used for storage
and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most
important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers,
including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS
operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator.
• Mobile services switching center (MSC)—The MSC performs the
telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from
other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signalling, and others.
• Visitor location register (VLR)—The VLR is a database that contains
temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in
order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with
the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR
connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the
HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the
information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR
each time.
• Authentication centre (AUC)—A unit called the AUC provides
authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity
and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network
operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.
• Equipment identity register (EIR)—The EIR is a database that contains
information about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls
from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations.
The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined
AUC/EIR node.
The Base Station System (BSS)
All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of
base station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
• BSC—The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links
between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides
functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio
frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of
BSCs are served by an MSC.
• BTS—The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS
is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service
each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC
-Mobile station (MS) – The MS consist of two parts the SIM (subscriber
identity module) and the ME (mobile equipment)
An SIM can be
- A smart card, usually size of credit card
- A smaller sized ‘plug-in SIM” that can be broken out of it
The SIM is protected by a personal identity number (PIN) between four to
eight digits in length. The PIN is loaded by a network operator at
subscription time.
A SIM contain the subscriber-related information, including the PIN & PUK
(PIN unblocking key) codes.
The ME contain the noncustomer-related hardware & software specific to
the radio interface. When the SIM is removed from an MS the remaining
ME cannot be used for reaching the services, except from emergency
call.
This SIM-ME design supports portability as well as enhancing security.
Usually, the ME is the property of subscriber.
Q10) Explain GSM mobility management and its call origination?
A10) Mobility Management function handles the function that arises due
to mobility of the subscriber. Main objective of MM is location tracking &
call set up. The current location of an MS is maintained by a 2-level
hierarchical strategy with HLR & VLR. When an MS visits a new location, it
must register in the VLR of visited location. The HLR must be informed
about the registration. The registration process of MS moving from one
VLR to another VLR follows following steps.
STEP-1
MS periodically listens to the BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel)
broadcast from BSS. If the MS detects that it has entered into a new
location area, it sends a registration message to the new VLR by using Fig 15 GSM Mobility
SDCCH (Standalone Dedicated Control Channel) channel. Management

SDCCH: Used only for signalling & short message.

BCCH: Provides system information. GSM Call

Origination

1. MS sends the call

STEP-2 origination request
to MSC.
The new VLR communicates with old VLR to find HLR of MS. The new VLR
then performs authentication process. 2. MSC forwards the
request to VLR by sending MAP_SEND_INFO_ FOR_OUGOING_CALL.

3. VLR checks MS’s profile & sends an ACK to MSC to grant call request.
STEP-3
4. MSC sets up communication link according to standard PSTN call set up
After MS is authenticated, new VLR sends a registration message to HLR.
procedure.
If the registration request is accepted, the HLR provides new VLR with all
relevant subscriber information.

STEP-4

The new VLR informs the MS of successful registration.

STEP-5

Then the HLR sends a deregistration (Cancellation) message to old VLR.

The old VLR cancels the record for MS & sends an acknowledgement to
the HLR regarding cancellation.
 4. MSRN provides address of target MSC where the MS resides. Then a
message is directed from GMSC to target MSC to set communication link.

Fig 16 Call Origination Operation

Fig 17 Call Termination Operation

Call Termination
Q11) What is network signalling in GSM, explain its control in data
When mobile station number is dialled by PSTN user, call is routed to link layer?
GMSC by IAM (Initial Addressing Message) message.
A11)
1. To obtain routing information, GMSC interrogates HLR by sending
MAP_SEND_ ROUTING_INFORMATION to HLR.

2. HLR sends a MAP_PROVIDE_ROAMING_NUMBER message to VLR to

obtain MSRN (MS Roaming Number). The message consists of IMSI, MSC
number etc.

3. The VLR creates the MSRN by using MSC number stored in VLR record
of MS. The MSRN no is sent back to GMSC through HLR.
 The physical layer between MS & BTS is called Um interface. It performs
following functions

 Fullor half duplex access.

 Provides TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA.

 Framing of data.

The data link layer controls the flow of packets to and from network layer
and provides access to various services like: Connection: Provides
connection between two terminals. Teleservices -Services offered by a
Fig 18 Network Signalling
mobile network to users like: MMS, SMS, etc. The data link layer present
between MS & BTS is LAPDm (Link Access Protocol managed). LAPDm
protocol describes the standard procedure in GSM for accessing D
o LAPD Link Access Procedure D-Channel Managed channel Link. Its functions are:
o RR: Radio Resource
o MM: Mobility Management  Dataflow
control.
o CM: Call Management  Acknowledged / unacknowledged data Transmission.

o BTSM: BTS Management  Addressand sequence no. Check.

o BSSMAP: BSS Application Protocol  Segmentation.

o SCCP: Signalling Connection Control Part

The network layer has 3-sublayers

The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into 3 layers.
CM (Call Management) Supports call establishment, maintenance,
 Layer1 Physical Layer termination. It supports SMS. Support DTMF (Dual Tone multiple
frequency) signalling.
 Layer2 Data Link Layer
MM (Mobility Management) Control the issue regarding mobility
 Layer3 Network Layer Management, location updating & registration.

RRM (Radio Resource Management.) It manages radio resources such

as: frequency assignment, signal measurement.
MS BTS
BTS BSC signalling protocols

The physical layer between BTS & BSC is called Abis interface, where
voice is coded by using 64kbps PCM. The connection between BTS and
BSC is through a wired network. The data link layer is LAPDm. Network
Layer protocol is called BTS Management which interact with BSSAP.
BSC MSC signalling protocol
This transfer function is exactly that of an all-pole linear filter. The number
of samples m is typically ten or so, meaning the filter operates over the
relatively “short” time of 1 msec, as already noted. The model for the
“long-term” filter is usually taken to be that of an all-pole filter also, but
with only one or two poles. Specifically, say it is represented by a one-
pole filter. Its transfer function is thus clearly given by

Physical layer between BSC & MSC is called U interface. Data link layer
protocol between BSC & MSC is MTP (Message Transfer Protocol) & SCCP
(Signalling Connection Control Protocol). MTP and SCCP are part of the
SS7 (Signalling System No7) used by interface A. NETWORK layer
protocols at the MSC are CM, MM and BSSAP

Q12) Explain the coder and decoder of LPC system in detail?

A12) Voiced sounds due to the opening and closing of the vocal cords
tend to be quasi-periodic in form; unvoiced sounds are due to turbulent
air created by constrictions in the vocal tract. The excitation waveforms
appearing in the LPC model of Fig. Above would thus be a combination
of periodic pulses and a noise-like (random) signal. The term “long-term”
used in describing the first of the two filters in Fig. Above refers roughly
to the pitch period of the voiced sounds due to the vibration of the vocal
Fig 19 LPC System
cords. The pitch period tends to be in the order of 3–15 msec (Rabiner
and Hwang, 1993). “Short-term” implies times in the order of 1 msec The basic LPC system used to compress speech is given by the block
diagrams of Fig. Above. This system compares the output of the model
The linear predictor model may be written quite simply as
with the actual speech samples and attempts to minimize the difference
(error) signal by adjusting the excitation and filter parameters
periodically. It shows both a coder at the speech generating side (Fig.(a))
and a decoder at the receiving side (Fig.(b)). The combined system is
Taking the z-transform normally called a speech codec. Consider the coder first. Quantized input
speech samples labelled s(n) are generated every 125micro sec. The
difference ε(n) between these and the speech model output sˆ(n) is
minimized by adjusting the excitation generator and filter parameters.

Q13) What are CELP systems explain with block diagram?

A13) In particular, GSM uses a scheme called LPC with regular pulse
excitation (LPC-RPE). IS-136 and IS-95 use as their voice codecs variations
of the code-excited linear predictive coding (CELP) scheme. We now
describe these different coding–decoding techniques. Consider the
CELP technique first. A block diagram of the basic CELP scheme appears
in Fig. Below. The basic difference is that the excitation generator of Fig.
Below is given by a selected set of gaussian (i.e., random) codewords.
The parameter G shown represents a gain factor adjusting the amplitude
of the codewords selected.

This is a technique in which parameter adjustments are made

periodically, after a number of quantized error samples, constituting a Fig 20 CELP System
vector, have been collected. Vector quantization has been shown to
provide compression advantages.

Q14) Compare the spread spectrum techniques FHSS and DSSS?

A14)

System FHSS DSSS

Behaviors

System It is easier to use FHSS DSSS can be used but

Collocation for installations of collocated cells must be
coverage and multiple non-overlapping cells at the
collocated cells. radio level which is
required using directional
antennas.
 Q15) Explain the impulse response model of multipath channel?
Noise and FHSS system operate DSSS systems operate with
interference with SNR of about ls8 dB SNR 12dB because A15) Impulse response model of multipath channel
immunity
Phase-Shift keying is used. Mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear filter with time varying
impulse response in continuous time. To show this, consider time
Near or Far If the receiver uses In DSSS systems, the
variation due to receiver motion and time varying impulse response h(d,
problem FHSS, the worst case will problem is more critical and
t) and x(t), the transmitted signal.
be foreign transmitter, signals generated by the
which will block some foreign transmitter could The received signal y (d, t) at any position d would be
hops. not be heard at the receiver.
y(d, t) = x(t) ∗h(d, t) = x(τ) h(d, t −τ) dτ
Throughput FHSS system never DSSS systems provide
collide. They provide greater throughput than For a causal system: h(d, t) = 0, for t < 0 and for a stable system ¸
more or less the same with non-synchronized
throughput as DSSS FHSS. ∞−∞|h(d, t)|dt<∞
systems.
Applying causality condition in the above equation,
Multipath An FHSS system shows For long distance systems,
h(d, t −τ ) = 0 for t −τ <0⇒ τ > t,
Immunity more resistance to the use of directional
multipath immunity. antennas may help reducing i.e., the integral limits are changed τ
the multipath sensitivity in
DSSS systems. (d, t) =¸ tx(τ ) h(d, t −τ ) dτ.−∞

Security In FHSS, frequencies DSSS systems use spreading
may be selected by the sequence of l1 chips, which
user and there is no need modulate 14 channels and it
for application-level needs message encryption
encryption. at the application layer.
Since the receiver moves along the ground at a constant velocity v, the
position of the receiver is
d = vt,
i.e., y(vt, t) =¸ tx(τ ) h(vt, t −τ ) dτ.−∞

Bluetooth Bluetooth radio is a FHSS DSSS is more sensitive to Since v is a constant, y(vt, t) is just a function of t. Therefore the above
Interference operating in the 2.4GHz Bluetooth interference equation can be expressed as
band. rather than in the FHSS
systems. y(t) =¸ tx(τ) h(vt, t −τ) dτ = x(t) ∗h(vt, t) = x(t) ∗h(d, t)
It is useful to discretize the multipath delay axis τ of the impulse response hb(τ) =N−1.aI exp[jθi] δ(τ−τi) i=0
into equal time delay segments called excess delay bins, each bin having
a time delay width equal to For measuring hb(τ ), we use a probing pulse to
approximate δ(t) i.e., p(t) ≈ δ(t −τ)
( τi+1 −τi) = ∆τ and τi = i∆τ for i ∈ {0, 1, 2, ..N −1},
Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of |hb(t, τ )| over a local
Where N represents the total number of possible equally-spaced area. The received power delay profile in a local area is given by
multipath components, including the first arriving component.
p(τ) ≈k|hb(t;τ)|
The useful frequency span of the model is 2/∆τ. The model may be used
to analyze transmitted RF signals having bandwidth less than 2/∆τ.

If there are N multipaths, maximum excess delay is given by N ∆τ. Q16) Explain PN codes?

{y(t) =x(t) ∗h(t, τi)|i=0,1,...N−1} A16)

Bandpass channel impulse response model is x(t) →h(t,τ) =Re{ hb(t,τ)  Pseudo-Noise (PN) also known Pseudo Random Binary Sequence
ejωct → y(t) =Re{r(t) ejωct} (PRBS).
A Pseudo-Noise code (PN-code) or Pseudo Random Noise Code
Baseband equivalent channel impulse response model is given by (PRN code) is a spectrum which generated deterministically by
random sequence.
c(t) →2 hb(t, τ) →r(t) = c(t) ∗2 hb(t, τ)
 PN sequence is random occurrence of 0’s and 1’s bit stream.

Average power is x2(t) = 1 c(t) 2  Directly sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS) system is most popular

sequence in DS-SS system bits of PN sequence is known as chips

The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be and inverse of its period is known as chip rate.
expressed as

N−1 hb(t, τ) = . Ai(t, τ) exp[j(2πfcτi(t) + ϕi(t, τ))]δ(τ−τi(t))

In frequency hopping spread spectrum (FH-SS) sequence, channel
i=0 where ai(t, τ ) and τi(t) are the real amplitudes and excess delays, number are pseudo random sequences and hop rate are inverse of its
respectively, of the ith multipath component at time t. period.

The phase term 2πfcτi(t) + ϕi(t, τ ) in the above equation represents the
phase shift due to free space propagation of the ith multipath component,
plus any additional phase shifts which are encountered in the channel. If
the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over a small-scale
time or distance interval, then
 Fig.21: (iii) Correlation property:

If compared sequences are found similar then it is autocorrelation.

If compared sequences are found mismatched then it is cross correlation.

Let (K) and y (K) are two sequences then correlation R (m) will be:

R (m)xy= x (k) y (k + m)

Correlation R (m) in pattern of digital bit sequence will be:

R (m) =

Overview of PN sequence y1 =P1  q1

y1 =0 if P1  q1

Properties y1 =1 if P1 = q1

(i) Balance property: Fig.22: Correlator

Total no. Of 1’s is more than no. Of 0’s in maximum length sequence. Fig. Shows Pi is a sequence
which shifts through K bit shift
(ii) Run property 1’s and 0’s stream shows length sequence, every register. K is length of
fraction relates some meaning. correlate. Output achieved by
K XNOR gate after
comparison.

Rum Length

(iv) Shift and add:

1/2 1

By using X-OR gate, shift sequence modulo-2 added to upshifted

1/4 2 sequence.

1/8 3

PN sequence generation methodologies:

(i) Using shift register with feedback. demodulated. Each message burst is stored and re-timed to the original
message rate in order to recover the information.
(ii) Series parallel method for high speed PN generation.

(iii) Avoiding zero state.

Q18) What are the multicarrier modulation techniques?
(iv) Barker sequence.
A18) In this type of modulation, the data stream is divided into small bits
(v) Kasami sequence.
before transmission to modulate various carriers. The stream divided into
(vi) Gold sequence. bits has a lower data rate which modulates individual carriers. It was
initially used in broadcasting systems.

There are various forms of MCM which were used in many fields such as
Q17) What is time hopping? OFDM was used for processing power in receivers. Later OFDM was used
in wireless communication and Wi-Fi 802.11 etc.
A17) The signal is divided into time frames of M slots. Only one time slot
is modulated when message is transmitted. The time hopping receiver is
shown below. Let Tf = frame duration, k = number of message bits in one
Forms of Multicarrier Modulation System
frame and Tf = k × tm, then the width of each time slot in a frame is Tf/M
with BW of 2M. i) OFDM: It is orthogonal frequency division multiplexing. It
has multiple closely spaced carriers and due to the orthogonality
Fig
between them mutual interference is avoided. It is most commonly used
23
form of MCM.
Time
Ii) GFDM: It is generalised frequency division multiplexing. The
carriers used here are closed spaced and non-orthogonal. These carriers
provide pulse shaping. They are widely used in machine-to-machine
communications.

Iii) FBMC: It is called as filter bank multi carrier. This modulation

hopping receiver
The ON-OFF switch is driven by the PN generator so that proper switching
takes place for the given time frame. The output from switch is
uses isotropic transform algorithm within the DSP. The inter-carrier and
inter-symbol interference are avoided by using this scheme.
Iv) SEFD: It is known as spectrally efficient FDM. It also uses
multiple carriers but are closer than what are used in OFDM.
 The output of equalizer needs to be equal to the original signal s(t).

MC-CDMA: It is known as Multicarrier code division multiplexing. It is y(t)= s(t) f*(t) heq(t)+nb(t) heq(t)
used to spread the signal over different subcarriers. Signals to different
users are added linearly onto a multiplex of Multi-Carrier CDMA g(t)= f*(t) heq(t) = (t)

The following equation should be fulfilled

Heq(f)F*(-f) = 1
Q19) Derive and explain adaptive equalizer?
Where:
A19) An equalizer is used to track time varying property of the mobile
channel. Due to the randomness and time varying property of fading it is f*(t) = complex conjugate f(t)
necessary to have an equalizer.
heq(t) = equalizer impulse response
Fig 24 Adaptive Equalizer
nb(t) = noise of baseband
Let s(t) be the original signal and
signal f(t) is the combined Cn= complex coefficients of filter
response of channel, transmitter
Heq(f)= Fourier Transform of heq(t)
and IF/RF section of receiver.
The signal at the input of the
equalizer is Q20) Explain the working of FHSS transmitter and receiver?

x(t) = s(t) f*(t)+nb(t) A20) Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The output of equalizer is

y(t) = x(t) heq(t)

Let g(t) be combined response of channel, transmitter and IF/RF section

of receiver then above equation becomes

Y(t) = h(t) g(t) +nb(t) heq(t)

Fig.25: Channel assignment
The impulse response of the equalizer transversal filter is given by

heq(t) =
 Fig.26 Channel use Fig.28: FHSS
(Receiver)

Fig.27: FHSS
(Transmitter)

In FHSS, according to
PN sequence RF carries
frequency used to get
change.

FHSS has two types

1. Fast hopped FHSS.

2. Slow hopped FHSS.

Hopping is done with faster rate compared to bit rate in fast hopped FHSS
while slow rate compared to message bit rate in slow hopped FHSS.

FHSS systems rely on changes in RF carrier frequencies which turn into

burst errors.