TELECOMMUNICATION

S ENGINEERING

Cellular Mobile
Communications

Cellular Concepts

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering

1
 Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN)

 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public
circuit-switched telephone networks.

 It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular
networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all inter-connected
by switching centers, thus allowing any telephone in the world to communicate with any
other.
 Originally a network of “fixed-line” analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost
entirely digital in its core and includes mobile as well as fixed telephones.

 The technical operation of the PSTN utilizes standards created by the ITU-T.

 These standards allow different networks in different countries to interconnect seamlessly.

 There is also a single global address space for telephone numbers based on the E.163
and E.164 standards.
 The combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan make it
possible for any phone in the world to dial any other phone.
2
 Mobile Network Vs. Fixed
Network

Mobile Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

 Higher loss-rates due to interference

 emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
 Restrictive regulations of frequencies
 frequencies have to be coordinated; useful frequencies are almost all occupied
 Low transmission rates
 local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 9.6kbit/s with GSM
 Higher delays, higher jitter
 connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred milliseconds for
other wireless systems
 Lower security, simpler active attacking
 radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting
calls from mobile phones
 Always shared medium
 secure access mechanisms important
3
 Cell Concept

 Refers to communications systems, especially the Advance Mobile Phone Service

(AMPS), that divide a geographic region into sections, called cells.

 The purpose of this division is to make the most efficient use of a limited number of
transmission frequencies.

 Each connection, or conversation, requires its own dedicated frequency, and the
total number of available frequencies is about 1,000.

 To support more than 1,000 simultaneous conversations, cellular systems allocate

a set number of frequencies for each cell.

 Two cells can use the same frequency for different conversations so long as the
cells are not adjacent to each other.

4
 Wireless Communication Systems

 Coverage over a large area

 Coverage to a large number of users

 Maintain an acceptable level of quality

 Large Capacity

 Efficient use of Resources (Spectrum)

 Availability

 Adaptability to traffic density

 Better service to mobile terminals

 Better Quality of Service

 Affordable
5
 Wireless Systems

 A single tower at the center called a Base Station (BS).

 Powerful transmitter attached to top of base station.

 Coverage area increased by making tower taller and/or increasing transmission
power.

 The receiver is called the Mobile Station (MS). It may be an ordinary mobile phone.

 Does this model satisfy our goals?

 Large coverage area –yes
 High call quality - yes
 Limited number of users –That's the problem!
 GSM has a limit on the number of users due to frequency limitations.
 Because a few spectrum is available for the communication.

6
 Cellular Concept

 To mitigate the spectrum shortage we can reuse the same spectrum over and over!
This is known as Channel (Frequency) Reuse.

 Refers to the intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout different

coverage areas which are separated from one another by sufficient distances so
that co-channel interference is not objectionable.

 But we have to consider the Co-channel interference.

 Interference caused by transmissions on the same channel (e.g. same

frequency).

 To avoid the Co-channel interference a Reuse distance needs to be maintained.

 Minimum distance between two cells using same channel for satisfactory signal
7
to noise ratio.
 Cellular Concept

 Base stations (BS) are implemented in space division multiplex.

 Instead of covering the whole area with one transmitter (base station) of high
power we deploy multiple base stations of moderate (lower) power.
 Each base station covers some specific area.
 Each base station is assigned a portion of the total number of channels, while
neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the
interference between base stations (and mobile users) is minimized.
 Spacing the base stations systematically and allocating the channels
appropriately results in minimizing the co-channel interference.
 Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use all available channels.

 Mobile Stations (MS) communicate only via the base station, using FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA etc.

8
 Cellular Concept

 Cell size:
 100 m in cities to 35 km on the country side (GSM)
 even less for higher frequencies
 Umbrella cell: large cell that includes several smaller cells
 Avoid frequent hand-offs for fast moving traffic

 Cell shape:
 Hexagonal is useful for theoretical analysis (it closely
approximates the circle)
 Practical footprint (radio coverage area) is amorphous

 BS placement:
 Center-excited cell: BS near center of cell
 omni-directional antenna
 Edge-excited cell: BSs on three of the six cell vertices'
 sectored directional antennas

9
 Cellular Concept

 Advantages:  Problems:

 higher capacity, higher  fixed network needed for the

number of users base stations
 handover necessary
 less transmission power  interference with co-channel,
needed adjacent-channel

 more robust, decentralized  Important Issues:

 base station deals with  Cell sizing; Frequency reuse

interference, transmission planning
area etc. locally  Channel allocation strategies

Bottom line: Attempt to maximize availability of channels in an area

10
 Frequency Reuse

 The total number of channels are divided into N groups/cells.

 N is called cluster size (N is the number of cells per cluster).

 K is called the frequency reuse factor, where K = 1/N.
 Each cell is assigned one of the groups.
 The same group can be reused by two different cells provided that they are
sufficiently far apart.

 Extensive frequency reuse allows for many users to be supported at the same time.

 Total spectrum allocated to the service provider is broken up into smaller bands. A
cell is assigned one of these bands. This means all communications (transmissions
to and from users) in this cell occur over these frequencies only.

11
 Frequency Reuse

 Neighboring cells are assigned a different frequency band.

 This ensures that nearby transmissions do not interfere with each other.

 The same frequency band is reused in another cell that is far away. This large
distance limits the interference caused by this co-frequency cell.

 Example of Frequency Reuse:

 Cells using the same frequencies

 Each different color represents

different frequency.
 5 different frequencies are being

used repeatedly.  So, here N = 5

Figure 1: Frequency Reuse

12
 Frequency Reuse: 7 Cell Reuse

Figure 2: Illustration of Cellular Frequency Reuse Concept

13
Frequency Reuse: 19 Cell
Reuse

14
 Example

 Example 1:
Given that, the cell cluster size N = 7, frequency reuse factor = 1/7. Assume total
number of channels is 490. How many channels per cell are there? If the Clusters are
replicated 3 times then what is the total number of channels in that system?

 Solution:

Assume T = 490,
Total channels, N = 7,

So channels per cell are T/N = 70 channels/cell

Clusters are replicated 3 times

So system capacity = 3x490 = 1470 total channel.

15
 Cell Coordinate System

 From geometry of grid of hexagons

only certain values of N are possible
if replicating cluster with out gaps

N = i2+ ij + j2,
where i and j are non-negative
integers.

 To find co-channel neighbors of

a cell, move i cells along any chain
of hexagons, turn 60 degrees
counter clockwise, and
move j cells.

Figure 3: Cell A is represented by (2,1). i=2, j=1, N=7

16
 Distance to Co-channel Cell

Where N = i2+ij+j2

Note:
i and j are integers.

R = cell radius.

Area of hexagon = 2.61xR2

Figure 4: Distance to Co-channel Cell

D = distance to co-channel cell. 17

 Fixed Channel Assignments
 Each cell is allocated a
predetermined set of voice
channels.
 If all the channels in that cell are
occupied, the call is blocked,
and the subscriber does not
receive service.
 Variation includes a borrowing
strategy: a cell is allowed to
borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all its own
channels are occupied. This is
supervised by the MSC.
Channel Assignment Strategies
 Dynamic Channel Assignments
 Voice channels are not allocated
to different cells permanently.
 Each time a call request is
made, the serving base station
requests a channel from the
MSC.
 The switch then allocates a
channel to the requested call
based on a decision algorithm
taking into account different
factors: frequency re-use of
candidate channel and cost
factors.
 Dynamic channel assignment is
more complex (real time), but
reduces likelihood of blocking.
18
 Interference and System Capacity

Major limiting factor in performance of cellular radio systems is the interference.

 Sources of interference:
 other mobiles in same cell.
 A call in progress in a neighboring cell.
 Other base stations operating in the same frequency band.
 Non-cellular system leaking energy into the cellular frequency band.

 Effect of interference:
 voice channel: cross talk.
 control channel: missed or blocked calls.

 Mainly two types of Interferences are there:

 Co-channel interference.
 Adjacent channel interference.
19
 Co-Channel Interference

 Cells that use the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells.

 Interference between the cells is called co-channel interference.

Co-channel reuse ratio: Q = D/R

R: radius of cell
D: distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells
Small Q small cluster size N large capacity
large Q good transmission quality

 Trade-off must be made in actual cellular design.

20
 Signal-to-interference (S/I) ratio

 S = Signal Strength (power).

 I = co-channel interference strength (power).
 Ii = power of co-channel interference from i th cell.

 To find total interference, sum up interference power from all cells:

 Pr = Power received.
 Po = Power at a nearby point (do).
 do = distance of the near by point.
 d = distance of the co channel.
 n = path loss exponent, depends on environment.
21
 Signal-to-interference (S/I) ratio

 Converting this to the form above:

 S = Po = worst-case signal is measured at the outer edge of the cell.
 do = distance to where S is measured = R .
 Ii = Pr = Power of interference from the i th cell (received power from co-channel cells is
not desired, and is therefore interference).
 d = distance to the i th cell Di .

 Substituting into the S/I equation:

N Q S/I (in dB)

i=1,j=1 3 3 11.3
i=2,j=0 4 3.46 13.78
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 18.65
i=3,j=0 9 5.2 20.86

22
 Approaches to
Increasing Capacity

 Frequency borrowing:
 frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.

 Cell splitting:
 cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.

 Cell sectoring:
 cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own
set of channels.

 Microcells:
 antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts.

23
 Cell Splitting

 Subdivide a congested cell into smaller cells.

 Each with its own base station,

reduction in antenna and transmitter
Power.

 More cells more clusters

higher capacity.

 Achieves capacity improvement

by essentially rescaling the system.
Figure 5: Cell splitting from radius R to R/2
24
 Cell Sectoring

 In basic form, antennas are omni-directional.

 Replacing a single omni-directional antenna at base station with several directional

antennas, each radiating within a specified sector.

 Sectoring achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the system.

 It has less co-channel interference, number of cells in a cluster can be reduced.

 Frequency reuse factor is larger results in a larger capacity.

Figure 6: Cell Sectoring

25
 Decreasing the Co-channel
Interference by Sectorization

N Q S/I [dB]
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 23.42 (1200)
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 26.43 (600)
26
 Handover/ Handoff

 The process of transferring a mobile user from one channel or base station to
another.

 important task in any cellular radio system.

 must be performed successfully,

infrequently, and imperceptible to users.

 identify a new base station.

 channel allocation in new base station.

Figure 7: Handover/ Handoff
 high priority than initiation request
(block new calls rather than drop existing calls)

27
 Hand-off Parameter

 PMIN_USABLE is the minimum usable

signal level.

 PHANDOFF is the threshold received

signal level at which a handoff will
be initiated.
∆ = PHANDOFF – PMIN_USABLE  Successful Handoff
 no call loss occurs
 We must have an optimize ∆.
 Too large => too many handoffs
.
 Too small => too many lost
calls.

 Value of ∆ depends on:

 Environment.
 Expected mobile speeds.
 Unsuccessful Handoff
 Time required to perform a
 call loss occurs
handoff.

28
 Performance of Handoffs

 Handoff is accounting for varying mobile speeds. It also affects design phase of
cellular system. So what size of cells should be used?

 Large Cells (Macrocellular)

 Cell radii several km
 High speed mobiles
 Problem: Cells too large to provide required capacity for dense user bases.

 Small Cells (Microcellular)

 Cell radii only 100-200 m
 Low-speed mobiles
 Problem: Excessive handoffs occur when high-speed mobiles are present.

 Umbrella Cells
 Combine large and small cells
 Microcells increase system capacity
 Macrocells reduce load on system due to excessive handoffs
 Allows for increased capacity while reducing number of handoffs. 29
Umbrella Cell

30
END

31