Prof. M Dhanalakshmi, Asst. Prof., IT Dept, SCET, Surat. CHAPTER – 2 Cellular Wireless Networks
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Topics Principles of Cellular Networks First – Generation Analog Second-Generation TDMA Second-Generation CDMA Third-Generation Systems
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Topics Principles of Cellular Networks ◦ Cellular Network Organization ◦ Shape of Cells ◦ Frequency Reuse ◦ Cluster Size ◦ Increasing Capacity ◦ Example of Mobile Cellular Call ◦ Mobile Radio Propagation Effects ◦ Handoff
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Principles of Cellular Networks Cellular technology is the foundation of mobile wireless communications It supports users in locations that are not easily served by wired networks. Cellular technology is the underlying technology for mobile telephones, personal communications systems, wireless Internet and wireless Web applications, The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high power transmitter/receiver systems with low power transmitter/ receiver. Use lower-power systems with shorter radius and to use numerous transmitters/receivers. Prof. M. Dhanalakshmi Mobile Computing & Wireless Communication 4 Cellular Network Organization Use of multiple low-power transmitters, on the order of 100W or less. An area can be divided into cells. Each one served by its own antenna. Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station (BS), consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit. Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk
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Shape of Cells
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Shape of Cells Square: A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to define. This geometry is not ideal. If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbours at a distance d and four neighbors at a distance As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's boundaries, it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are equidistant. This simplifies the task of determining when to switch the user to an adjacent antenna and which antenna to choose.
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Shape of Cells Hexagon: A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas. The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of the circle that circumscribes it. The distance from the center to each vertex; also equal to the length of a side of a hexagon. For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center is
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Shape of Cells Hexagon: Precise hexagonal pattern is not used. Variations from the ideal are due to ◦ Topographical limitations, ◦ Local signal propagation conditions, ◦ Practical limitation on siting antennas.
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Frequency Reuse In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver. The transmission power is carefully controlled to allow communication within the cell using a given frequency band while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes the cell into adjacent cells. It is not practical to attempt to use the same frequency band in two adjacent cells.
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Frequency Reuse Objective is to use the same frequency band in multiple cells at some distance from one another. This allows the same frequency band to be used for multiple simultaneous conversations in different cells. Key design issue is to determine the minimum separation between two cells using the same frequency band, so that the two cells do not interfere with each other.
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Frequency Reuse Benefits of Frequency Reuse: Allows communication within cell on a given frequency. Limits escaping power to adjacent cells. Allows reuse of frequency in nearby cells. Uses same frequency for multiple conversations.
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Frequency Reuse Example: If the pattern consists of N cells and each cell is assigned the same number of frequencies. K is the total number of frequencies allotted to the system. Each cell can have K/N frequencies.
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Characterizing Frequency Reuse
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Cluster Size
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Cluster Size How to find cluster size of cellular network? Formula:
N: No. of cell with unique/non repeated frequency.
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To find the distance to reach from cell1 to another cell2:
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Cluster Size Possible values of N are 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19,21,..
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Increasing Capacity
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Increasing Capacity As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number of users. So, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area. Techniques used to expand the capacity of cellular systems: 1. Adding new channels 2. Cell Splitting 3. Sectoring 4. Coverage Zone Approaches 5. Frequency Borrowing
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Increasing Capacity 1. Adding New Channels: When a system is set up in a region, not all of the channels are used, and growth and expansion can be managed by adding new channels. 2. Frequency borrowing: Frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells and frequencies can also be assigned to cells dynamically.
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Increasing Capacity 3. Cell Splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. The original cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size. The smaller cells can themselves be split; however, l.5-km cells are close to the practical minimum size. To use a smaller cell, the power level used must be reduced to keep the signal within the cell.
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Increasing Capacity 3. Cell Splitting: The mobile units move, they pass from cell to cell, which requires transferring of the call from one base transceiver to another. This process is called a handoff. As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become much more frequent.
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Increasing Capacity 4. Cell Sectoring: a cell is divided into a number of wedge shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically 3 or 6 sectors per cell. Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell's channels, and directional antennas at the base station are used to focus on each sector.
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Increasing Capacity
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Increasing Capacity 5. Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings or hills, to the tops of small buildings or the sides of large buildings. Each decrease in cell size is accompanied by a reduction in the radiated power levels from the base stations and the mobile units. Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas,along highways, and inside large public buildings.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call Each Base Station (BS) is connected to a MTSO (Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office) MTSO is connected with PTSN (Public Telecommunications Switching Network). MTSO: MTSO connects calls between mobile units and from mobile to fixed telecommunications network. Assigns voice channels, performs handoffs, monitors calls for billing.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and the base station (BS): Control channels Traffic channels.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call Steps in a typical call between two mobile users within an area controlled by a single MTSO are: Mobile Unit Initialization Mobile Originated Call Paging Call Accepted Ongoing Call Handoff
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 1. Mobile Unit Initialization: When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest setup control channel. The mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna of the cell within which it will operate. Handshake takes place between the mobile unit and the MTSO, through the BS to identify user and register location.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 1. Mobile Unit Initialization: As long as the mobile unit is on, this scanning procedure is repeated periodically to account for the motion of the unit. If the unit enters a new cell, then a new BS is selected. The mobile unit keeps on monitoring for pages
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 2. Mobile Originated Call: The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is idle by examining information in the forward (from the BS) channel. When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the corresponding reverse (to BS) channel. The BS sends the request to the MTSO.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 3. Paging: The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called unit. The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the called mobile unit number. Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 4. Call Accepted: The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel. Responds to that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO. The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs. The MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each BS's cell and notifies each BS. BSs notify mobile unit of channel.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 5. Ongoing Call: While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units exchange voice or data signals, going through their respective BSs and the MTSO.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 6. Handoff: Mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the range of another during a connection. The traffic channel has to change to one assigned to the BS in the new cell. The system makes this change without either interrupting the call or alerting the user.
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Example of Mobile Cellular Call 6. Handoff:
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Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions Call Blocking: During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels assigned to the nearest BS are busy, ◦ The mobile unit makes a preconfigured number of repeated attempts.
After a certain number of failed tries, a busy tone is returned to
the user.
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Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions Call Termination: When one of the two users hangs up, the MTSO is informed and the traffic channels at the two BSs are released. Call Drop: During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots. If the BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength for a certain period of time. The traffic channel to the user is dropped and the MTSO is informed.
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Cal in MTSO Area : Other Functions Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber: MTSO connects to the public switched telephone network. The MTSO can set up a connection between a mobile user in its area and a fixed subscriber via the telephone network. The MTSO can connect to a remote MTSO via the telephone network or via dedicated lines Set up a connection between a mobile user in its area and a remote mobile user.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Mobile radio communication introduces complexities that are not found in wire communication or in fixed wireless communication. Two general areas of concern are Signal strength Signal propagation effects.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Signal strength Strength of the signal between the base station and the mobile unit must be strong enough to maintain signal quality at the receiver. Not so strong as to create too much cochannel interference with channels in another cell using the same frequency band. Human-made noise varies considerably, resulting in a variable noise level.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Signal strength: Automobile ignition noise in the cellular frequency range is greater in the city than in a suburban area. Signal sources vary from place to place. The signal strength varies as a function of distance from the BS to a point within its cell. Moreover, the signal strength varies dynamically as the mobile unit moves.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Fading: In wireless communication fading occurs due to following reasons: Time variation of received signal Caused by changes in transmission paths. Atmospheric Conditions. Movement of (Mobile Unit) antenna.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Multipath Effect: Signal travelling from source may take multiple path to reach destination. The signal received at receiver end is sum of all multipath signals. It may lead to phase difference due to comparatively longer and shorter path of traversal in multipath effect.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Types of fading: Fast Fading: Rapid changes in strength over distances about half wavelength. Slow Fading: Slower changes due to user passing different height buildings , gaps in buildings. Over long distances than fast fading.
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Mobile Radio Propagation Effects Types of fading: Flat Fading: Non Selective. Affects all frequencies in same proportion. Selective Fading: Different frequency components affected differently.
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Handoff
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Handoff Handoff is the procedure for changing the assignment of a mobile unit from one BS to another as the mobile unit moves from one cell to another. 1. Handoff may be network initiated, in which the decision is made solely by the network measurements of received signals from the mobile unit. 2. Mobile unit assisted handoff : Enable the mobile unit to participate in the handoff decision by providing feedback to the network concerning signals received at the mobile unit.
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Handoff Different performance metrics may be used to make the decision: Cell blocking probability: The probability of a new call being blocked, due to heavy load on the BS traffic capacity. In this case, the mobile unit is handed off to a neighboring cell based not on signal quality but on traffic capacity.
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Handoff Different performance metrics may be used to make the decision: Call dropping probability: The probability that, due to a handoff, a call is terminated. Call completion probability: The probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates. Probability of unsuccessful handoff: The probability that a handoff is executed while the reception conditions are inadequate.
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Handoff Different performance metrics may be used to make the decision: Handoff blocking probability: The probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed. Handoff probability: The probability that a handoff occurs before call termination. Rate of handoff: The number of handoffs per unit time.
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Handoff Different performance metrics may be used to make the decision: Interruption duration: The duration of time during a handoff in which a mobile unit is not connected to either base station. Handoff delay: The distance the mobile unit moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does occur.
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First Generation Analog
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Topics First Generation Analog: ◦ Call Sequence ◦ Features ◦ Limitations
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First Generation Analog Refers to 1G – first generation of wireless cellular technology mobile telecommunications. Uses analog radio signals. Provides basic voice service. Nippon Telegraph and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo started the first commercial analog cellular system in December 1979. Transmission speed was very low ( 1- 2 Kbps). Each phone contained 32- bit serial number. 10 digit phone number in its PROM. Basic idea behind 1G cellular network was that the geographical area is divided among cells. Each cell served by Base Station.
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First Generation Analog – Call Sequence 1. Subscriber initiates call by keying in number and presses call. 2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks user authorized to place the call. 3. MTSO issues message to user’s phone indicating traffic channels to use. 4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party. ◦ Steps from 2 to 4 occur within 10 sec of initiating call.
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First Generation Analog – Call Sequence 5. When called party answers , MTSO establishes circuit and initiates billing information. 6. When one party hangs up MTSO releases circuit, frees radio channels and completes billing information.
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First Generation Analog Features Channel Bandwidth : 30 kHz Data Transmission Rate : 1 -2 kbps No. of control channel : 42 No. of voice channel : 790 Cell Radius: 2 – 20 km Modulation – Voice Channel : Frequency Modulation Modulation – Control Channel : FSK Circuit Switching
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First Generation Analog Limitations Limited Capacity : 1 -2 kbps Lack of privacy : No encryption schemes Poor sound quality No room for spectrum growth Unreliable handoff No internet support
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Second Generation TDMA
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Second Generation
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FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
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FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
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Second Generation TDMA It is a digital cellular telephone communication technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. TDMA technology divides a signal into various timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity. TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the exclusive use of a time interval.
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Second Generation TDMA - Advantages Flexible rates: Several slots can be assigned to a user eg: each time interval translates 32kbps , a user is assigned two 64Kbps slots per frame). Can withstand with variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be changed frame by frame eg: 2 slots in frame 1, 3 slots in frame 2, 1 slot in frame 3. No guardband required for the wideband system. No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
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Second Generation TDMA - DisAdvantages High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization. Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies due to clock instability. Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption. Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.
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Second Generation CDMA In CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only those users associated with a particular code can communicate. Every channel uses the full spectrum. Each conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and then transmitted using a wide frequency range. Provides better voice quality and data communication.
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Second Generation CDMA Digital Traffic channels: ◦ Support digital data. ◦ Voice traffic digitized. ◦ User traffic converted to analog for transmission.
Simple to encrypt digital traffic.
Error detection and correction. More capacity than TDMA.
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Second Generation CDMA Advantages Does not require any synchronization. Has high spectral capacity, thus many number of users can share in the same bandwidth. CDMA channel is not easily decodable. Dropouts occur only when the phone is atleast twice as far from the base station. High voice quality as well as signal quality. Flexible allocation of resources. Operate at very low power level.
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Second Generation CDMA DisAdvantages Does not provide international roaming capabilities like GSM. Information related to CDMA is stored in phone memory rather than SIM memory like in GSM, so tedious to upgrade mobile unit. Limited handset, because at present the major mobile companies use GSM technology. Performance degrades with increase number of users.
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Second Generation 2G Features: Emits comparatively less radio power. Maximum power drawn by mobile unit is 20Watts. Encryption facility. Error detection & correction. Internet facility provided. Limitations: Difficult to handle complex data such as Video. Higher signal strength is required to make device work.
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Third Generation 3G
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Third Generation Systems – 3G Introduced in the year – 2000 Used Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) technology. Support circuit & packet switching. Objective is to provide fairly wide speed wireless coomunications to support Multimedia data, Video, voice, Web browsing, TV Streaming, Video Conferencing, Navigation, Email. More coverage with low investment.
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Third Generation Systems – 3G Features: Technology Used: WCDMA / CDMA Bandwidth: 5 -10 Mbps. Frequency Bands: 15-25 GHz. Uses circuit & packet switching. Higher Security. Limitations: Cost of mobile unit is higher. Cost of 3G license services is higher.
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GSM Vs CDMA
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GSM VS CDMA
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Comparison of Mobile Generations
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Comparison of Mobile Generations
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Reference TextBook Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition,William Stallings by Pearson
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