Wireless Communication Question Bank

MODULE-1

Short Questions

1. What is wireless communication?

Ans= Wireless communications is the transmission of voice and data without cable or
wires. In place of a physical connection, data travels through electromagnetic signals
broadcast from sending facilities to intermediate and end-user devices.

2. What is the role of Antenna in wireless communication?

Ans= Antennas are the most physically visible component of a wireless infrastructure. Whether it
be radio , LAN, or otherwise, an antenna is extremely important. The antennas primary function is
to transmit and receive clear signals between multiple wireless points.

3. What is the difference between half duplex and full duplex communication?
Ans=

4. Highlight the parameters essential while considering cellular issues.

Ans= Frequency Reuse
Interference and Reuse
Multiple Access
Coding

5. What is a cell?
Ans= A cell is the geographic area that is covered by a single base station in a cellular
network
6. What should be the shape of a cell and why it is considered so?
Ans = A hexagon is a tessellating cell shape in that cells can be laid next to each other
with no overlap; therefore, they can cover the entire geographical region without any
gaps
7. What is a cluster and cluster size?
Ans= When planning a cellular network, operators typically allocate different
frequency bands or channels to adjacent cells so that interference is reduced even
when the coverage areas overlap slightly. In this way, cells can be grouped
together in what is termed a cluster.
Clusters often contain seven cells, but other configurations are possible. The larger
the number of cells in the cluster, the greater the distance needed between cells
sharing the same frequencies.

8. Mention the formula for cluster size.

Ans=

9.

Focused Short Questions

1.`What are the advantages of Wireless communication?

1. Freedom from wires: Can be configured with the use of any physical con-
nection.
2. Easy to setup: Wireless network is easy to expand and setup
3. Better or global coverage: It provides global reach by providing networking
in places such as rural areas, battlefields, etc… where wiring is not feasible.
4. Flexibility: Wireless network is more flexible and adaptable compared to a
wired network.
5. Cost-effectiveness: Since it is easy to install and doesn’t require cables, the
wireless network is relatively cheaper.
6. Mobile and portable: Wireless network is easy to carry and re-install in an-
other place.
7. Mobility -: It has good mobility of usage.

8. What are the basic elements of wireless communication?

Ans= Basic Elements of a Wireless Communication System
A typical Wireless Communication System can be divided into three
elements: the Transmitter, the Channel and the Receiver.
The Transmission Path
A typical transmission path of a Wireless Communication System consists
of Encoder, Encryption, Modulation and Multiplexing.

The Channel
The channel in Wireless Communication indicates the medium of
transmission of the signal i.e. open space.

The Reception Path

The job of the Receiver is to collect the signal from the channel and
reproduce it as the source signal. The reception path of a Wireless
Communication System comprises of Demultiplexing , Demodulation,
Channel Decoding, Decryption and Source Decoding.

Since the message is encrypted, Decryption of the signal removes the

security and turns it into simple sequence of bits. Finally, this signal is
given to the Source Decoder to get back the original transmitted message
or signal.
9. Give a brief idea on 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G.

Ans= What is 2G?

2G networks launching in 1991 enabled clear and encrypted digital voice calls. This second
generation also provided the groundwork for a communications revolution. With 2G people could
send text messages (SMS), picture messages, and multimedia messages (MMS) from their phones.
While initial transfer speeds were limited, service providers/operators rushed to invest in new
infrastructure such as mobile cell towers to meet demands.

What is 3G?
In 2001, 3G or 3GSM standardized network protocols used by vendors. This third generation enabled
an increase in data transfer capabilities (4 times faster than 2G) the development of new services such
as video conferencing, video streaming and voice over IP. With the standardization of web
connectivity, international roaming services became reality.

What Is 4G?
4G or, the Long Term Evolution (LTE) is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications
technology was introduced in 2009. 4G added mobile ultra-broadband internet access to mobile
devices in addition to the usual voice and other data services provided by the earlier third generation
(3G) technology. The technology enabled high-quality video streaming (up to 1 gigabit per second for
stationary users and network latencies of 5 milliseconds) to facilitate gaming services, high definition
(HD) videos and high quality (HQ) video conferencing. Service providers that offered CDMA2000 or
GSM /UMTS networks used the LTE standard as the upgrade from those earlier, third-generation
(3G) standards for faster service.

What Is 5G?
5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra
low latency, more reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a
more uniform user experience to more users. Higher performance and improved
efficiency empower new user experiences and connects new industries.

Long Questions

1. A) What is Frequency reuse and explain its significance in wireless communication with
example?

Ans= .

Technique for using a specified range of frequencies more than once in the
same radio system so that the total capacity of the system is increased
without increasing its allocated bandwidth.
Frequency reuse improve the spectral efficiency and signal Quality
Example+
B) If ‘K’ is the number of duplex channels in a cell, with ‘N’ being the cluster size and the
cluster is repeated ‘M’ times within the given area, then what is the total number of duplex channels
available within the given area?

2. If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allotted to a particular FDD cellular telephone system

which uses 25 KHz simplex channel to provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute the
total number of channels available per cell, if a system uses:
If 1 MHz of the allotted spectrum is dedicated to control channel, then determine an equitable
distribution of the control channels and voice channels in each cell for each of the three systems.
Ans=
MODULE-2

Short Questions

1. Explain about the Handoff in CDMA.

Ans= Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base station to another, the
network automatically switches to the other respective base station and maintains
the coverage responsibility. This behavior called "hand-off" (Handoff) or "hand-over"
(Handover).

2. What is Handoff priority?

Ans=A method of prioritizing handoff requests in a cellular system is disclosed in which at least one
handoff request for assignment of a communication channel is received from at least one mobile
unit. A cutoff time for the handoff request is determined.
3. What is intersystem handoff?
Ans= Inter System Handoff. If during ongoing call mobile unit moves from one cellular system to a
different cellular system which is controlled by different MTSO, a handoff procedure which is used to
avoid dropping of call is referred as Inter System Handoff. An MTSO engages in this handoff system.
4. How the frequency reuse ratio related to cluster size?
Ans= The number of cells after which a frequency channel can be reused is called as
the Frequency reuse factor (R.F). It is given by R. F=1/N, Where N is the cluster size.
The Reuse Factor Q has a very important significance in deciding the capacity
improvement techniques.
5. What is Signal to Interference Ratio?
Ans= The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR or S/I), also known as
the carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR or C/I), is the quotient between
the average received modulated carrier power S or C and the average
received co-channel interference power I, i.e. crosstalk, from other
transmitters than the useful signal.
6. How S/I ratio related to Channel reuse ratio
Ans=
7. What is near far effect?
 Ans =The near–far problem or hearability problem is the effect of a strong signal from a near signal source
in making it hard for a receiver to hear a weaker signal from a further source due to adjacent-channel
interference, co-channel interference, distortion, capture effect, dynamic range limitation, or the like.

Focused Short Questions

1. What is Handoff process?

Ans=Process of transferring a mobile telephone call from one cell to another without
dropping the call. Cellular users may traverse several cells during a conversation,
sometimes requiring a high-speed handoff in a moving vehicle.
For instance, if a subscriber moves out of the coverage area of a particular cell while
entering another, a handoff takes place between the two cells. The cell that served
the call prior to the handoff is relieved of its duties, which are then transferred to the
second cell
2. Mention the factors influencing in Handoff?
Ans= Factors Influencing Handoffs,
The following factors influence the entire handoff process:
(a)Transmitted power: as we know that the transmission power is different for different cells, the
handoff threshold or the power margin varies from cell to cell.
(b)Received power: the received power mostly depends on the Line of Sight (LoS) path between the
user and the BS. Especially when the user is on the boundary of the two cells, the LoS path plays a
critical role in handoffs and therefore the power margindepends on the minimum received power
value from cell to cell.
(c)Area and shape of the cell: Apart from the power levels, the cell structure also a plays an
important role in the handoff process.
(d)Mobility of users: The number of mobile users entering or going out of a particular cell,also fixes
the handoff strategy of a cell.

3. Explain about the Umbrella Cell approach.

Ans = The umbrella cell approach is used to provide large area coverage to high
speed users while providing small area coverage to users travelling at low speeds.
This ensures that the number of handoffs are minimized for high speed users while
at same time additional micro cell channels are provided for pedestrian users.

4. What is co channel interference?

Ans= Co-channel interference or CCI exists when two or more devices are
operating on the same frequency channel.

Co-channel interference is not actually an interference but more a sort of congestion.

It hinders the performance by increasing the wait time as the same channel is used
by different devices. The CCI forces other devices to defer transmissions and wait in
a queue until the first device finishes using the transmission line and the channel is
free.
The 802.11 protocol is designed to address this situation and to utilize the channel in
the most efficient way.

5. Write down a note on Adjacent Cell Interference.

Ans=
The cells placed close to each other are called adjacent cells, also known as the neighboring
cells. The adjacent cells in neither the animals nor plants share a common wall. However,
they comprise compositions, via which they communicate with each other and pass water and
nutrients across them.

Adjacent channel interference occurs when the transponder is simultaneously

shared by multiple carriers having closely spaced centre frequencies. From:
Satellite Signal Propagation, Impairments and Mitigation, 2017.

Long Questions

1. a) Write down a note on Channel Assignment Strategy

Ans= Channel Allocation means to allocate the available channels to the cells in a
cellular system. When a user wants to make a call request then by using channel
allocation strategies their requests are fulfilled. Channel Allocation Strategies are
designed in such a way that there is efficient use of frequencies, time slots and
bandwidth.

b) Classify the different types of channel assignment strategy and explain them.
Ans= Types of Channel Allocation Strategies:
These are Fixed, Dynamic, and Hybrid Channel Allocation as explained as following
below.
 Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA):

Fixed Channel Allocation is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice

channels are allocated to the cells. Once the channels are allocated to the specific
cells then they cannot be changed. In FCA channels are allocated in a manner that
maximize Frequency reuse.
In cell A 20 Channels or Voice channels are allocated. If all channels are occupied
and user make a call then the call is blocked. Borrowing Channels handles this
type of problem. This cell borrow channels from other cells.
Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA):

Dynamic Channel allocation is a strategy in which channels are not permanently

allocated to the cells. When a User makes a call request then Base Station (BS)
send that request to the Mobile Station Center (MSC) for the allocation of channels
or voice channels. This way the likelihood of blocking calls is reduced. As traffic
increases more channels are assigned and vice-versa.
Hybrid Channel Allocation (HCA):
Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of both Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
and Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA). The total number of channels or voice
channels are divided into fixed and dynamic set. When a user make a call then first
fixed set of channels are utilized but if all the fixed sets are busy then dynamic sets are
used. The main purpose of HCA is to work efficiently under heavy traffic and to
maintain a minimum S/I.
2. a) Describe about the Handoff process in different generations.
Ans= In first generation (1G) analog cellular systems, signal strength measurements are made by the
base stations and supervised by the MSC. Each base station constantly monitors the signal strengths
of all of its reverse voice channels to determine the relative location of each mobile user with
respect to the base station tower. In addition to measuring the RSSI of calls in progress within the
cell, a spare receiver in each base station, called the locator receiver, is used to scan and determine
signal strengths of mobile users which are in neighboring cells. The locator receiver is controlled by
the MSC and is used to monitor the signal strength of users in neighboring cells which appear to be
in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC. Based on the locator receiver signal
strength information from each base station, the MSC decides if a handoff is necessary or not.
In second generation (2G) systems, handoff decisions are mobile assisted. In mobile
assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station measures the received power from
surrounding base stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to
the serving base station. A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base
station of a neighboring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base
station by a certain level or for a certain period of time.

In Third generation (3G) systems, the majority of handoff are intra-frequency soft
handoffs.A soft handoff perform between two sectors belonging to different BS but not
necessarily to the same BSC is class 2-way soft handoff.When a mobile is moving away
from BS it continuously measures the pilot signal coming from all nearby BS and select
the best BS for handoff.Thus the signal coming from pilot channel is used to make handoff
decision.If the strength of pilot signal coming from old BS decreases then handoff decision
is taken.

\
b) Differentiate between MAHO and MCHO.
Ans = MAHO (Mobile Assisted Handover) and MCHO (Mobile Controlled Handover) are two
different types of handover, or the process of transferring a mobile device's connection from one
base station to another.
MAHO is a type of handover in which the mobile device actively assists in the handover process. The
mobile device periodically measures the signal strength of neighboring base stations and sends this
information to the network, which then uses it to determine when to initiate a handover. This method
is also known as "Mobile-assisted Handover".
MCHO (Mobile Controlled Handover) is a type of handover in which the network makes all decisions
about when to initiate a handover. The mobile device does not actively participate in the handover
process, it only receives the commands from the network, the network makes all decisions about when
to initiate a handover based on the received signal strength, the speed, and the location of the mobile
device. This method is also known as "Mobile-controlled Handover"

3. A signal to interference ratio of 15dB is required for satisfactory forward channel

performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be
used for maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (i) n=4, (ii) n=3? Assume that there are six co-
channel cells in the first tier, and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile.
Ans=

MCOM December 2015 - YouTube

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MODULE-3

Short Questions

1. What is one Erlang?

Ans= A single cord circuit has the capacity to be used for 60 minutes in one hour. Full
utilization of that capacity, 60 minutes of traffic, constitutes 1 erlang.
2. Define traffic intensity.
Ans= In telecommunication networks, traffic intensity is a measure of the average occupancy of a
server or resource during a specified period of time, normally a busy hour.
3. What Block call?
Ans= Call blocking is a form of call screening that allows users to block incoming
calls from specific numbers. With call blocking, you can stop bots, spam callers,
telemarketers, and other undesirable numbers from reaching you.
4. What is Holding Time?
Ans =- Holding time, also known as call duration, is the amount of time a call remains connected or
"on hold" between the time it is initiated and the time it is terminated. Holding time is an important
metric for evaluating the performance of a telephone system or a cellular network, as it can be used
to determine the level of usage, the quality of service, and the capacity of the network. Holding time
can also be used to estimate the revenue generated by a telephone or cellular network, as it is
directly related to the number of call minutes.

5. Mention the properties of frequency dependent radio waves during long distance
communication.
Ans= Frequency-dependent radio waves have several properties that make them well-suited for
long-distance communication:
1. High frequency: Radio waves at higher frequencies are able to carry more information than
those at lower frequencies, which makes them more efficient for transmitting data over long
distances.
2. Low attenuation: High-frequency radio waves experience less attenuation (loss of strength) as
they travel through the atmosphere, allowing them to maintain their strength over long
distances.
3. Smaller wavelength: High-frequency radio waves have a smaller wavelength, which allows
them to bend around objects and obstacles more easily. This makes them less susceptible to
signal blockage and allows them to travel farther than lower-frequency waves.
4. Directional propagation: High-frequency radio waves can be directed more precisely than
lower-frequency waves, which allows for more accurate communication over long distances.
5. Diffraction: High-frequency radio waves can diffract more around objects and obstacles,
which means they can go around them instead of being blocked by them.
6. Reflection: High-frequency radio waves can be reflected off of the ionosphere, which is a
layer of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, allowing them to travel over long
distances.

These properties of frequency-dependent radio waves make them ideal for long-distance
communication such as satellite communication, radio navigation and long-range radio
communications.

6. Write down the Friis free-space equation?

Ans= The Friis free-space equation is a mathematical formula that describes the relationship
between the power of a radio signal at a transmitter, the power of the same signal at a receiver, and
the distance between the transmitter and receiver. The equation is:
Pt + Gt + Gr - L = Pr
Where:
Pt = Power of the transmitter (in watts) Gt = Gain of the transmitter antenna (unitless) Gr = Gain of
the receiver antenna (unitless) L = Losses due to atmospheric absorption, reflection, and other factors
(unitless) Pr = Power of the receiver (in watts)
The equation states that the power of the signal at the receiver (Pr) is equal to the power of the signal
at the transmitter (Pt), plus the gain of the transmitter antenna (Gt), plus the gain of the receiver
antenna (Gr), minus any losses that occur as the signal travels through the atmosphere or other factors
(L).

7. What is EIRP?
Ans= EIRP stands for "Effective Isotropic Radiated Power." It is a measure of the amount of power
that a radio transmitter actually radiates into the atmosphere, taking into account the gain of the
transmitter's antenna. EIRP is calculated by taking the transmitter power output (in watts) and
adding the gain of the transmitter antenna in dB. EIRP = (Transmitter Power Output) + (Antenna
Gain)
8. What is free-space path loss?
Ans= Free-space path loss is a measure of the decrease in power of a radio signal as it travels
through the atmosphere. It occurs because a radio signal spreads out as it travels, and as the
distance between the transmitter and receiver increases, the signal becomes weaker and more
diffuse. The decrease in power is proportional to the square of the distance, and it is independent of
the frequency of the signal.

9. What are the three ways of propagation of large scale propagation?

Ans = There are several ways that radio waves can propagate over long distances, or "large scale
propagation." Three of the most common ways are:
1. Line-of-sight propagation: This occurs when a radio signal travels in a straight line from the
transmitter to the receiver, and there are no physical obstacles (such as buildings or hills) in
the way. Line-of-sight propagation is most common in VHF and UHF bands.
2. Ground-wave propagation: This occurs when a radio signal travels along the surface of the
earth, rather than in a straight line. Ground-wave propagation can occur in the LF, MF and HF
bands.
3. Sky-wave propagation: This occurs when a radio signal is reflected off of the ionosphere, a
layer of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. This allows the signal to travel over
long distances and is mainly used in the HF band.

Each type of propagation has its own characteristics and limitations, and the choice of which one to
use will depend on the specific application and the frequency of the signal.

Focused Short Questions

1. Explain the request rate and find out the traffic intensity per channel, if the traffic is equally
distributed among the channels.
Ans= Request rate refers to the number of requests or transmissions that a system or network
receives or makes over a specific time period. It is typically measured in requests per second (RPS) or
requests per minute (RPM).
Traffic intensity per channel, also known as traffic load, is a measure of the amount of traffic that a
particular channel is handling at any given time. It is typically measured in Erlangs, where 1 Erlang is
equivalent to one call or transmission being active for one hour.
If the traffic is equally distributed among the channels, then the traffic intensity per channel can be
calculated by dividing the total traffic intensity by the number of channels. For example, if a system
has a total traffic intensity of 50 Erlangs and there are 10 channels, then the traffic intensity per
channel would be 5 Erlangs.
In order to find the request rate per channel, you can use the formula: Request Rate per channel =
(total request rate) / (number of channels)
If you are trying to find the traffic intensity per channel, it is important to know that it is dependent on
the capacity of the channel and the total traffic rate. It is important to monitor the traffic intensity per
channel to ensure that the channels are not over-utilized and to prevent congestion.

2. Explain the ways of improving the coverage and capacity in cellular system.
Ans=
There are several ways to improve coverage and capacity in a cellular system:
1. Cell splitting: This involves dividing a larger cell into smaller cells. This increases the number
of cells in a given area, which in turn increases the capacity of the system. It also allows for a
more efficient use of the available frequency spectrum.
2. Cell sectoring: This involves dividing a cell into smaller sectors, typically with 120 or 135
degrees. By adjusting the direction of the antennas, more capacity can be added to the system,
and it increases the capacity by reusing the same frequencies in different sectors.
3. Frequency reuse: This involves using the same frequency band in multiple cells, but with a
different offset or pattern to avoid interference. By using frequency reuse, the capacity of the
system can be increased without the need for additional spectrum.
4. Microcells and picocells: These are smaller cells that are placed in high-density areas such as
urban centers, shopping malls, airports, and stadiums. The cells are designed to handle high-
traffic areas, and they can increase capacity in areas where it is needed the most.
5. Smart antenna: This involves using an array of multiple antennas at the base station to
improve the signal and capacity of the system. Smart antennas can be used to increase
coverage, improve quality, and increase capacity.

3. Explain the concept of cell splitting.

Ans=
Cell splitting is a technique used to increase the capacity of a cellular network by dividing a larger
cell into smaller cells. It involves decreasing the size of cells, which increases the number of cells in a
given area and allows for a more efficient use of the available frequency spectrum.

The process of cell splitting is done by reducing the transmission power of the base stations. This
results in smaller coverage areas for each base station, creating smaller cells. The smaller cells
increase the number of available channels, reducing the number of users who share the same channel,
thus increasing the capacity of the network.

Cell splitting is particularly useful in high-density areas, such as urban centers, where there is a large
number of users in a small area. It is also effective in areas where there is a high demand for data
services, such as shopping centers, airports, and stadiums.
Additionally, cell splitting can be done in two ways: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal cell splitting
involves reducing the size of a cell by decreasing its radius, while vertical cell splitting involves
reducing the size of a cell by decreasing its height.

It's important to note that while cell splitting increases the capacity of the network, it also increases
the complexity of the network, as well as the cost of deploying and maintaining the network. It also
require more backhaul and power supply.

4. Write down the difference between Large-scale propagation & small-scale propagation
model.
Ans= Large-scale propagation models and small-scale propagation models are two types of models
used to predict the behavior of radio waves as they travel through the atmosphere.
Large-scale propagation models are used to predict the behavior of radio waves over long distances
and large areas, such as over a country or continent. These models typically take into account factors
such as the Earth's curvature, atmospheric conditions, and the location and height of any obstacles.
They are used to predict the coverage area of a radio signal and the signal strength in different
locations.
Small-scale propagation models, on the other hand, are used to predict the behavior of radio waves
over shorter distances and smaller areas, such as within a building or city. These models take into
account factors such as the absorption and reflection of radio waves by walls and other obstacles, as
well as the presence of any interference sources. They are used to predict the coverage area of a radio
signal and the signal strength in specific locations.
In summary, large-scale propagation models are used for long-distance communication and consider
the earth's curvature, atmospheric conditions and obstacles. While small-scale propagation models are
used for short-distance communication and consider the absorption and reflection of radio waves by
walls and other obstacles, as well as the presence of any interference sources.

5. Find the far field distance of an antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and operating
frequency of 900 MHz?
Ans= The far field distance of an antenna can be approximated using the following equation:
Far field distance (d) = 2 * (λ^2 * D^2) / λ
Where: λ = wavelength of the radio waves (in meters) D = maximum dimension of the antenna (in
meters)
To calculate the wavelength of the radio waves at 900 MHz, we can use the following equation: λ =
c/f
Where: c = speed of light (approximately 3 x 10^8 m/s) f = frequency of the radio waves (in Hz)
So for 900 MHz: λ = 3 x 10^8 / 900 x 10^6 = 0.33 meters
Plugging the values into the equation for far field distance: d = 2 * (0.33^2 * 1^2) / 0.33 = 2 meters
So the far field distance for an antenna with a maximum dimension of 1 meter and operating at 900
MHz is approximately 2 meters.
It's worth noting that this is an approximation and the actual far field distance can be affected by
various factors such as the environment and the antenna design.
6. What are the possible diffraction losses with respect to Knife Edge Diffraction Model?
Ans= In the Knife Edge Diffraction Model, the possible diffraction losses include:
1. Edge Diffraction Loss: This is the loss of signal strength caused by the diffraction of the radio
wave as it passes over the obstacle. The amount of loss depends on the height of the obstacle
and the distance from the obstacle to the receiver.
2. Fresnel Zone Loss: This is the loss of signal strength caused by the interference of the direct
and diffracted radio waves. The loss is greatest at the center of the Fresnel zone, which is an
area around the direct line of sight where the radio waves interfere with each other.
3. Shadowing Loss: This is the loss of signal strength caused by the obstacle blocking the direct
line of sight between the transmitter and receiver. The loss is greatest at the point of complete
shadowing, which is the point on the ground directly beneath the obstacle.
4. Multipath Loss: This is the loss of signal strength caused by the radio wave reflecting off of
the obstacle and arriving at the receiver at a later time. This can cause interference and reduce
the overall signal strength.
5. Scattering loss: this loss is caused by the radio wave getting scattered by the obstacle and
arriving at the receiver at different angles and times.

7. Differentiate between Reflection, Scattering and Diffraction, used in large scale propagation.
Ans=

Long Questions

1. a) Explain the concept of trunking.

Ans =Reflection, scattering, and diffraction are all mechanisms that can affect the propagation of
radio waves in large-scale propagation models.
Reflection refers to the bouncing of a radio wave off of a surface. When a radio wave strikes a
surface, some of the energy is reflected back into the atmosphere, while some is absorbed by the
surface. The angle at which the wave strikes the surface, as well as the surface's properties, determine
how much energy is reflected.
Scattering refers to the spreading out of a radio wave as it passes through an irregular surface or a
medium with inhomogeneities. When a radio wave passes through a medium with small variations in
its refractive index, such as the atmosphere, it gets scattered in many directions. Scattering can cause
signal loss and can also cause multipath propagation.
Diffraction refers to the bending of a radio wave around an obstacle. When a radio wave encounters
an obstacle, some of the energy bends around the obstacle and continues on its way. The amount of
diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle, the wavelength of the radio wave, and the distance
from the obstacle to the receiver.
In summary, Reflection is the bouncing of radio wave off a surface, Scattering is the spreading out of
radio wave as it passes through an irregular surface or medium and Diffraction is the bending of radio
wave around an obstacle.

b) And Grade of service.

Ans= Grade of service (GoS) is a measure of the quality of service provided by a telecommunications
system. It is used to indicate how well a system is meeting the needs of its users, and is typically
expressed as a percentage or as a probability.
GoS is typically calculated by analyzing the performance of a system under certain conditions, such
as peak traffic hours or during a specific event. The metrics used to calculate GoS can vary depending
on the system and the application, but some common metrics include:

 Call blocking probability: The probability that a call will be blocked (i.e. not connected) due
to a lack of available resources.

 Call completion probability: The probability that a call will be completed successfully.

 Mean time to repair: The average time it takes to repair a failed component of the system.

 Mean time between failures: The average time between failures of a component of the system.

 Call holding time: The average time a caller spends on hold before being connected.

 Call setup time: The average time it takes to establish a connection between two parties.

GoS is an important metric for telecommunication system because it can be used to identify
bottlenecks in the system and to determine where improvements can be made. Additionally, GoS can
be used to compare the performance of different systems or to evaluate the impact of new
technologies or changes in network configuration.

2. a) An urban area has a population of 2 million residences. Three competing trunk mobile
network system A, B & C provides cellular service in this area.
 System A has 394 cells with 19 channels each.( Given A=12 Erlang)
 System B has 98 cells with 57 channels each.( Given A=45 Erlang)
 System C has 49 cells with 100 channels each.(Given A=88 Erlang)
c) Find the number of users that can be supported at 2 % blocking if each user averages two
cells per hour at average cell duration of 3 mins.
3. A certain city has an area of 1,300 sq. miles and is covered by a cellular system using 7 cells
reuse pattern. Each cell has a radius of 4 miles and the city is allotted 40 MHz of spectrum with a full
duplex channel bandwidth of 60 KHz. Assume a GOS of 2% for an Erlang B system is specified. If the
offered traffic per user is 0.03 Erlangs,(Given Traffic intensity of each cell=84 Erlangs/cell) compute:

a) The number of cells in the service area

b) The number of channels per cell
c) The maximum carried traffic
d) The total number of users that can be served for 2% GOS
e) The number of mobiles per unique channel
f) The theoretical maximum number of users that could be served at one time by the
system.
4. If a transmitter produces 50 Watt of power, express the transmit power in the unit of: a) dBm
 b) dBW. If 50W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find
the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100m from the antenna.
5. Explain the Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model.
Ans= The Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model is a method used to predict the propagation of radio
waves in large-scale environments, such as urban or suburban areas. The model is based on the idea
that radio waves can be received by a receiver through two paths: a direct path from the transmitter
to the receiver, and a reflected path from the transmitter to the ground and then to the receiver.
The Two-Ray Model takes into account the following parameters:
  Transmitter and receiver heights: The heights of the transmitter and receiver above the
ground.

 Ground conductivity: The conductivity of the ground, which affects the amount of energy
absorbed by the ground.

 Ground dielectric constant: The dielectric constant of the ground, which affects the amount of
energy reflected by the ground.

 Frequency of the radio wave: The frequency of the radio wave, which affects the amount of
diffraction and scattering.

The Two-Ray Model predicts the following:

 Path loss: The loss of signal strength experienced by the radio wave as it travels from the
transmitter to the receiver.

 Received signal strength: The strength of the signal received by the receiver, taking into
account the direct and reflected paths.

 Angle of arrival: The angle at which the radio wave arrives at the receiver, which can affect
the directionality of the receiver.

 Angle of departure: The angle at which the radio wave leaves the transmitter, which can affect
the directionality of the transmitter.

MODULE-4
Short Questions
1. What is Outdoor propagation model and what are the different types of it?
Ans= The Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model is a method used to predict the propagation of radio
waves in large-scale environments, such as urban or suburban areas. The model is based on the idea
that radio waves can be received by a receiver through two paths: a direct path from the transmitter
to the receiver, and a reflected path from the transmitter to the ground and then to the receiver.
The Two-Ray Model takes into account the following parameters:

 Transmitter and receiver heights: The heights of the transmitter and receiver above the
ground.

 Ground conductivity: The conductivity of the ground, which affects the amount of energy
absorbed by the ground.

 Ground dielectric constant: The dielectric constant of the ground, which affects the amount of
energy reflected by the ground.

 Frequency of the radio wave: The frequency of the radio wave, which affects the amount of
diffraction and scattering.

The Two-Ray Model predicts the following:

 Path loss: The loss of signal strength experienced by the radio wave as it travels from the
transmitter to the receiver.
  Received signal strength: The strength of the signal received by the receiver, taking into
account the direct and reflected paths.

 Angle of arrival: The angle at which the radio wave arrives at the receiver, which can affect
the directionality of the receiver.

 Angle of departure: The angle at which the radio wave leaves the transmitter, which can affect
the directionality of the transmitter.

2. What are the factors affecting small-scale fading?

Ans= There are several factors that can affect small-scale fading, including:
 Multipath: This occurs when a radio signal reaches the receiver via multiple paths, such as
reflections off buildings or other objects. This can cause constructive and destructive
interference, resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Shadowing: This occurs when an obstacle blocks part of the radio signal, resulting in reduced
signal strength at the receiver. This can be caused by buildings, trees, or other objects that are
larger than the wavelength of the radio signal.

 Scattering: This occurs when a radio signal is scattered by small objects, such as cars or
people. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Diffraction: This occurs when a radio signal bends around obstacles, such as buildings or
hills. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Diversity techniques: Diversity techniques are used to mitigate small-scale fading by creating
multiple copies of the radio signal, which are then transmitted over different paths or using
different frequencies. This can reduce the impact of small-scale fading by averaging out the
variations in the received signal.

 Frequency and Bandwidth: Small-scale fading is frequency dependent, and the effect is more
severe at higher frequency. Also, the bandwidth of the signal also affects the fading, where a
wider bandwidth signal is more prone to fading.

3. What are the reasons of signal fading?

Ans= Signal fading refers to the reduction in the strength of a radio signal over distance, and can be
caused by a variety of factors, including:
 Path loss: This occurs as a result of the signal spreading out over distance, as well as
absorption and scattering by the environment. Path loss can be modeled using various
propagation models such as the free-space propagation model, the two-ray model, and the log-
distance path loss model.

 Multipath: This occurs when a radio signal reaches the receiver via multiple paths, such as
reflections off buildings or other objects. This can cause constructive and destructive
interference, resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Shadowing: This occurs when an obstacle blocks part of the radio signal, resulting in reduced
signal strength at the receiver. This can be caused by buildings, trees, or other objects that are
larger than the wavelength of the radio signal.
  Scattering: This occurs when a radio signal is scattered by small objects, such as cars or
people. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Diffraction: This occurs when a radio signal bends around obstacles, such as buildings or
hills. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Interference: This occurs when a radio signal is hindered by other radio signals in the same
frequency band.

 Noise: This refers to unwanted signals that can be introduced by the environment or the
receiver itself.

4. What is the different type small scale fading?

Ans= Signal fading refers to the reduction in the strength of a radio signal over distance, and can be
caused by a variety of factors, including:
 Path loss: This occurs as a result of the signal spreading out over distance, as well as
absorption and scattering by the environment. Path loss can be modeled using various
propagation models such as the free-space propagation model, the two-ray model, and the log-
distance path loss model.

 Multipath: This occurs when a radio signal reaches the receiver via multiple paths, such as
reflections off buildings or other objects. This can cause constructive and destructive
interference, resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Shadowing: This occurs when an obstacle blocks part of the radio signal, resulting in reduced
signal strength at the receiver. This can be caused by buildings, trees, or other objects that are
larger than the wavelength of the radio signal.

 Scattering: This occurs when a radio signal is scattered by small objects, such as cars or
people. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Diffraction: This occurs when a radio signal bends around obstacles, such as buildings or
hills. This can cause the signal to be received at the receiver from multiple directions,
resulting in variations in the amplitude and phase of the received signal.

 Interference: This occurs when a radio signal is hindered by other radio signals in the same
frequency band.

 Noise: This refers to unwanted signals that can be introduced by the environment or the
receiver itself.

Focused Short Questions

1. Differentiate between partition Losses in the same floor and in between different floor in
indoor propagation model.
Ans= Partition loss refers to the reduction in the strength of a radio signal due to its passage through
walls, doors, and other partitions within a building. The partition loss experienced by a signal will
depend on the specific materials and construction of the partition, as well as the frequency of the
signal.
In the same floor of a building, partition loss is typically caused by walls and doors separating rooms.
The partition loss experienced by a signal passing through such partitions will depend on the specific
materials and construction of the walls and doors, as well as the frequency of the signal. The partition
loss for this scenario is relatively low as the walls and doors are not thick and made of materials that
are not dense.
In contrast, partition loss between different floors of a building is typically caused by the floors
themselves, which are generally thicker and made of denser materials than walls and doors. The
partition loss experienced by a signal passing through such partitions will be higher than that
experienced on the same floor. The partition loss for this scenario is relatively high and will depend
on the specific materials and construction of the floors, as well as the frequency of the signal.

2. Write a note on Rayleigh fading?

Ans= Rayleigh fading is a statistical model that describes the small-scale fading of radio signals in
wireless communications. It is named after Lord Rayleigh, who first described the phenomenon in
the late 19th century.
In a Rayleigh fading environment, the received signal strength varies randomly due to the constructive
and destructive interference of multiple propagation paths. The variation in signal strength follows a
probability distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution. This distribution is characterized by a
single parameter, the RMS (root mean square) power of the fading envelope.
Rayleigh fading is often encountered in wireless communications in environments with a high degree
of multipath propagation, such as in urban areas or indoor environments. It is commonly observed in
wireless systems using frequency bands below 6 GHz, such as cellular and WiFi networks.
One of the main characteristics of Rayleigh fading is that the average received power is equal to the
mean transmitted power, however, the instantaneous received power can be much higher or lower
than the mean power. This leads to a high level of signal variability, which can make it difficult to
maintain a stable communication link.
To mitigate the effects of Rayleigh fading, various techniques can be used, such as frequency
diversity, time diversity, and spatial diversity. The use of these techniques can improve the reliability
and capacity of wireless communication systems in Rayleigh fading environments.

3. Explain the Doppler shift in multipath reception.

Ans= The Doppler shift is a phenomenon that occurs when a radio wave source is moving relative to
the receiver. It causes a change in the frequency of the received signal, known as the Doppler shift or
Doppler frequency shift. This effect occurs in both the direct path and multipath components of a
radio signal.
In the case of multipath reception, the Doppler shift can have a significant impact on the received
signal. This is because the different paths that a signal takes to reach the receiver can have different
velocities and directions of motion, leading to different Doppler shifts for each path.
For example, if a signal is reflected off a moving object, such as a car or a train, the reflected signal
will have a different Doppler shift than the direct signal. This can cause the received signal to be
distorted, with the different paths interfering with each other in a way that can cause constructive or
destructive interference.
The Doppler shift can also cause the multipath components to experience a different delay, known as
the Doppler spread, which can further affect the received signal. This can lead to an increase in the
signal variability, making it difficult to maintain a stable communication link.
To mitigate the effects of the Doppler shift in multipath reception, various techniques can be used,
such as frequency diversity, time diversity, and spatial diversity. The use of these techniques can
improve the reliability and capacity of wireless communication systems in environments where the
Doppler shift is significant.

4. Make a comparison between Flat Fading and Frequency Selective Fading

Ans= Flat fading, also known as frequency-flat fading or frequency-non-selective fading, is a type of
fading where the signal strength varies randomly over a wide frequency band. In this type of fading,
the received signal power is affected by the same amount of fading across the entire frequency
band. This results in a signal that appears "flat" across the frequency spectrum, hence the name flat
fading.
Frequency selective fading, also known as frequency-selective fading, is a type of fading where the
signal strength varies randomly over a narrower frequency band. In this type of fading, the received
signal power is affected by different amounts of fading across different frequencies. This is due to the
presence of multiple propagation paths with different delays, leading to constructive and destructive
interference at specific frequencies.
One of the main differences between flat fading and frequency selective fading is the impact on the
signal quality. In flat fading, the entire signal is affected by fading, leading to a lower signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) and increased bit error rate (BER). In frequency selective fading, only certain frequencies
are affected by fading, leading to a more uneven signal quality across the frequency band, with some
frequencies having a lower SNR and BER than others.

5. Make a comparison between Fast Fading and Slow Fading.

Ans= Fast fading, also known as small-scale fading, occurs when the signal is affected by changes in
the immediate environment over a short period of time. This type of fading is typically caused by
multipath propagation, where the signal is reflected, scattered, or diffracted by objects in the
environment. The result is a rapidly changing signal strength, with variations occurring on a time
scale of microseconds or milliseconds. Fast fading can cause significant signal quality issues, such as
deep fades and fading notches.
Slow fading, also known as large-scale fading, occurs when the signal is affected by changes in the
environment over a longer period of time. This type of fading is typically caused by changes in the
propagation environment, such as changes in terrain, vegetation, or weather. The result is a gradually
changing signal strength, with variations occurring on a time scale of seconds, minutes, or hours.
Slow fading can cause signal quality issues, such as reduced signal strength, increased bit error rate,
and increased sensitivity to interference.
One of the main differences between fast fading and slow fading is the impact on the signal quality. In
fast fading, the signal strength can fluctuate rapidly, leading to deep fades and fading notches, which
can cause significant signal quality issues. In slow fading, the signal strength can fluctuate gradually,
leading to reduced signal strength, increased bit error rate, and increased sensitivity to interference.
Another key difference between fast fading and slow fading is the mitigation techniques that can be
used. In fast fading, techniques such as diversity, equalization, and channel estimation can be used to
improve the signal quality by reducing the effects of multipath propagation. In slow fading,
techniques such as site selection, signal enhancement, and adaptive modulation can be used to
improve the signal quality by reducing the effects of changes in the propagation environment.
Long Questions
1. Explain about the Okumara Model .
Ans= The Okumura model is a propagation model that is used to predict the path loss of radio signals
in urban environments. It is based on measurements taken by H. Okumura and his colleagues in the
1960s at various locations in Tokyo, Japan. The model is widely used in the design and analysis of
wireless communication systems in urban environments, such as cellular networks and wireless local
area networks (WLANs).
The Okumura model is frequency-dependent, and it takes into account various factors that affect the
propagation of radio signals in urban environments, such as building height and density, street width,
and the presence of trees and other vegetation. The model uses a combination of empirical data and
theoretical calculations to predict the path loss at a given distance from the transmitter, for a given
frequency and environment.
The Okumura model consists of three main components: the basic transmission loss, the diffuse loss,
and the penetration loss. The basic transmission loss is the free space loss that occurs in the absence of
any obstacles. The diffuse loss is the loss that occurs due to reflections and scatterings from buildings
and other obstacles. The penetration loss is the loss that occurs due to the absorption and penetration
of radio signals by buildings and other obstacles.
The Okumura model also includes correction factors for various types of environments, such as
suburban, rural, and open areas. The correction factors are used to adjust the path loss predictions for
different types of environments, and account for factors such as the presence of vegetation and the
height of buildings.
The Okumura model provides a good representation of the path loss in urban environments, but it has
some limitations. It is primarily based on measurements taken in Tokyo, Japan, and may not be
accurate in other types of environments or in other parts of the world. Additionally, the model is based
on measurements taken in the 1960s, and may not account for changes in urban environments that
have occurred since then. However, The Okumura model is widely used in the design and analysis of
wireless communication systems in urban environments and it is considered as a standard model for
path loss prediction in urban environments.

2. Write down a brief note on Hata Model.

Ans= The Hata model is a propagation model that is used to predict the path loss of radio signals in
urban and suburban environments. It is based on measurements taken by Okimoto Hata in the
1980s and is widely used in the design and analysis of cellular networks and wireless local area
networks (WLANs).
The Hata model is frequency-dependent and takes into account various factors that affect the
propagation of radio signals in urban and suburban environments, such as building height and density,
street width, and the presence of trees and other vegetation. The model uses a combination of
empirical data and theoretical calculations to predict the path loss at a given distance from the
transmitter, for a given frequency and environment.
The Hata model is separated into two versions; one for mobile communications below 2 GHz and
another for above 2 GHz, this is because the propagation characteristics above 2GHz is different from
the one below 2GHz. The model consists of three main components: the basic transmission loss, the
diffraction loss and the additional loss. The basic transmission loss is the free space loss that occurs in
the absence of any obstacles. The diffraction loss is the loss that occurs due to the diffraction of radio
signals around buildings and other obstacles. The additional loss is the loss that occurs due to the
penetration and absorption of radio signals by buildings and other obstacles.
The Hata model provides a good representation of the path loss in urban and suburban environments,
but it has some limitations. The model is primarily based on measurements taken in Japan, and may
not be accurate in other types of environments or in other parts of the world. Additionally, the model
is based on measurements taken in the 1980s, and may not account for changes in technology or the
environment that have occurred since then.

3. Explain the following multipath measurement techniques:

a) Direct pulse measurement
Ans= Direct pulse measurement is a method of measuring the strength of a radio signal by
measuring the power of a single pulse or burst of radio energy. This method is typically used for
measuring the strength of radar signals, but can also be used for other types of radio signals.
The process of direct pulse measurement involves capturing the radio energy of a single pulse or burst
using a detector, and then measuring the power of the captured energy. This can be done using a
variety of different types of detectors, such as a diode detector, a peak power detector, or a true rms
detector.
One of the advantages of direct pulse measurement is that it is a relatively simple and straightforward
method of measuring the strength of a radio signal. It does not require a complex receiver or signal
processing equipment, and can be done using relatively simple and inexpensive equipment. However,
direct pulse measurement is not suitable for measuring the strength of signals that are continuous or
have a high duty cycle.
Direct pulse measurement is widely used in radar systems, telecommunication systems, and many
other applications to measure the strength of radio signals. For example, in the field of radar, direct
pulse measurement is used to measure the strength of radar signals and to determine the range, speed,
and direction of radar targets.

b) Swept frequency measurement

Ans= Swept frequency measurement is a method of measuring the frequency response of a system,
such as a radio receiver or a filter, by sweeping the input frequency over a range of values and
measuring the output response at each frequency.
This method usually involves generating a continuous or stepped sweep of frequencies over a
specified range, and then measuring the output response of the system at each frequency using a
detector such as a power meter or a spectrum analyzer. The output response can be displayed as a
graph with frequency on the x-axis and output power on the y-axis, which is known as a frequency
response curve.
Swept frequency measurement is a powerful tool in the field of radio communication and signal
processing, it allows the characterization of the frequency response of the system, which can provide
information about the system's performance, such as its gain, noise, distortion, and selectivity. It can
also be used to identify and troubleshoot issues in a system, such as resonances, filter responses, and
other frequency-dependent effects.
The swept frequency measurement can be done in two ways, one is the continuous sweeping, which is
done by continuously sweeping the frequency over a range in a linear or logarithmic fashion. The
other is the stepped frequency measurement, which is done by stepping the frequency in a discrete
steps, this method is useful for measuring systems with a high dynamic range.
Swept frequency measurement is widely used in telecommunications, audio, and electronic test and
measurement applications. It is a versatile technique that can be used to measure a wide range of
system types and configurations, and can provide valuable information about the performance and
behavior of a system over a range of frequencies.

4. Summarize the following multiple access techniques for wireless communication:

1. Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
Ans= Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is a method of allocating communication channels
in a radio frequency spectrum, in which different users are assigned to different frequency bands.
Each user is assigned a unique frequency band, and each frequency band is divided into time slots,
this allows multiple users to share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously by allocating
different time slots to different users.
2. Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
Ans= Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a method of allocating communication channels in
a radio frequency spectrum, in which different users are assigned to different time slots. Each user is
assigned a unique time slot, and each time slot is divided into frequency bands, this allows multiple
users to share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously by allocating different time slots to
different users.

3. Code division multiple-access (CDMA)

Ans= Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a method of
allocating communication channels in a radio frequency spectrum,
in which different users are assigned to different codes. Each user is
assigned a unique code, and each code is used to spread the user's
data over a wide frequency band, this allows multiple users to share
the same frequency spectrum simultaneously by allocating different
codes to different users.