Ellery Hampton

Carlyle

English 4, Period 3

24 March 2023

The Effects of Malnutrition on Children’s Cognitive Development

Every night, millions of children in the United States go to bed hungry, and over 11

million children live in food-insecure homes. Food insecurity, according to the United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA), is a lack of consistent access to enough food for every

person in a household to live an active, healthy life. This can be a temporary situation for a

family or can last a long time and a total of more than 34 million people in the United States

experience food insecurity every day. The main causes of food insecurity are poverty,

unemployment, low income, lack of affordable housing, lack of access to healthcare, and system

racism and racial discrimination. Food insecurity often has a very large impact on a family’s

circumstances and often leads people to have to choose between money for food versus

healthcare, rent, bills, transportation, or education. The reason that this insecurity is so hard on

children is because it leads to malnutrition, which in turn affects their behavioral and cognitive

development. Lower-income communities face high levels of poverty and malnutrition rates

which affect developments in the brain, cognitive changes into adolescence, and the creation of

food habits. Food deserts, or areas with unequal access to healthy foods, disproportionately affect

minority groups and historical systemic racism leads to an increase in child malnutrition.

Malnutrition has been shown to significantly affect certain parts of the brain, especially in

developing children. Various studies have shown that child malnutrition leads to stunted
cognitive development processes, and malnourished children usually perform poorer on tests of

attention, working memory, learning and memory, and visuospatial ability. According to

Bhoomika Kar in her article “Cognitive development in children with chronic protein energy

malnutrition,” malnutrition affects parts of the brain structure, resulting in “tissue damage,

growth retardation, disorderly differentiation, reduction in synapses and synaptic

neurotransmitters, delayed myelination, and reduced overall development of the dendritic

arborization of the developing brain.” This means that the various parts of the brain and inhibited

by the inadequate nutrient intake, which reduced most of the brain’s cognitive functions. Kar

continues to state that the delays in malnourished young children may be temporary if dietary

changes are made; otherwise, they become increasingly permanent over time. In the brain, the

implications of child malnutrition primarily affect the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which

functions as the center of all of the body’s memory functions, including visuospatial working

memory, auditory working memory, selective attention, and other executive functions. As stated

in a study performed by Kristiana Morgan and discussed in her article, “The Cognitive Effects of

Chronic Malnutrition and Environment on Working Memory and Executive Function in

Children,” there is a significant correlation between malnutrition and cognitive potential, with a

focus on the extent to which poor nutrition affects children’s development. The child’s attention,

mediated in the prefrontal cortex, “requires the central executive part of the working memory to

maintain focus when presented with distracting stimuli.” As previously discussed, children with

malnutrition have delayed myelination and reduced development of the dendritic spines in the

brain, which, according to Morgan’s study, continues to decline their working memory, selective
attention, and verbal fluency. The decrease in these cognitive abilities further reduce the child’s

chance of excelling in school and makes learning new topics much more difficult.

As malnourished children develop into adolescents, there have been correlations between

the continuation of stunted cognitive development and poorer eating habits. In a study by

Jianghong Liu, he links early childhood malnutrition to poorer cognitive outcomes later in

adolescence. Throughout his research and article, “Malnutrition at Age 3 Years and Lower

Cognitive Ability at Age 11 Years,” he measures verbal and spatial ability, reading and academic

ability, and general neuropsychological performances measured at the ages of both three and

eleven. His results stated that the malnourished children had overall lower cognitive levels at

both ages, especially the adolescents who grew up with few healthy food options, because there

is a positive association between malnutrition as a young child and the decline of both cognitive

and behavioral abilities during crucial developmental years. Liu states that “promoting early

childhood nutrition could enhance long-term cognitive development and school performance,

especially in children with multiple nutritional deficits.” His research highlights the importance

of addressing children’s malnutrition to ensure they can develop properly. More studies have also

concluded that there are some associations between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) in children and sugar intake. ADHD is a chronic condition that results in attentino

difficulty, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness, typically beginning during childhood or adolescence.

This condition negatively impacts students ability to focus and learn new material in school,

decreasing their future academic successes. The ADHD and sugar intake studies relate to the

effects of children’s malnutrition and how it may affect their ability to process information,

maintain focus, and develop aggressive tendencies. The correlation between sugar intake and
ADHD was established by France Bellisle, who performed a study that analyzed the effects of

glucose and sugar intake, food additives and preservatives, and various vitamins. Bellisle found

and discussed in her article, “Effects of Diet on Behaviour and Cognition in Children,” that

ADHD prevalence in children increased with excess amounts of sugar, food additives, and

preservatives in the diet as infants and young children. She also identified that vitamins directly

affect cognitive abilities, finding that “low-dose vitamin-mineral tablets improved non-verbal IQ

in some children of low socioeconomic origin.” While Bellisle does not offer any clear solutions

to the growing issue of malnutrition among children, she describes its specific cognitive and

behavioral effects on the younger population. Simple dietary changes made in childhood years

can increase their overall success in school and the educational system.

Through the studies presented, it is evident that malnutrition in children has detrimental

effects on both behavioral and cognitive development. Malnutrition is not just being underfed; it

can also be a state of overfed without meeting the daily needs of nutrients for proper growth and

development. It is essential for children to create healthy eating habits at a young age that they

can maintain into adulthood, helping them live healthier and happier lives. According to Leann

Birch in her article, “Influences on the Development of Children’s Eating Behaviours: From

Infancy to Adolescence,” the childhood years are most influential when developing dietary

habits. Birch discusses that while some environmental changes in children’s lives may impact

what they’re eating, most eating behaviors develop in the early years of life. She states that

“eating behaviors evolve during the first years of life; children learn what, when, and how much

to eat through direct experiences with food and by observing the eating behaviors of others.” For

children who are malnourished and unable to consume healthy foods, this is not only affecting
them psychologically, but it is making them more at risk for continuing to eat poorly for the rest

of their lives. Dr. Wendy Bazilian, a registered dietitian and nutritionist, states that when she

gives people advice, she tries to “help people start where they are and make ‘upgrades’ as

possible including talk through the day and try to build in more opportunities to add vegetables

and fruits into meals and snacks, limit sugar-sweetened beverages, but also suggest what to put in

its place that is nutritious and also fits a families food culture and preferences.” It is essential to

acknowledge people’s financial and cultural differences that contribute to their diet and address

any eating changes while keeping these in mind. Dr. Bazilian emphasizes the importance of

being “educated around foods not just because they're nutritious, but also to help people

understand what they do for us, in ways that matter.” Ultimately, malnutrition in children can

result from many factors, and it is crucial to educate children on nutrition and understand any

limitations to diet changes. Many of these limitations are due to a lack of access as a result of

geographical and financial constraints in what are commonly referred to as food deserts.

Food deserts are geographical areas where residents have no convenient options for

securing affordable and healthy foods. According to the United States Department of Agriculture

(USDA), the formal classification of a food desert is a “tract in which at least 100 households are

located more than one-half mile from the nearest supermarket.” Food desert areas often contain

numerous corner stores with little to no nutritious foods, instead selling high-caloric processed

foods that increase malnutrition among the children in that neighborhood. Kai Schafft describes

the idea of food deserts in his article, “Food Deserts and Overweight Schoolchildren,” which

states that they are geographical areas with limited access to retail food stores and few regular

food retail outlets. The decrease in real grocery stores leads to an increase in unhealthy corner
stores and fast food outlets which further contribute to poor dietary habits. Schafft analyzes the

effects of food deserts, especially on children, stating that grocery stores are statistically less

prevalent in low-income areas, which have “increased dependence upon small-scale convenience

stores that sell primarily high-caloric processed food and few to no fresh fruits and vegetables.”

He also states that food deserts are positively associated with socioeconomic disadvantage,

including diminished educational attainment and increased poverty rates. Schafft offers a variety

of solution options that have a negligible effect separately but, when enacted together, can

significantly impact the community. He believes that the community should utilize organizations

in schools to institute interventions and provide more healthy food options for their students. One

example is the Child Nutrition Act which focuses on giving students healthy options while

supporting local agriculture with school-community partnerships. Schools play an essential role

in the health of the students, and they have the ability to provide students in poverty with healthy

food options and proper nutritional education. As stated by Dr. Wendy Bazilian, “I don’t think

there’s a single solution. I think it will take a variety of efforts and a central commitment to how

important food access is to a nation that can prosper. This isn’t just about one individual or a

family’s health, it’s really about building a healthy community and a country of individuals that

can contribute to the livelihood of our nation as a whole.” While this country is far from

eliminating all food insecurities, there are a number of organizations that continue to take steps

in the right direction.

Statistics show that most food deserts consist primarily of low-income, minority

communities, and some people refer to these areas as “food apartheids.” Apartheid is a system of

segregation, and some believe that food deserts divide those with access to an abundance of
nutritious foods and those who have been denied that access due to systemic injustice. In Allison

Karpyn’s article, “Correlates of Healthy Eating in Urban Food Desert Communities,” she

analyzed data from a cross-sectional study of people living in urban food desert communities.

She confirmed the importance of “perceived nutrition environments and household food

challenges in predicting dietary outcomes among residents of low-income, minority

communities.” The article discusses the need for public health intervention in low-income food

environments and focuses on testing which factors are significantly associated with dietary

outcomes, including store quality, perceptions of food availability, neighborhood safety, and

household food challenges. Her research is vital because it identifies the correlations between

income, neighborhoods, safety, quality, and food insecurity perception and how these factors

impact healthy food decisions. The racial disparities are also discussed in James Wright’s article,

“Food Deserts: What Is the Problem? What Is the Solution?” in which he addresses the concern

of food deserts, the many reasons for their growth in urban areas, and some potential solutions to

the problems. His main concern with the low-income community food deserts is that the

“residents of these areas experience a special type of food insecurity, not that food is unavailable,

but that the food that can be easily had is not nutritionally adequate and is over-priced.” One of

the many reasons that food deserts exist is due to the migration of middle and higher-class, and

typically white, residents from urban areas to the growth of suburban areas during the 1960s.

This left many of the urban areas facing overpopulation of typically minority groups and overall

higher levels of poverty and lower-income families. Compared to the growing suburban areas,

the land prices for grocery stores were often costly, and combined with the lower-income

population, most grocery stores were not motivated to invest in these communities. Over time,
this led to a dramatic decrease in the number of grocery stores available in lower-income areas,

as well as a shortage of healthy foods and fresh produce. While working to solve this problem

will require many different solutions, all aspects of society must work together to help address

the issue, and it is crucial to understand the historical racial motivations that created this

inequality.

In conclusion, child malnutrition is an extremely important issue that needs to be

addressed in this country because it affects the cognitive development of millions of children,

especially those living in lower-income areas. As previously discussed, various studies have

shown that malnutrition affects memory, learning, behavior, and could even lead to the

development of ADHD. It is important to remember that malnutrition is not just underfeeding,

but rather includes overfeeding and eating high-caloric processed foods which are lacking

essential nutrients for brain and cognitive health, thereby diminishing the amount of nutrients the

child is able to utilize. Likewise, children also develop most of their eating habits during their

childhood years, so this increases the importance of good nutrition and appropriate examples of

healthy eating habits in the early stages. Malnutrition occurs frequently in food deserts, and these

areas disproportionately affect low-income, minority communities that historically have been

discriminated against. Often, this discrimination appears as an unequal access to healthy foods,

as many grocery stores and healthy food companies are unwilling to invest in lower-income,

minority neighborhoods. This leads to a greater number of children living in poverty that are not

able to receive proper nutrition and therefore leading to decreased cognitive development

throughout their childhood years. Overall, the solution that will eventually help to decrease the

amount of malnutrition among children in the United States will consist of multiple changes
across different groups of people, and an full contribution from all aspects of society. The

changes will need to come from the governmental policies, corporate businesses, education

systems, and the community as a whole.

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