Polygraphy

Polygraphy, Definition
• It is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph
instrument
What is a polygraph
• The term “polygraph” means “many writings.” The name refers to the manner
in which selected physiological activities are simultaneously collected and
recorded. The polygraph is a recorder, of a psycho-physiological changes
occurring within the examinee’s body as the polygraph examiner asks a series of
test questions.
Early Detecting Deception and Scientific Methods
Trial by Ordeal
• Trial by ordeal was a form of judgement used by the Medieval church to use
god’s will to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused party. Often the
process was rigged in ways so that the person being judged has no real chance
of acquittal.
Trial by Fire
• In trial by fire, the accused was made to hold a red-hot iron bar and carry it to a
set distance. If after three days, the hand was noticed to be healing and not
festering or, if the hand was not hurt at all, the accused was set free.
Trial by Water
• Trial by water was another form of torture likened to the story of the Salem Witch
Hunt. The accused would be dropped into a cold river. If the person floated,
he/she was considered guilty and hanged as a punishment.
Ordeal of Balance
• This is the practice of testing the truthfulness of the accused by placing him on
one end in the scale of balance. While the accused was in it, a counterbalance
was provided. The accused then stepped out of the scale, listened to a judge
deliver an exhortation to the balance and got back in. If he were found to be a
lighter than before. He will be acquitted.
Ordeal of Rice Chewing
• In India, concentrated rice was the article chosen instead of bread and cheese to
determine a person’s guilt or innocence. “Guilty” persons were not able to
swallow single grain. It was believed then that, conscious of their crime and
 fearful of the punishment of heaven, they felt suffocating sensation in their throat
when they attempted to eat.
Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
• Under the psychological theory, the donkey is placed in one room alone and the
suspect is made to observe it, if the donkey cries the suspect is judged guilty.
The Broken Egg Ordeal
• The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In
West Africa, persons suspected of committing a crime were made to pass a
bird’s egg to one another, if one of these persons broke the egg, then he will be
considered guilty, based on the idea that his nervousness gave him away.
The Dry Rice Ordeal
• In Ancient China the suspect was asked to hold a handful of rice in mouth during
a prosecutor’s speech. Since salivation was believed to cease at times of
emotional anxiety, the person was considered guilty if by the end such speech
the rice was dry
Trial by Combat
• Unlike trial by ordeal in general, which was known to many cultures worldwide,
the trial by combat was known exclusively among the Germanic people. It was
used to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession.
 Activity 1
Foundations in Polygraph
Instructions: Please provide the necessary answers
1. What are the uses of polygraphy?
2. Enumerate the early method of detecting deception.
 Scientific Method Detecting Deception
The Polygraph
• The polygraph measures physiological changes caused by the sympathetic
nervous system during questioning. In other words, a polygraph is a device that
measures a person’s bodily response or records the internal reactions of the
subject.
Truth Serum (Narco-Analysis)
• A truth drug (or truth serum) is a psychoactive drug used to attempt to obtain
information from an unwilling subject, most often by the police, intelligence, or
military organization.
Substance of Truth Serum
• The so-called truth drugs include ethanol, scopolamine, temazepam, and various
barbiturates including the anaesthetic induction agent sodium thiopental
(commonly known as sodium pentothal. These are sedatives that interfere
particularly with judgement and higher cognitive function.
Administration of Truth Serum
• The Drug is injected hypo-dermically or intravenously at a certain repeated
dosage. For instance, trichloroethylene is taken by inhalation of certain amount of
dosage.
Alcoholic Beverages
• Alcohol in form of beverages maybe used as a method if detecting deception.
Usually hard liquor is the one preferred, but soft liquor may also serve the
purpose.
Stimulus Association Test
• In this test, the subject will be interviewed wherein a group of stimulus words or
persons will be presented to the subject. He will then be instructed to answer the
questions and the answer were noted down as well as the reaction of the subject
to the stimulus words or subjects to the person related to the crime.
Use of Hypnotism
• It is defined as “a sleep like state that permits a wide range of behavioral
responses to stimulation. The hypnotized individual appears to heed only the
communication of the hypnotist, even memory and awareness of self may be
altered by suggestion and the effects of that suggested may be extended into
subsequent waking activity.
Psychological Stress Evaluation
 • Psychological Stress Evaluation or PSE, sometimes called voice stress analysis,
is based on the use of a certain machine developed in the late 1960’s that
presumably detects “guilt-revealing”, laryngeal micro tremors which exist in the
voice and are associated with stress and lying
Brain Wave Fingerprinting
• Neuroscientist Lawrence Farwell who runs a Brain Wave Institute in Fairfield,
Iowa, Patented this technique in 1995 which has attracted attention of the FBI
and CIA as a better way to detect moles.
 History of Polygraph
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH COMPONENT
CESAR LOMBROSO
• The first use of a scientific instrument designed to measure physiological
responses for this purpose came in 1895 when italian physician, psychiatrist and
pioneer criminologist Cesare Lombroso modified an existing device in his
experiments to measure the physiological changes that occur in a crime
suspect’s blood pressure and pulse rate during a police interrogation.
ANGELO MOSSO
• studied fear as an influence in the heart
• developed a type of sphygmomanometer and scientific cradle for study of fear
• Mosso used an instrument called a plethysmograph in his research on emotions
and fear in subjects undergoing questioning. He studied the effects of these
variables on the cardiovascular respiratory activities
• The use of plethysmograph revealed periodic undulations or waves on a
subject’s blood pressure caused by the respiratory cycle in response to certain
stimuli.
WILLIAM MARSTON
• developed his own method of reading systolic blood pressure
JOHN A LARSON
• devised an instrument capable of continuously recording blood pressure
changes, pulse rate and respiration
• developed the breadboard lie detector, that is now a polygraph apparatus, into a
portable form.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT
STICKER
• suggested the use of the first galvonograph for detecting deception based from
the works of several predecessors
introduced the method of detecting deception from the galvanic impression on
the chart tracing
VERAGUTH
• the first to use the term psycho-galvanic-skin-reflex
• believed that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT
VITTORIO BENUSSI
• noted changes in inspiration-expiration ratio during deception
• recorded respiratory curves of the pnuemograph
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN POLYGRAPH
LEONARD KEELER
• he incorporated the galvonograph with the measurement of blood pressure and
respiration
• he formulated a method of questioning
• he developed the keymograph
• In 1925, Leonard Keeler, who had gained firsthand experience in polygraph
interrogations as a result of working with John A. Larson at the Berkley Police
Department, worked to devise a polygraph that used inked pens for recording the
relative changes in a subjects blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory
patterns.
• Detective Keeler conducted the initial use of his invention, the Keeler Polygraph-
otherwise known as the lie detector. Keeler used the lie detector on two criminals
in Portage, Wisconsin, who were later convicted of assault when the lie detector
results were introduced in court.
• In 1926, the Keeler Polygraph came out on the market as the new improved lie
detector, an enhanced version of John A. Larson’s polygraph. In 1938, Keeler
further refined the polygraph when he added a third physiological measuring
component for the detection of deception
• Keeler Patented in 1939 what is now acknowledged as the prototype of the
modern polygraph- the Keeler Polygraph. Today, Leonard Keeler recognized as
the “father of Modern Polygraphy”.
Computerized Polygraphy
Dr. Joseph F. Kubis
• In the late 1970’s Dr. Joseph F. Kubis of Fordham University in the New York
City, was the first researcher to use potential computer application for the
purpose of polygraph chart analysis.
Drs. John C. Kircher and David Raskin
• During the 1980’s research was conducted on computerized polygraph at the
University of Utah, and in 1988: they developed the Computerized Assisted
 Polygraph System (CAPS), which incorporated the first algorithm to be used for
evaluating physiological data collected for diagnostic purposes.
Dale Olsen & John Harris
• 1993, Completed a software program Called Polyscore which used a
sophisticated mathematical algorithm to analyze the polygraph data and to
estimate a probability or degree of deception or truthfulness in a subject
The PolyScore
• The PolyScore is a computerized polygraph chart scoring algorithm that uses
statistical probability to arrive at truthfulness or deception. It has been shown that
validated algorithms have exceeded to 98 percent in their accuracy to quantify,
analyze and evaluate the physiological data collected from polygraph
examinations administered in real criminal cases
Other Date and Personalities
• 1945- the polygraph was first introduced in the Philippines at the Crime
Laboratory of the Military police. They sent Mr. Jose Navarro and Mr. Condrado
Dumlao to the U.S. For the polygraphy Training
• 1950 The National Bureau of Investigation sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to train at the
Keeler Polygraph Institute
 Activity 2
History of Polygraph
Instruction: Please provide the necessary answer.
1. Discuss the contributions of Cesare Lombroso to the cardiograph component
2. Enumerate the contributions of Leonard Keeler
 The Human Body
The Nervous System
• Serves as the activator if the body system, the nervous system, thru the brain
and all nerve tissues, receives, evaluates, integrates and stores any stimulus
brought to the body from the environment.
The Five Senses
• Sight
• Hearing
• Smell
• Taste
• Touch
How the Nervous System Works
• The objects are called the Effectors, which are composed of muscles and glands
are interdependent organic body tissues which may pump out chemicals directly
unto the internal and external organs to perform various regulatory functions.
• By then the pricking, after it has been passed to the effectors, shall be
transmitted thru ‘Connectors” called nerves and nerve Fibers. A neuron is just a
single nerve Fibers.
• A Neuron is just a single nerve cell which has all the characteristics of all living
cells in general and in addition is specialized fir excitability and conductivity
Two Divisions of Neurons
Long-Conducting Neurons
Interior Neurons
• Which have a number of short dendrites and axons, with the latter often giving off
branches called “COLLATERAL” in order to provide many connectors and
alternative pathways to other neurons.
The Circulatory System
• As the name itself implies the Circulatory system is responsible for the movement
of the blood in the veins and arteries throughout the body.
• Giving the life to the system is the HEART it is a hallow muscle located inside the
chest cavity that pumps blood into those arteries by contracting and relaxing
process
• The heart action or the cardiac cycle consist of SYSTOLE and DIASTOLE. The
whole cycle begins with contraction left Auricles. After a short pause, both
Ventricles and/or chambers contact. The contraction of each chamber is followed
by relaxation (Diastole) and then by a brief period of inactivity
Average Pulse Rate per Minute
• 144-133 beat per minute– at the end of fetal life;
• 140-123 beat per minute- at birth and up to 1-year old
• 96-76 beat per minute- from 10-15 years old
• 73-69 beat per minute
Respiratory System
• The respiratory system is responsible for the taking of air into the lungs and also
expelling carbon dioxide here from the rest of our body. This system, like the
Nervous Circulatory, is equally important to lie detection. We know very well that
we can die within minutes without oxygen
It consists of the following major parts:
• The respiratory tract, which comprises the nose and mouth, pharynx, larynx,
bronchi and lungs;
• The bony cage, which includes the thoracic vertebrate, the ribs, and the breast
bone or the sternum.
Cycles
• The Newborns=50-70 cycles per minute
• Children(1 to 5 years old)= 20-30 cycles per minute.
• Adult (without age consideration) =15 to 20 cycles per minute
The Skin (or the excretory system)
• The skin is defined as the external covering of the body consisting essentially of
the epidermis, dermis, and the corium. The anatomical compositions of the
epidermis have four layers of stratified epithelium, while the corium is composed
of connective tissue containing lymphatic nerve ending, blood vessels
The Basic Function of the Skin
• Protection against injuries and parasitic invasion;
• Regulation of body temperature; and
• An aid in the elimination of bodily waste products.
Galvanic Skin Reflex/Response
• Test record charges in subjects increase or decrease resistance to a constant
electrical current generated through the Amplifier, recording Galvanometer and
Rectifier of the polygraph
 Activity 3
The Human Body
Instruction: please provide the best answer
1. How does the nervous system work?
2. On what way does the pulse rate and breathing contributes in detecting
deception?
 Major Components of the Polygraph Instrument
The Pneumograph Component
• This Component occupies two/upper pens of the instrument which records the
thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration.
Parts of the Pneumograph
The Pneumographic/rubber-corrugated Tube
• Is a corrugated and stretchable rubberized tube or apparatus that is to be
attached to the subject’s chest or stomach (or both). Inhalation will cause the
tube to stretch and subsequently create an upward tracing or movement of the
pneumo-pen unto the polygraph chart. Exhalations are the downward tracing,
thereof.
The Beaded Chain
• Is a freewheeling strings of stainless beads with a hook which fastens the
pneumographic tube unto Subject’s chest or stomach.
The Galvanograph Component
• This is the longest and the third pen of the instrument. The electrodes are
attached to the index finger and the ring finger of the left hand, or the palmar and
dorsal of the left hand. The electrodes used for obtaining the recording of the
GSR or electro-dermal respones, are fastened to the hand or finger by means of
the passage of an imperceptible amount of the electrodes, a galvanometer unit
provides recording of the variation in the flow of electrical current.
The Finger Electrodes
• Are special types of sensitive metal plates to be attached to the subject’s end-
joints of both Index and Ring Finger for the recording of the electrical charges
(ohms) from the brain through the skin.
The Cardiograph Component
• This is the fourth and the bottom pen of the instrument. This cardio unit is a
mechanically operated unit. It is a high pressure system. This systems records
changes in mean blood pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat by means of a
medical blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is wrapped around
the upper arm, brachial artery. The bladder is connected to the rubber hose, past
a pressure indicating gauge to a very sensitive billows and its connected lever
system that powers the pen.
Parts of the Cardiograph
• The Arm Cuff- shall be attached to the Subject’s arm
 • The Hand Pump Bulb- Causes the arm cuff to inflate in order to produce blood
pressure and pulse rates.
• The Aneroid Blood Pressure Meter Guage- measures and monitors B/P
reading while the polygraphic testing is going on.
The Kymograph Component
• Motorized mechanism that moves strip chart paper at a specified rate. The
current standard in PDD is 6 inches per minute, through historically there have
been other speeds.
 How does the machine works?
• The term “Polygraph” is derived from the Greek words poly (many) and graph
(writing) – “many writings”
• The name refers to the manner in which selected physiological activities are
simultaneously collected, measured and recorded.
• A polygraph is a scientific diagnostic instrument that is used by an examiner to
administer an examination for the purpose of verifying the truthfulness of a
person’s statement regarding a specific issue-whether criminal, civil or private-
that is the object of an investigation
• Before beginning a polygraph examination, the examiner will fasten various
painless components to and around the examinee’s body, thereby connecting
him or her to the polygraph instrument. These components are equipped with
sensors which serve to collect, measure and record, on to polygraph charts, the
examinee’s physiological data obtained from three major system of the human
body.
• The polygraph is an instrument that is used to measure human physiology. It
cannot think or judge. It is the job of the polygraph examiner to analyze, interpret
and evaluate the examinee’s physiological data called during the examination
then to form a professional opinion based on the evaluation of this data.
Computerized Polygraph
• Recent technological advances have led to the development of polygraph
instruments that are entirely computer controlled and capable of accurately
recording many physiological responses. Neither a polygraph nor any other
device is actually capable of detecting lie.
• Lie detection requires careful comparison of bodily responses to different types of
question asked during polygraph testing. For this reason, the expertise of the
polygraph examiner, the procedures used, and the conditions in which testing is
conducted are very important
Lafayette Computerized Polygraph
• Modern polygraph services uses computerized polygraph instrument. For
instances, a Lafayette Computerized Polygraph Instrument is common both in
a desktop model for polygraph examination administered in the office in a laptop
model for travel
POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
• Polygraph examination is the use of any instrument to graphically record
simultaneously the physiological changes in human respiration, cardiovascular
activity, and any other physiological changes that can be recorded for the
 purpose of verifying truth or deception and includes the reading and
interpretation of the polygraph records and results.
Phases of Polygraph Examination
Pre-Test Phase
• Polygraph test are most often performed by independent examiners. During the
pre-test phase the polygraph examiner will explain the basic theory behind the
polygraph test. The examiner will discuss the procedures associated with the
test, as well as the types of questions that will be asked.
In-test Phase
• The polygraph examination takes place during this phase. The Polygraph
examiners will place several sensors on the examinee’s body. These sensors are
placed over the clothing and two pneumograph tubes placed around the
examinee’s movement and breathing pattern.
• Upon completion of the in-test phase, the examiner will analyze, interpret and
evaluate the examinee’s physiological data collected during the polygraph
examination, after which the examiner will form one of the following professional
opinions
• NDI-No Deception Indicated
• DI-Deception Indicated
• INC-Inconclusive
POST TEST PHASE
• The examiner will administer the polygraph test once all the sensors are put into
place. The examiner will ask the examinee the questions that have been
determined by the client before the test. Once the test is complete, the polygraph
examiner must analyze the responses that are recorded onto the charts during
the polygraph examination.
• Examiners may ask the examinee about specific responses to questions asked
during the test. Examiners then make a determination of truthfulness, based on
the examinee’s response to the question asked during the polygraph test.
CLASSES OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES
The Relevant-Irrelevant Technique
• The relevant questions are typically very specific and concern an event under
investigation. For example, “Did you rob the bank on Friday?” irrelevant question
may be completely unrelated to the event and may offer little temptation to
 deceive. For example, “Is today Monday?” Stronger Physiological responses to
relevant than to irrelevant questions are taken as indicative of deception.
Control Question or Comparison Question Testing
• This technique compares responses to relevant questions with responses to
other questions that are intended to generate physiological reaction even in non
deceptive examinees. In one version of this technique, the comparison questions
are selected to create a temptation to deceive. For example, “Have you ever
stolen a small object from your place of work?”
• For truthful examinees, this level of concern is presumed to be high than for the
relevant questions, about what which the examinee can be truthful without much
anxiety. For examinees that may be deceptive about the events under
investigation, it is presumed that the relevant questions create the greater level of
concern and therefore a stronger physiological response. Comparison question
test are used both for specific event investigation and for screening.
The Guilty Knowledge
• The third class technique, commonly called guilty knowledge polygraph testing,
involves questions about details of an event under investigation that are known
only to investigators and those with direct knowledge of the event. The examiner
refers to these test as concealed information test because they are applicable
even when an examinee that possesses information is not guilty and even if the
information is incorrect
• The questions are presented in a multiple-choice format. For example, in a
burglary investigation: Where was the place of entry: was is at the: (1) front
entrance? (2) kitchen door(3) bathroom window (4) balcony? (5) room on the
second floor? (nakayama, 2002:50).
The Test Question
• The phraseology of the test question is an extremely important aspect of the
examination. The questions, and every word used in the questions, must be
unambiguous, and thoroughly understandable by the subject
Limiting Scope of Question
• The relevant test question used in any examination should be confined to a
single case investigation. The polygraph technique is not effective for
simultaneous testing regarding two more unrelated occurrences. Moreover, there
is severe limitation as to the issue that may be explored even in regard to a
single incident.
Comparison Question Test
 • Comparison question tests (also called control question tests) compare
examinees responses to relevant questions to their responses to other questions
that are believed to elicit physiological reactions from innocent examinees.
Relevant questions are defined as in the relevant-irrelevant test.
• Comparison question ask about general undesirable acts, sometimes of the type
of an event under investigation. For example, in a theft investigation, one
comparison question might be “have you ever stolen anything?”. In probable-lie
comparison question tests the instructions are designed to induce innocent
people to answer in the negative, even though most are lying.
Reid Comparison Test
• The Reid Comparison Question Test, also known as the modified general
question test, was the earliest form of comparison question test. It includes
probable-lie comparison questions and is interpreted by the examiner’s global
evaluation of the charts, combined with other observations made during the
examination.
• Other characteristics of the test include a discussion of the examinee’s moral
values during the test procedure and the use of a “stimulation” test between the
first and second presentation of the questions.
Zone Comparison Test
• The zone comparison test, which was developed by Backster (1963), is named
for the three “zones” or blocks of time during the test: the relevant questions
(called the red zone). The probable-lie comparison questions (the green zone),
and other questions ( the black zone). Black zone questions are included to
uncover examinee’s concern about an issue outside
Utah Probable-Lie Test
• The Utah Probable-Lie Test, developed by Raskin and Honts (2002) is
constructed with question modules, typically consisting of irrelevant, probable-lie
comparison and relevant questions
Test of Espionage and Sabotage
• The test of Espionage and Sabotage is a directed-lie test that was developed at
the U.S. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute and is used by some U.S.
government agencies, including the U.S. Department of Energy for security
screening. A repeated series of relevant and directed-lie comparison question is
used to address multiple issues.
Stimulation Test
 • The stimulation test sometimes called stim test or acquaintance test, is used by
examiners in some test formats either during the pretest or between charts.
Examinees are presented with a question set of very similar test
Concealed Information Test
• Concealed information tests (more often called guilty knowledge or concealed
knowledge test) present examinees with sets of very similar items, much in the
manner of stimulation test, except that the similar aspect of an incident under
investigation that has not publicized, so that the true answer would be known
only to the investigators and to those present at the incident.
Peak-of-Tension Test
• The peak-of-tension test is similar in format to concealed information tests, but is
distinct because questions are asked in an easily recognized order
General Question Test
• General Question Test is a set of questions consisting of series of relevant and
irrelevant questions asked in a plan order.
Card Test
• Immediately upon completion of the first test and with the blood pressure cuff is
deflated, the examiner then tells the subject, here’s variously numbered cards.
Face down, and the examinee is instructed to take one look and put it back
Rules in Formulating Questions
This area of instruction covers one of the most vital phases of the detection, the
selection of the correct issue and formulation of questions, which reflect both the needs
of the examiners and the concept of the examinee. Following are the rules to be
observed in formulating polygraph questions:
• Questions must be simple and direct
• Must not involve legal terminology
• Must be answerable by Yes or No
• Must be Short as possible
• The meaning must be cleared and unmistakable
• Must not in form of accusation
• Question must never contain inferences
• All questions must refer to one offense only
• All questions must refer to only one element of an offense
• Must not contain inferences to one’s religion, race or belief