Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

History of Fire
Early Humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food and frighten away predators.
Sitting around a fire may have helped unite and strengthen family groups and speed the
evolution of early society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel out of warm,
equatorial regions and, eventually, spread throughout the world. But fire also posed
great risks and challenges to early people, including the threat of burns, the challenge of
controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the threat of wildfires.
Pre-historic use of fire
Thousands of years ago hunter gatherers people who lived by hunting and gathering
wild food developed a number of values uses for fire. With the fire they could remain
active after the sunset protects themselves from predators, warm themselves cook and
make better tools
They began using fire as source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-
burning fires to continue their activities after dark and inside their dwellings, which were
usually natural caves. Eventually people learned to dip branches in pitch to form
torches.
They created crude lamps by filling a hollowed-out piece of stone with moss soaked in
oil or tallow-a substance derived from animal fat. By cooking with prehistoric people
made the meat of animals they killed more palatable and digestible.
They learned to preserve meat by smoking it over a fire, vastly decreasing the danger of
periodic starvation. Cooking also enabled them to add some formerly inedible plants to
their food supplies fire enabled people to make better weapons and tools.
Fire and early civilizations
As early civilizations developed people discovered more uses of fire. They used fire to
provide light, to make better tools, and as a weapon in times of war
Fire was essential in metalworking, which developed after 4000 BC. At this time,
Sumerian Artisan who preceded the Babylonians, melted copper ore for casting tools
and weapons in a fire over an earthen hearth
The history of people’s use of fire includes many difficulties involved in controlling fire.
Early cities were often ravaged by fires. The ancient city of Troy, located in present day,
turkey was destroyed several times by fire perhaps due to war, by accident.
EARLY FIRE MAKING TECHNIQUES
Sometime after people begun to use stone for tools, they found that rubbing together
pieces of flint produces sparks for fires 25,000 to 35,00 years ago. Early people also
learned to make fires by rubbing together pieces of wood until produced a hot powder
that could light kindling.
Early people in SEA produces fire another way. They used a wood piston to compress
air inside a bamboo tube that contained hot shaving. The compressed air became
increasingly hotter and eventually igniting the shavings.
Modern uses of fire
Industries use fire to manufacture products and dispose of waste. Companies use
heating and drying appliances similar to, but often much larger than, the ones in home.
Large power plants may generate electricity using fuels such as coals, gas, and even
wood or garbage to create fires. In some places, people use fire to prepare land for
growing crop.
 Activity 1
Introduction to Fire technology and Arson Investigation
1. Discuss the prehistoric use of fire
2. Discuss the early techniques in fire making
CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
WHAT IS FIRE?
-Fire is heat and light from rapid combination of oxygen and other materials. The flame,
which gives the light, is composed of glowing particles of burning material and luminous
gases
For a fire exist, a combustible substance must be present, the temperature must be high
enough to cause combustion, and rapid enough oxygen must be present to sustain
rapid combustion.
Fire is burning, which is combustion, and combustion is a type of oxidation
reaction. Oxidation combined with chemically with oxygen is an exothermic reaction,
that releases heat energy. It simply means the active principle of burning is
characterized by fuel, heat and oxygen
The Chemical equations for the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen are: C+O=CO2, this
reaction occur when there is enough oxygen for formation of carbon dioxide for the
formation of carbon monoxide, 2h2+O2=2H2O. These reactions release the energy you
feel as heat and light.
Is a Fire matter?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The flame itself is a mixture of
gases-vaporized fuel, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, and
many other things, and so it is matter. The light produces by the flame is energy, not
matter. The heat produced is also energy, not matter.
What is a Flame?
A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy
and glowing hot matter, of which a very small portion is plasma. It consist of reacting
gases and solids emitting visible infrared light, the frequency of spectrum of which
depends on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate
reaction products.
COMPONENTS OF FIRE
FUEL
All fuels have an ignition temperature, meaning that when raised to that point, they start
to burn. The temperature of the heat source must be higher than the fuel’s ignition
temperature. Most fuels are organic, i.e., they are carbon compounds, as are the many
products used in constructing and furnishing buildings, such as wood paint, fabrics used
in rugs, draperies, upholstery and bedding. When burning carbon combines with oxygen
to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process.
Oxygen
The earth’s atmosphere, approximately 21 percent oxygen, remains constant through
the cyclical process of combustion, best describes for living matter as oxidation and
photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide produced by combustion is used by green plants
and trees for the photosynthesis or organic compounds.
Fire requires at least 16 percent oxygen content to continue; concentrations between 16
and 21 percent promote heavy smoke production. Investigative interest is aroused when
a fire extinguisher itself through a shortage of oxygen, a level below 16 percent and the
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide is produced
Heat/ heat sources
It is the temperature and size of the heat source that matters, fires usually being small
at the beginning. If circumstances are favorable- a material such as kapok is present-a
mere spark can be the ignition source.
Elements of Fire Tetrahedron
There are Four Elements needed to start and sustain a fire or flame. These elements
are classified as “Fire Tetrahedron”. These four elements of the “Fire Tetrahedron” are
as follows:
Reducing agent
It is the substance or material that is being oxidized or burned in the combustion
process. The most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen
and oxygen.
Heat
it is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron when heat comes into contact with a
fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition; causes the continuous production and
ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and
causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels.
Chemical Reaction
The self-sustained chemical reaction is a complex reaction that requires a fuel, an
oxidizer, and heat energy come together in a very specific way.
Oxidizing agent
An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that when the proper conditions exist will
release gases including oxygen. This is crucial to sustainment of a flame or fire.
 Activity 2
Chemistry of Fire
Instruction: Please provide the necessary answes
1. What are the components of fire?
2. What makes a fire matter?
What is IGNITION
The start of combustion is termed ignition. This detailed process of ignition of a solid is
very complicated, since the proportion of different flammable vapors vary from one
material to another, and contact with oxygen must take place before combustion can
begin. All critical factor are, however, slightly dependent on the temperature of air
surface.
The length of time during which the initial source of heat needs to be applied to a solid
material before flammable vapors is emitted varies for different materials and may range
from about a second to more than an hour
Some flammable liquids give flammable vapors in appreciable quantities at normal
atmospheric temperatures, and such as spark, is required in order to ignite the vapors.
Similarly, flammable gases are easily ignited when mixed with oxygen in the correct
proportion.
Sources of ignition
A fire can start when a fuel becomes so hot that it releases sufficient flammable gases
for combustion to occur. At this temperature, called the fuel’s piloted ignition
temperature, a spark or flame will start the combustion reaction. One source of piloted
ignition is an open flame, such as that from a match or lighter. Sparks, such as those
generated by electricity, may also ignite a fire
Engineers and scientists usually use the term piloted ignition to refer solid fuels. Liquid
fuels have, instead a flash point temperature. At a liquid’s flash point, an ignition source
will cause a flame to flash across the surface of the liquid. The unpiloted ignition
temperature of a fuel, also called spontaneous ignition temperature, is the temperature
the fuel must reach to ignite on its own.
Fuel and oxygen causing fire
Most combustible fuels begin as solids, such as wood, wax, and plastic. Many fuels that
people burn for energy, including gasoline and methane-natural gas begin as either a
liquid or a gas. Any fuel must be in a gaseous state- so that it can react with oxygen.
Before a fire can occur. Heat from the fire’s ignition source, and later from the itself,
decomposes solid and liquid fuels, releasing flammable gases called volatiles
Some solids, such as the wax in a candle, melt into a liquid first. The liquid then
evaporates, giving of volatiles that may then burn. Other solids, such as wood and
cotton, decompose and evaporate decomposing wood enter the flame, combine with
oxygen from the surrounding air, and ignite. The heat from the flame decomposes more
wood, thus adding more flammable gases to the flame and creating a self-supporting
process
Total Fuel Load
The term fuel load has been in the pasts to indicate potential severity of a fire, and has
been expressed in terms of Btus or pounds of a fuel per square foot or floor area. Btus
were expressed in wood equivalent based on 8000 per pound. The fuel load was
determined by weighing the fuels in a room converting the weight of a plastic to pounds
of woods by using 16,000 Btus per pound as the plastic for one pound of plastic equals
two pounds of wood.
Low density materials burn faster than high density materials of similar chemistry. Soft
pine, for example, burns faster than oak and light weight foal plastic burn faster than
more dense rigid plastic
Role of oxygen in a fire
Oxygen plays a key role in regulating at which point most materials burn. With an
unlimited oxygen supply, the rate of burn increases. When more heat is produced, the
fuel is consumed more completely. The area of origin of a slow burning, smoldering fire
generally will show on uniform ceiling and wall damage
Fire And Chain Reaction
Fire start when a flammable or a combustible material with an adequate supply or
oxygen another oxidizer is subjected to enough heat and is able to sustain a chain
reaction. No fire can exist without all of these elements being in place. Once ignited, a
chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by further
release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there
is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.
The final requirement for a fire is a chemical chain reaction. The heat of the ignition
source starts the reaction, and heat from the fire’s flame continuous the reaction. The
flame needs to heat the fuel and make it release enough flammable gases to
continuously support the chemical reaction
A common example of combustion is the burning of wood. When an ignition source
heats wood to a sufficient temperature, about 260C (500F), the cellulose in the wood
decomposes, producing volatile gases and the char.
Products of the combustion
LIGHT and heat
Once a material ignites a flame form. The flame consists of volatile gases moving
upward, and it is the region in which the combustion reaction occurs. The gases in the
flame move upward because they are hotter and therefore lighter than surrounding air.
The colors in the flame come from unburned carbon particles that glow and travel
upward as the flame heats them. Most common fuels are compound called
hydrocarbon, and the produce about the flame temperature, roughly 1200C
Gases
Fires can produce a number of different gases, including some that are harmless and
some of that are toxic. Carbon dioxide and water vapor are two relatively gases from
fires include carbon monoxide hydrogen cyanide, sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride.
SOOT
As fires produce light, heat, and gases, they also produce soot, consisting of mostly
carbon particles. Some may be a fire, or as either just a soot particle given off by a fire,
or as both the soot and the gaseous products of combustion.
Other terms related to the chemistry of fire
Heat of Combustion
This is the amount of heat that a fuel will release during a complete oxidation. It is
measures in Btu per pound of fuel. The heat output may vary depending on the specific
composition of the fuel.
IGNITION
In order to be ignited, most materials must be in a gaseous or vapor state. A few
materials may burn directly in a solid state or glowing form of combustion, including
some forms of carbon and magnesium.
Ignition Temperature
It is a temperature to which material must be heated in order for it to burst into flame,
free of an ignition source such as a spark or match.
Auto ignition temperature
The lowest temperature at which an oxidation reaction can self-sustain itself to either
flaming or glowing ignition; that is, the point at which the reaction changes from
endothermic to exothermic.
Q10 Value
It is the value assigned to the rate of a chemical reaction, e.g., fire, at which doubles
with every 10C or 18F increases in temperature.
Specific gravity
It is the weight of a substance compared with equal volume of water; thus, water is
equal to 1.0.
Spontaneous combustion
This occur if the inherent characteristics of a materials involved cause an exothermic-
heat producing, chemical reaction to proceed without any exposure to external source
of spark or abnormal heat.
Behavior of Fire
The term behavior of fire is used to describe the magnitude, direction and intensity of
fire spread. The magnitude is measured as the velocity in m/s, of the leading edge of
flaming portion of the fire.
The direction is measured as the bearing of the leading edge of the fire and will vary
from 0-360 degree. Finally, intensity us measured as the energy released from fire per
unit area, in J/m-square
 Activity 3
Products and other related to fire
Instruction: Please provide the necessary answer
1. What are the products of fire?
2. Discuss the behavior of fire
Variables that influence Behavior of fire
Fuels
It is the name given to the suite of variables used to describe vegetation the fire is
spreading through a complete fuels description includes measurements of load-mass
per unit area, heat content-energy per unit mass surface-area-to-volume ratio, height
and moisture content.
SLOPE
Assuming all other conditions are equal, the rate of spread of a fire increase as
slope increases. As the fuel bed is tilted, the distance between flame and un-ignited fuel
particle ahead of the flame decreases.
Consequently, more radioactive heat energy reaches the same fuel particle in the tilted
fuel bed in comparison to the level fuel bed. This results in more rapid heating of the
fuel particle and ultimately, a faster spread.
Aspect
In general, south-facing slopes receive more direct sunlight throughout the day in
comparison to north-facing slopes. This has two effects on fire spread.
First, micro-environmental conditions favor the production of more biomass on the
north-facing slopes, increasing the amount of available fuel, and second the ambient
fuel temperature on a southwest-facing slope will be significantly higher in the late
afternoon because of the increased radiant solar energy received by fuels at these
aspects
Weather
The three components of weather which influence fire spread are the wind speed, wind
direction, and moisture present in the fuels, this effect is attributed to three factors. First,
the wind induces a forward lean of the flame front, which reduces the distance between
the flame and the un-ignited fuel.
Second, increased wind speed also increases the rate of convective heat transfer
between the heated air and un-ignited fuel particles. Third, wind passing through the
interior of the fuel bed speeds the loss of moisture in the fuel particles, reducing the
energy required for ignition
Transmission of heat
Heat energy, whether produced by fire or by any other means is transmitted in one or
more of three ways as follows:
Conduction
The term describes the transfer of heat within a solid material from hotter to cooler
parts. Different materials conduct heat at different rate; metals conduct heat well, bricks
and concrete at a much lower rate, and materials such as asbestos so slowly, that they
are widely use for insulation
CONVECTION
The term describes a mass movement in a fluid, i.e., a liquid or a gas where fluid at one
temperature and density moves under the influence of gravity through surrounding fluid
at a different temperature and density, mixing with it gradually exchanging heat with it
until is all at the same temperature.
Radiation
The term describes the transfer of heat through a gas or vacuum in a similar way to
light. The heat from the sun comes to earth surface in this way after passing through
space and the earth’s atmosphere.
Phases of Fire Incident
Incipient
This earliest phase of fire may or may not occur unnoticed. The degree to which it is
observable depends almost entirely upon the magnitude and source ignition and type of
fuel. This phase may last anywhere from a fraction of a second to several hours or
days, again depending on fuel and ignition source. The incipient phase for a liquid
accelerant in the presence of an open flame is obviously much shorter than that of
prolonged exothermic reaction, such as spontaneous combustion
Emergent smoldering
During this phase, the products of combustion become increasingly more pronounced.
There is no meaningful change in the oxygen content of the air, water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and other gases, including minute traced of unburned fuel, may rapidly reach
the level of olfactory detection. The open flames that may occur in the later stages of
this phase may approach a temperature of 100F. The room and surrounding
temperature may be one slightly increased.
Free-Burning
During this phase of the fire, the rate and intensity of open burning increases
geometrically. The intensity of the fire doubles with each 18F or (10C) rise in the
temperature. Heat is transfer through conduction and radiation. The convected or super-
heated themselves become a source of radiated heat, energy downward onto all the
surface areas directly below them. This heat is absorbed by conduction into the mass of
those items whose surface are struck, causing surface pyrolysis-baked effect.
OXYGEN RELATED Smoldering
If the room or area of the fire’s origin is adequately airtight, thereby limiting the amount
of oxygen-rich air being drawn into that area, then the open burning that occurs in free-
burning phase will deplete the available oxygen. The gradual cessation of oxygen
supply causes flaming combustion.
Intensity of Combustion
Fires vary in intensity. The principal factors which determine a fire’s intensity may be
listed as follows:
• The total surface area of material available for combustion, more substantial
materials, such as most timbers will only burn at the outer faces
• The length of the flames produced; flames radiate heat and the size of the flames
will affect the intensity of fire.
• The quantity of heat energy locked in the chemical composition of a material
which can be released by burning this is called “caloriific value” which can vary
considerably for different materials
• The adequacy of supply of oxygen to the fire, the total surface area of material
available for combustion, and the length of flames produced
• The amount of material present which can burn and the way it is arranged
Type of fire spread
To have a clear understanding on the behavior of fire, hereunder are the different types
of fire spread to be used by the fire and arson investigators in determining accidental
and intentional fires:
Structural Fire Spread
Fire spread involves the extension of fire from one point to another. Naturally, the
transfer of heat plays a large role in this extension. As earlier presented, superheated
girders, pipes and even walls and floors my initiate fires in other areas of structure by
condition
In addition, superheated gases spread structural fires by both upward convection-
predominant means of transfer, and downward radiation-as in the case of flashover.
Direction and rate of spread
Flames and superheated gases are lighter than air and, therefore rise. Heat from a fire
in the open rises as a column of hot gases called plume. In doing so, it pre-heats any
fuel of combustible material located above the points of origin. Once heated sufficiently,
this ignites, greatly increasing the volume and upper progression of flame and heated
gases. The resulting air flow draws cool air into the base of the fire from all direction.
This in flow of cool air into the plume is called entertainment
CHIMNEY EFFECT
Since there is natural tendency for flame and gases to rise, any structural element that
enhances this upward movement serves as a natural chimney. Such enhancement is
called chimney effect. It intensifies the fire’s upwards movement; these are areas often
deeply charred and exhibit flame and burn damage many times in excess of that of the
point of origin.
BURN’S DISTINCTIVE PATTERNS
As the flame and superheated gasses pass upward through a structure, they leave
behind distinctive patterns, as follows:
Pour Patterns
The kind of burn pattern that results from pouring an accelerant onto the floor of a room
is particularly important. A pour pattern is clear, demonstrable evidence of the use of an
accelerant, or any volatile materials.
Alligatoring
Anyone who has observed the partially burned residue of a campfire is familiar with how
the blisters on the logs resemble the skin of an alligator. The size of alligatoring or
checking is not useful to the investigator, for it is dependent on the type of wood and its
cut rather than exposure to the fire. The single exception is the flat, baked appearance
caused by low intensity heating over a long time
“V” Pattern
Fire, if unobstructed, will shoot upward and fan out, often registering as a V or a cone
pattern left after the fire is put out. When the “V” is distinct, the bottom of the cone
sometimes points where the fire started, or to where the fuel was burning. An ignition or
fuel source may be found at the base of a V pattern.
Charring
The charring of wood inevitably is observed in structural fires and can be indicator of fire
travel and point of origin. Many arson investigators believe that the deeper the charring,
the longer the fire burned at the spot. Because the longest burning time must be at the
point of origin, observing the depth of char at various places can help them to trace the
fire back to the point.
Upward movement of flame
The upward movement of flame can be affected and altered by many factors. Among
the most common are the following
• A draft or crosswind from an open window, door or skylight
• An available secondary fuel source in close proximity to the original point of
ignition
• A highly combustible fuel at the point of origin, e.g., a large pool of liquid
accelerant, when ignited causes the apex of V to be at least as wide as the pool
• Environmental consideration, such as class and type of construction, and other
conditions that might impede or block the upward progression of the products of
combustion
Smoke and Flame Color
The density and color of the smoke and flame is the visible evidence of incomplete
combustion of any material; it is a suspension of the unburned by-products of solid,
liquid, and gaseous products.
Fire suppression efforts will also affect the color of smoke. The application of water can
produce a large volume of condensing vapor that appears white or gray when mixed
with black smoke from the fire. Smoke production is generally slower in the early stages
of the fire and increases significantly with flashover
Classification of fires
Class A
Fires that involve flammable solids such as wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types
of plastics
Class B
Fires that involve flammable liquids or liquefiable solids such as petrol/gasoline. Oil,
paint some waxes and plastics but not cooking fats or oils
Class C
Fires that involve flammable gases, such as natural has, hydrogen, propane, butane
Class d
Fire that involves combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium and potassium
Class E
Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with introduction
or an electrical appliance, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of
the fire with a resultant electrical shock risk if conductive agent is used to control the fire
Class F
These are fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of oils when on fire
far exceeds that of other flammable liquids making normal extinguish agents ineffective
Common types of fires
House fires
Many people worry about being trapped in a house fire at their school or workplace. Yet
about 80 percent of fire fatalities cause by fires in the home. Most house fires result
from cooking accidents in the kitchen. Cigarettes, however, cause the majority that turn
deadly. Smoking related fires tend to smolder before they are discovered
Workplace fire
Dangerous work conditions and arson can lead to fires in the workplace. Industries that
produce chemicals often deal with extremely flammable materials, while metal working
industries deal with materials at very high temperature. The leading cause of fires in
office building in arson
Wild-land fires
Wild land fires occur in undeveloped areas of land and are fueled by forest or grassland
vegetation. The leading causes of wild-land fires are lightning and human-caused
ignitions, including those from equipment exhaust, abandoned campfires, cigarettes,
and arson. Such fires destroy forested areas as well as home and properties bordering
these areas
Kinds of structural fires
Structural fire is generally classified by the extent of its damage:
• Those that are extinguished quickly and cause little damage;
• Those that, although extinguished, cause extensive damage to a limited area of
the building; and
• Those that cause almost complete to total structural destruction
SUPRESSION OF FIRE
FIRE SUPRESSION, Define
Fire suppression refers to the firefighting tactics used to suppress fires. This firefighting
effort requires techniques, equipment and training in the firefighting, more particularly
the fires that can be found in populated areas. Fire suppression encompasses various
activities such as; fire prevention, fire control, firefighting, fire protection, fire safety or
any other related activities
Fire Prevention
It is intended to reduce sources of ignition, and partially focused on programs to
educate people from starting fires.
Fire Control
It consists of depriving a fire of fuel-reducing agent, oxygen-oxidizing agent, heat or the
chemical chain reaction that are necessary to sustain itself or re-kindle it
FIRE fighting
It is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. It is a highly technical profession which
require years of training and education in order to become proficient.
FIRE Safety
Refers to precautions that are taken to prevent or reduce the likelihood of a fire the fire
that may result in death, injury, or property damage, alert those is a structure to the
presence of a fire in the event one occurs.
Fire Protection
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of fires. It
involves the study of behavior, compartmentalization, suppression, and investigation of
fire related emergencies, as well as the research and development, production, testing
and application of mitigating system.
Law enforcement
Building and fire inspectors check on compliance of a building under construction with
the building code.
Structural Fire Protection
PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION
This is the use of integral, fire resistance rated wall and floor assemblies that are used
to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire or occupancy separations,
or firewalls, to keep fires within the fire compartment of origin, thus enabling firefighting
and evacuation
Active FIRE protection
This is the manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires, as in using and
installing fire sprinkler system or finding the fire-fire alarm or extinguishing it.
FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION
It is ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and a working
understanding of the applicable building and fire codes, having a fire safety plan and
ensuing that building owners and operators, occupants and emergency personnel know
the building
Fire Protection SYSTEM
SPRINKLER SYSTEM
A sprinkler system is an integrated system of underground and overhead piping,
designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards, and connected to
one or more automatic water supplies.
Standpipe System
Many high-rise or other large buildings have internal system of water mains-standpipes,
connected to fire-hose stations. Trained occupants or employees of the building
management operate the hoses until the fire department arrives. Fire fighters can also
connect their hoses to outlets near the fire.
Alarm system
Buildings may also be equipped with detection system that will transmit an alarm. Some
detectors are designed to respond to smoke and others to heat. In many places,
detection systems are required in public buildings, apartment houses, and sometimes
even in private homes.
Ways of Extinguishing FIRE
Cooling or Quenching
The first way of extinguishing a fire is by cooling. This cooling process removes the heat
from the fire. This is possible through water’s ability to absorb massive amounts of heat
by converting to steam.
Smothering or Blanketing
When water is heated to its boiling point it converts to a gas called water vapor or
steam. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air the oxygen
content of air is reduced below 15%-from normal amount of 21% in volume by using
chemicals, fog, sand blankets, etc.
Starving or cutting-off
Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by stopping
the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire
Chemical flame inhibition
The fourth and final way of extinguishment is chemical flame inhibition. This can be
accomplished through some dry chemical and halogenated agents. These agents
interrupt the combustion reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective on gas and
liquid fuels because they must flame to burn
Fire Operations
Reconnaissance and reading the fire
The first step of the operations is a reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire
Tactical ventilation
One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke. It carries heat and poisonous gases and
obscures vision. The concept of tactical ventilation was introduced to encourage a more
well thought out approach to this aspect of firefighting. Tactical ventilation is either the
venting, or containment-isolation, actions by on scene firefighters.
FIRE FIGHTING APPARATUS
A firefighting apparatus, fire engine, fire truck or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to
assist in fighting fires by transporting firefighters to the scene and providing them with
access to the fire, water or other equipment.
Types of firefighting apparatus
Fire engine
The fire engine may have several methods of pumping water through hoses to the fire,
from an array of valves. It may also have a fixed pumping cannon called a fire monitor,
deck gun or deluge, which can direct the water as pointed by the operator.
Turntable ladder
Sometimes abbreviated to simply TL, is the best-known form of specialized fire
apparatus, and is used to gain access to fires occurring at height, where conventional
ladder carried other appliances might not reach
Quint and quad
The turntable ladder may be known as a quad or quint in some areas as It capable of
performing multiple task-pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device and ground ladders
with each of these functions making up one of its four-quad or five-quint capabilities
Hydraulic Platform
Also known as articulating booms, snorkels, platform trucks or sometimes shortened as
HP, is a specialized aerial work platform designed for designed for firefighting use. They
have a number of functions, which follow the same principles as the turntable ladder,
providing high level access and elevated water pump positions
Tanker Truck
Also known as a water tender or water browser is a specialized fire appliance with the
primary purpose of transporting large amounts of water to the fire-ground to make it
available for extinguishing fire operations
Heavy rescue vehicle
A heavy rescue vehicle sometimes referred to as a Rescue Company, Rescue Squad or
Technical Rescue, is a type of specialty firefighting and emergency medical services
apparatus. Essentially giant toolboxes on wheels, they are primarily designed for
technical rescue situations such as vehicle extrications following car accidents, confined
space rescue, etc.
Rescue ENGINE and Rescue PUMPER
A rescue pumper or rescue engine is a purpose-built unit fire apparatus beyond a
typical Class A rated engine company. The original concept was to marry the pumping
capabilities of a heavy rescue squad and that of a class A rated pumper that is to add
1000 gpm fire pump or grater 500 gallons of water
Hazardous materials appliances
Many fire departments covering large metropolitan areas or those containing high-risk
hazards keep specialist appliances for dealing with hazardous materials or “HazMat” .
Wild-Land Fire appliances
Wild-land firefighting requires unique vehicles that can climb mountain roads and hills,
be vehicles that can climb mountain roads and hills, be self-reliant and have high
clearances for wheels and suspension
Airport crash tender
An Airport Crash Tender is a fire engine for use as aerodromes and airports in aircraft
accidents
Logical support appliances
Many fire departments operate a number of vehicles in specialized logistical functions
Command and Control
The advancement of technology and potential for a very large-scale incidents has led to
many fire departments utilizing or increasing their use of mobile command units
FIREBOAT
A fireboat is a specialized watercraft, often resembling a tugboat, with pumps and
nozzles designed for firefighting shoreline and shipboard fires
AIRCRAFT
Aerial firefighting is the use of aircraft and other aerial resources to combat wildfires.
The types if aircraft used to include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, smoke jumpers
and rappelers are also classified as aerial fighters
Fire Hydrant
Also known colloquially as “fire plug” in the United States or as a Johnny pump in New
York City.
It is an active fire protection measure and a source of water provided in the most urban
suburban and rural areas with water service to enable fire fighters to tap into the water
supply to assist in extinguishing a fire
Arson Investigation
It is defined as the malicious, willful, international and felonious destruction of property
by fire. The study of the causes is the subject of fire investigation
Corpus Delicti of Arson
• That a fire or burning occurred in a premise or property protected by the law;
• That the fire or burning was intentional;
• That someone set the fire, caused it to be set or otherwise furthered the act.
Authority in Investigation
In the local setting, authority for arson investigation is in the hands of the fire authorities
with the local police having concurrent jurisdiction on the fire incidents of exceptional
cases.
People as sources of information
Person who discovered the fire
The person who discovered the fire can report on which part of the building was ablaze
when first notice
Fire fighters
• Fire fighters are able to pinpoint the origin of structural fire, in contrast to forest or
grass fire, almost 50 percent of the time.
Owner or manager of the structure
The owner or manager of the destroyed property may be questioned if they have any
suspicion of arson
Employees
 • Employees of a commercial enterprise possess potentially useful information,
which will be divulged in they are interviewed properly
Insurance or financial personnel
• In almost cases, the insurance company will be conducting a parallel
investigation to protect its interest in potential litigation
Business competitors
• It can provide the economic health of the industry in general and arson target in
particular. If financial problems are manifest, this can be exploited during the
investigation
Other Possible witnesses
• Spectators of the scene
• Neighbours and Tenants
• News media camera technicians
• Fortuitous witnesses
Motives of the crime or arson
Financial gain
Arson can result to business of personal gains financially, e.g. Eliminating competition,
through financial fraud pr through welfare fraud, following the destruction of home and
possession.
Intimidation
• Arson have used to: 1) install fear regarding the safety one’s person or family, 2)
threaten economic loss, or 3) effect a desired change in the government
business policy
Emotional reasons
In as such arson cases involving emotional reasons the victim is aware of the aggrieved
individual and can provide the investigator with the name of the likely perpetrator.
Concealment of a crime
Sometimes arson serves to conceal a homicide, account for any shortage, destroy
incriminating records, or distract police from another felony being committed
simultaneously in the area.
Pyromania
 • It is defined as irresistible impulse or compulsion to start a fire or something on
fire.
Recognition as a hero
Some arsonist will set a fire in order to discover it and then save the inhabitants or
contents
Vandalism
• Run down or vacant buildings in deteriorating neighborhoods can become the
target of adolescent gangs looking for vent or simply relieve monotony
Detecting use of accelerants
Visual observations
In addition to a pour pattern other visual evidence use of an accelerant can be found
when heat intensity is sufficient to melt, twist or oxidize a metal used in construction of a
buildings or piece of furniture.
Detecting by scent
• The human olfactory nerve can be sensitive. A few people are capable of
recognizing one part of gasoline in 10 million parts of air;
Dye color test
• If sprinkled over a suspected area, dyes solution only in organic solvents can
change to red or another depending on the dye
Instrumental device
• Well over a dozen instruments are available for the detection of accelerants.
Underlying their operation is a broad of scientific principles-from flame ionization
and gas chromatography to infrared spectrophotometer and catalytic combustion
or resistance analysis