Analysis of Inorganic Substances​ -​ How are the ions present in the environment 

identified and measured?  

- analyse the need for monitoring the environment  
- conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and 
complexation reactions as appropriate – to test for the presence in aqueous 
solution of the following ions:  
- cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) 
(Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+), copper(II) (Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) 
(Fe3+)  
- anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate 
(CH3COO–), carbonate (CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)  
- conduct investigations and/or process data involving:  
- gravimetric analysis  
- precipitation titrations  
- conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of 
coloured species and/or metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not limited 
to, the use of:  
- colourimetry  
- ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry  
- atomic absorption spectroscopy  
 
Analysis of Organic Substances​ - ​How is information about the reactivity and 
structure of organic compounds obtained?  
- conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of 
the following functional groups:  
- carbon–carbon double bonds  
- hydroxyl groups  
- carboxylic acids  
- investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic 
compounds addressed in the course, including but not limited to:  
- proton and carbon-13 NMR  
- mass spectrometry  
- infrared spectroscopy 
 
Chemical Synthesis and Design​ - ​What are the implications for society of chemical 
synthesis and design?  
- evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical 
synthesis process, including but not limited to:  
- availability of reagents  
- reaction conditions  
- yield and purity 
- industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) 
- environmental, social and economic issues  
 
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2 parts  
- Chemical analysis 
- Qualitative - specific elements, ions, functional groups. Identifying presence 
- People travelling borders - could carry drugs 
- If something is an acid - using an indicator 
- Quantitative - getting actual amounts/quantities, numbers or values 
- Gravimetric analysis 
- Chemical processes/design 
 
Test qualities - qualitative, quantitative, destructive, non-destructive, what information you can get about it 
 
 analyse the need for monitoring the environment  
✵ ​Pollution levels, water toxins, CFCs in the atmosphere, acid levels, pollution. 
- Certain levels in things are needed to be safe. 
- Pollution can be accidental 
- Affect health, quality, production, ecosystems. 
- Allows us to see the destruction of the ozone - protection from UV 
 
✵ ​Fertiliser run off - extra fertilisers end up in waterways, contains phosphates and nitrate ions, that promote 
root and leaf growth in crops 
- Detergents also contain phosphates 
- Overuse or runoff during heavy rain, with low water flow and warm conditions will increase algae growth 
- Since it helps promote plant growth, the phosphates and nitrates will be washed off the crops and 
down the drain, and will promote the growth of algaes 
- However since the algae are blocking sunlight from plants below the water, they die 
- Also since photosynthesis isn’t occurring in underwater plants, oxygen isn’t released into the water, 
meaning oxygen levels decrease and aquatic life die 
- Eventually, phosphates and nitrates run out, algae dies and pollutes the waterway 
- Lots of death - can take years to flush it all out 
 
✵ ​Mining sites - risk water catchments 
- Mines are filled to close them, minerals get flushed into this water, there could be dangerous/toxic metals 
and minerals 
- Lead is a neurotoxin that cannot be metabolised, and can cause nerve and brain development 
problems 
 
 conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and complexation reactions as appropriate – to 
test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following ions:  
✵ ​Two types of tests - qualitative and quantitative 
- Qualitative ion testing - measuring quantities, whether something IS there 
- Cation/anion 
- Colour of solution 
 - Precipitation 
- Flame tests 
- Complexes (cation) 
- Quantitative testing - measuring qualities, how much of something is there 
- AAS (atomic absorption spectroscopy) 
- Gravimetric and volumetric analysis 
 
-  cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+), copper(II) 
(Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)  
✵ ​Cation has lost an electron. Tests to find them 
- Flame tests, precipitation, complexation reactions, looking 
- Qualitative, qualitative, idk, qualitative 
- Testing for H​+​ - is it acidic, indicator 
- Need one diagnostic and one confirming test 
 
✵ ​Before everything - solution colour 
- Copper solution is blue, easiest 
- Iron III is brown, rusty and Iron II is green 
 
✵ ​Light - ​emission​ (flame test) and ​absorption 
- Visible light lies between these wavelengths - 400 and 700. 
- Electrons will ​absorb​ heat energy. This excites the electrons, 
and they jump from their ​stable​ state to a ​higher​ ​energy​ level. 
Excited state. 
- Once this is over, their excited state wears off (very quickly), 
and the electrons ​emit​ this extra energy in the form of ​light​, 
and go back to their ​original​, stable positions. 
- Every element has different electron configurations, so they will each show different colours 
- [light] → [flame] → [what we see - some of the energy is absorbed by the flame and change what we see] 
- If you put an element in a flame it will ​absorb/emit energy selectively​. We can measure the amount of 
absorption 
- The amount absorbed is directly proportional to 
concentration, linear relationship (AAS too) 
Experiment:​ Flame test, qualitative 
1. Dip the loop into HCl to clean it 
2. Dip it into the salt being tested 
3. Hover the loop over the flame and observe the colour 
 
Lithium   Magnesium   Sodium   Barium  

Calcium   Iron (II) and (III)  Copper (II)  Potassium  

  Lead  Rubidium    
 
Limitations 
 - Can’t detect all metals - some metals ​don’t produce colours 
- Some are ​unsafe​ to test 
- Some produce ​similarly coloured​ flames, difficult to distinguish them 
- Only for ​metal cat​ions 
- People perceive colour in different ways 
- Destructive test 
 
✵ ​Precipitation - Get solution, put it in a beaker 
- Add solutions of anions and see if precipitates form (in a particular order, so we can use the process of 
elimination to work it out) 
- Precipitate the ​most insoluble​ cations 
- Add HCL (​Chloride​ ions)- if there's a precipitate, it could only be ​Pb or Ag 
- Filter to remove the precipitate and add NaOH 
- a ​white​ precipitate will be ​lead​ ions 
- brown​ will be ​silver​ ions 
- Add Na​2​SO​4​ (​Sulfate​ ions) - precipitate will be ​barium​ or ​calcium​, both ​white 
- Flame test - ​green​ flame is ​barium​, ​red​ flame is ​calcium 
- Add NaOH 
- copper​ will have a ​blue​ precipitate, can confirm this with a ​flame test 
- iron II​ will have a pale ​green​ precipitate (over time it will oxidise and go brown) 
- iron III ​will have a ​brown​ precipitate 
- aluminium​ and ​magnesium​ will have a ​white​ precipitate 
- Add ​NaOH in excess​ - aluminium will form a clear solution, but magnesium will stay white 

 
 
3 - Complexing - adding a chemical to a reagent/formed precipitate to further distinguish what it is 
- Colours might be similar 
- Cl- Br- and I- form similar precipitates with silver - white cream and yellow 
- Add ammonia - Cl and Br precipitates dissolve but not I- 
- Forms a complex  
- AgCl​(s)​ + NH​3​ → [Ag(NH​3​)​2​] + CL​-​(aq)​. 
- 6 water ligands - lone pair of electrons forms a covalent bond with the Cu 
 - Responsible for colour in solution 
- Silver halides often form complexes which make them soluble 
- Can be used to distinguish between lead and silver chloride, between silver halides, confirm transition metal 
cations 
 
Reliable - did we get the same answers 
Accurate - how good of a colour can we get 
Valid - there could be misleading colours, perhaps from a mix of substances, can be hard to analyse. 
 
Calorimetry - absorption of light 
- Directly proportional to its concentration 
- Linear relationship 
 
-  anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–), carbonate 
(CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)  
✵ ​Can’t do cation and anion - you need cations to test anions and anions to test cations 
- Only precipitation tests 
 
✵ ​Precipitation test ((: for everything except hydroxide (indicator) 
- Add HNO​3​ (nitric acid) - if there are bubbles a carbonate is present (carbon 
dioxide, as its an acid carbonate reaction)  
- Must be in excess, to ensure no precipitates form 
- Add Ba(NO​3​)​2​ - could be sulfate or phosphate 
- Since our solution is ​slightly acidic​ from the nitric acid, if a precipitate 
forms it will likely be sulfate. This is because ​phosphate​ is ​more soluble​ in 
acidic​ conditions 
- Double check this - get a clean sample, add barium nitrate to 
create basic conditions, and if the precipitate forms its sulfate. 
- Add AgNO​3​ - ​white​ precipitate could be ​chloride​ - add dilute ammonia to check 
- Yellow​ precipitate - ​bromide​ - add concentrated ammonia  
- No precipitate from any ammonia - iodide. 
- Brown precipitate - hydroxide ions 
- Add iron (III) chloride - acetate ions will form a red precipitate 
- No precipitate is nitrate. Though it also could be pure water 
- Test conductivity, see if there are any ions at all 
  
 
✵ ​Interpreting results of precipitation tests - work backwards of solubility rules 

-  
- This is fine - NaCl means that Ag, Pb and Hg are not present 
- Add sulfate - means there’s Ca or Ba 
- Flame test - Ba 
 
conduct
  investigations and/or process data involving:  
When there is a point of change - from there you can measure 
- Adding till you see a precipitate, excess the solubility products 
- How much sulfate in a fertiliser - naturally lowers pH 
 
-  gravimetric analysis  
✵ ​Analysing the ​mass​ of substances to make measurements. Weighing to four significant figures. Quantitative. 
- Perhaps the substance is mixed with the ​solute​ and ​other​ substances, and we cannot weigh it. 
- So we have to isolate stuff using precipitation reactions. 
- Find a precipitating agent, will form a ​precipitate​ with the substance (but make sure to ​weigh​ the whole 
thing before). Ensure it's added in ​excess​, perhaps using a beaker. 
- If we have chloride ions, add silver nitrate to form silver chloride.  
- Filter the precipitate out using a filter paper (weighed) and funnel, into a conical flask. 
- Dry​ out the filter paper - very important as extra solution will make us overestimate the weight. 
- Air dry over a few days, or use an oven. 
- Then weight the paper, subtracting the filter paper weight. Now we have some Grams 
- Cl​-​ + AgNO​3​ → NO​3​-​ + AgCl​(s) 
- Moles of AgCl = 5.6g/10787+35.45 = 0.0390734… = Cl​-​ moles 
 - Mass Cl​-​ = 0.03090734 x 35.45 = 1.38515203g 
- Limitations - ​drying process​ isn’t perfect, there will be an overestimation of the substance, possibly 
decrease accuracy 
- Precipitate could be too ​fine​ and go through the filter paper, underestimation of the substance.  
- Use more accurate filters such as glass sintered filters 
- Deciding when the precipitation reaction has ​finished​ is a qualitative observation - the tester may 
stop the reaction before it has reached completion, reducing precipitate mass  
- Not suitable to ​analyse all salts​, some are ​soluble with all ions 
- Only salts that form a stable precipitate can be analysed 
- Precipitates may form other ions that aren’t being tested - silver can also form silver sulfate ions 
which are not soluble 
- Add excess barium sulfate to ensure all sulfate is precipitated out as barium sulfate.  
 
-  precipitation titrations  
✵ ​Difference between gravimetric - this is ​volumetric​ analysis 
- Accurately measure the amount of substance based on its volume 
- Testing fertilisers - could test how much of sulfate ion is in a sample 
- Known sample taken → includes some parts that we need to measure → dissolve it, it now is in ion form → 
precipitate it 
- Often done with halides, and silver nitrate as the standard 
- Measures volumes reacting, not masses of precipitates 
- Colour change titrations - colour change occurs at the equivalence point due to a ​precipitate​ forming 
- Mohr’s method apparently - unknown solution of NaOH titrated against AgNO​3​. 
- At the equivalence point, all the chloride should be ​precipitated out​ as silver chloride. If we know 
how much silver nitrate we add to reach this point, we can calculate the amount of chloride present.  
- Use a potassium chromate indicator to assist, and change from yellow to red 
- Silver will ​react very readily​ with the chloride ions, and will precipitate out 
- Once no more precipitate can be formed, the silver ions will r​eact with 
the indicator​, forming ​reddish precipitate​ silver chromate. 
- Then we measure the mean titre, do normal calculations  
- The precipitate is filtered and washed, so no other ions are collected 
with it, and then dried and weighed. 
- However, you must add something that will ​only​ precipitate out the desired 
substance, not the ​other ions​. 
- Reats ​selectively​. 
- Precipitate must be highly insoluble 
- May have to add other ions before to get rid of other possible ions, 
like carbonates and hydroxides 
- Validity, assume that only and all analyte precipitates out and none is lost 
 
✵ ​Conductometric titrations - monitoring electrical conductivity, as ions allow electricity to flow through 
- If forming precipitates, there are ​fewer ions​ as they are ​solids​, meaning conductivity will ​decrease 
- If ​more​ stuff is added (used to form the precipitate, barium acetate to sodium sulfate) it will ​increase again​, 
as they have a ​charge​ with no one to match with 
- So the equivalence point is when the conductivity is ​lowest 
 - We can observe the conductivity ​falling​ as barium acetate is added 
- At a point it ​increases​ again, after equivalence point 
- Can use volume and stoichiometric calculations to work out the concentration of sulfate ions 
- Sharpness​ of this change ​differs​, as different ions have different conductivities 
- Ion added in excess, not precipitating 
- Barium acetate is more ​bulky​, less conductive than smaller sulfates, 
which is why the conductivity decreased. 
- Use Cl​-​ instead, a ​less steep​ curve 
Hence, the steepness depends on the ions added! 
 
 conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of 
coloured species and/or metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not 
limited to, the use of: 
- colourimetry  
✵ ​Analyse the concentration of any coloured species in a sample - colour 
intensity 
- Can analyse metals and non metals that emit visible light 
- Phosphate - react it to make it purple 
- Colour intensity is proportional to concentration 
- Colour identified, intensity of colour is how concentrated, 
how much 
- Hence qual and quant 
- The more intense the colour, the higher concentration 

-   
- They are the same species because they're the same colour. They have different concentrations 
because they have different intensities 
- Choose what we’re testing for 
- Instead of having a different lamp for each element, we have different filters. A filter is chosen 
based on what we’re looking for 
- Specifically chosen light is passed through a filter (we have already chosen what we’re testing for) 
- Filter contains complimentary colour to the solution 
- Sample is contained in glass cuvette, light passes through it 
- Complimentary colours? 
- Light sensor detects the percentage absorbed - the higher it is, the more there was present 
- Blank - do the same with deionised water to zero the colorimeter 
 
-  ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry  
✵ ​same principle as AAs and colourimetry  
 - UV spectrum - 190-400nm wavelength 
- Uses UV and visible light spectrum - 190-800nm wavelengths 
- Many organic molecules absorb UV-vis light and appear colourless - ​chromophores 
- Deuterium/tungsten lamp emits visible and UV light 
- Monochromator selects and splits the light, so it can go to the sample and a reference 
- Goes to a detector/spectrophot​o​meter records the wavelength when absorbance occurs and the amount of 
absorption occurs 
- Qual and quant 
- Wavelength that is absorbed identifies if the chemical is present, and the amount that is absorbed tells us 
how much is in the sample 
- Wavelength identifies, absorption quantifies 

 
 
✵ ​Wavelength max - when the most absorption occurs 
- Each element has one, like a fingerprint, stored in a database 
- If a sample matches the one in a database, the chemical would be present 
- A UV vis spectrum can be compared to this 
- Chromophore - functional group! 
- Most have C-H bond, so this is very low, however those with a functional group have a higher WM 
- The more functional groups the more complex (more peaks) 
- The higher the concentration the higher the peaks/absorbance 
 
-  atomic absorption spectroscopy  
✵ ​Atomic absorption spectroscopy - measure the ​concentration of metals​ in a ​sample 
- Have to know what you’re looking for first, so we can set up which lamp to use 
- Testing for mercury, use a mercury cathode lamp 
 -  
- Set up a lamp of the metal that we’re testing for - radiates the ​wavelength of light that the metal will 
absorb​, its electrons gets excited 
- Light will pass through the sample (in the flame) 
- Some light will pass through, and some may be absorbed by the sample. (only the metal tested for) 
- If the metal is not there, the sample will not absorb the wavelength and it'll just pass straight through 
- Measures the element’s wavelength 
- Detector measures how much light passes through the flame, not absorbed by atoms  

-  
- The amount of light absorbed depends on how many 
atoms there are, as if there are any metals that we’re 
testing for present, they would be absorbed by the flame 
and not pass in through the detector. Therefore we can 
find out how much of the sample didn’t go through the 
detector and hence how much of the metal is present. 
- Gives us an absorbance number 
- Absorption is proportional to concentration -​if there is lots of the metal present the absorbance will be 
high, not much will get through 
- The type/wavelength of light absorbed depends on the types atoms 
 
✵ ​Limitations - can only be used to detect metals, as the cathode lamp only works if the element can conduct 
electricity. Non metals are typically bad conductors. 
- Only works if the metal is chosen before starting, as the lamp needs to emit the right wavelength 
- Can only detect one element at a time 
- Amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the ppm concentration of atoms 
- Can plot the absorbance of different standard solutions 
 - Concentration is independent, since they cause changes (also 
1mg/kg - 1mg/L) 
- Application - used to measure trace concentrations - very small 
element quantities 
- Monitor pollutants in air and soil 
- Check if there are toxic metals in food and water eg. mercury 
- Check if there are toxic metals in the body eg, mercury, 
aluminium, cobalt 
- Limitation - Can accurately measure absorption, however you can lose 
energy in other ways hence it can be hard to measure emission 
 
 conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of the following functional groups:  
- carbon–carbon double bonds  
✵ ​Alkanes - saturated - only C-C. Alkenes are not saturated 
Experiment: (need to use high mass hydrocarbons so they are liquid at room temperature) 
1. Add 3mL of cyclohexene and cyclohexane to two test tubes 
2. Add a few drops of bromine water (originally orange) to each test tube and mix gently 
3. Cyclohexene will turn clear, but cyclohexane will stay orange. This is because the alkene is unsaturated, and 
will break its double bond to bond with bromine, forming 1,2-dibromocyclohexane 
Risk assessment:  

 
However, alkanes can also do this in UV light, doing a substitution reaction 
- UV light will form bromine free radicals that will swap with a hydrogen in the alkane. The solution will 
decolourise.  
 
-  hydroxyl groups  
✵ ​Metal + alcohol → metal alkoxide (salt, conjugate bASE of alcohol) + hydrogen gas 
- Butanol - butoxide, ethanol - ethoxide  
- Redox - switching electrons 
 
✵ ​Sodium test - qualitative test, if there is a hydroxyl group 
 -  
- First add calcium chloride to ensure any water is removed 
- Put sodium into a test tube with 5mL of alcohol 
- Bubbles show that hydrogen gas has been produced 
- 2C​2​H​5​OH​(l)​ + 2Na​(s)​ → 2NaC​2​H​3​O​(non aq)​ + H​2 (g)​. 
- Ethanol + sodium metal = sodium methoxide + hydrogen gas 
- Non Aq - dissolved in a solvent that isn’t water (ethanol). 
- H​2​ can be confirmed with a pop test 
- Na is a strong reducing agent - makes other species reduce. 
- So its oxidised and has lost electrons 

-  
 
✵ ​Tertiary alcohol testing - oxidation 
- Same catalysts - acidified potassium dichromate or acidified 
potassium permanganate 
- See if these strong oxidising agent cause a reaction 
Experiment: 

 
1. Put 3mL of acidified potassium dichromate with 3mL of the primary alcohol (1-butanol) in a test tube 
2. Repeat in 2 more test tubes with the secondary (2-butanol) and tertiatry (3-butanol) alcohols. 
3. Place all in a 30​o​C heated water bath 
4. Primary and secondary test tubes will turn green, the tertiary will stay 
Same with permanganate, except its purple originally, and turns colourless in primary and secondary 
- This is because primary and secondary will undergo oxidation, tertiary will not 
- Primary will form aldehydes (1-butanal) and secondary will form ketones (butanone) 
- Tertiary will not, because oxidation of alcohols involves breaking a C-H bond on the carbon holding the 
hydroxyl group. There are no C-H bonds to break 
- The color change - reduction of acidified thing 
 - Orange dichromate ions become green chromium ions.  
- Purple permanganate chromium ions become clear manganese ions 
 
✵ ​Primary/secondary - Benedict’s/fehling’s solution test 
- Keep the ketones and aldehydes form the previous reaction, and distill the mixture. 
- Add a small amount of this to either Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution, which are both blue 
- Put into a hot water bath 
- Aldehydes will form a ​red​ precipitate and a ketone will stay ​blue 
 
-  carboxylic acids  
✵ ​Acid carbonate reaction​ - produces salt, water and carbon dioxide 
- (donates proton) CH​3​COOH​(aq)​ + NaHCO​3 (aq)​ → CH​3​COONa​(s)​ + H​2​O​(l)​ + CO​2 (g)​. 
- Qualitative, detects if there is any carboxylic acid 
- Test CO​2​ through limewater test 
Experiment:​ Sodium bicarbonate test 
1. Add 1mL of NaHCO​3​ to the test tube 
2. Add 2-3 drops of carboxylic acid 
3. Seal test tube with stopper, with a delivery tube in 
it 
4. Bubbles indicate carbon dioxide - test for this using limewater test 
5. Fill the second test tube with calcium hydroxide (limewater) 
6. Place the tube into the limewater tube. If it turns cloudy, it's carbon dioxide. 
a. CO​2 (g)​ + Ca(OH)​2 (aq)​ → CaCO​3 (s)​ + H​2​O​(l)​. 
b. Solid is a white precipitate, which makes the solution cloudy 
In this reaction, sodium bicarbonate acts as a base, as the hydrogen ion from the acetic acid molecule bonds with 
the hydrogen carbonate ion 
- So boom, carbon dioxide and water products w/ the rest, and ofc the salt.  
Limitations - it tests for the presence of any acid, not just carboxylic ones. Further testing is needed. 
- Esterification reaction - if a sweet smell is produced then we have a carboxylic acid. 
 
 investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic compounds addressed in the course, 
including but not limited to:  
- proton and carbon-13 NMR  
✵ ​NMR spectroscopy - nuclear magnetic resonance 
- Instead of electrons absorbing energy, it’s nuclei, absorbing radio waves and 
emitting them characteristically 
- Must be the exact amount required for what we’re testing 
- Energy into the system (radio waves), excited, and gives off energy that can be 
measured 
- Low energy radio waves - don't make the molecules change shape, structure or 
fragment, good for studying behaviour of nuclei 
- If the molecule is surrounded by electrons/other atoms, it will require more 
energy to flip as they shield it 
- In ethane, all the H atoms have the same chemical environment 
- All Hs are equally shielded. H1 spectrum could have only 1 line 
 - But propanal - the H near the C=O is a lot less shielded, plus oxygen is very electronegative and will pull 
H’s electrons toward it - so it's going to be more easily spun 
- More electronegative, the more easily its own electrons are taken in 
- TMS (tetramethylsilane) is the most shielded compound, as there is very little electronegativity 
- Is zero, used as a reference. Requires lots of energy to flip, very symmetrical 
- Everything needs less energy than TMS 
- The closer to an electronegative boi, the less shielded bc it will take the electrons 
- The further from zero, the less shielded, as zero is TMS which is the most shielded compound and we’re 
comparing it to that. 
- 1 peak = 1 chemical environment 
- Ethane - all Hs have the same chemical environment. So there will only be 1 peak 
- Its close to zero - not affected by anything polar 

- peak at 2 - CH​3 part.

​ Peak at 11 - other part 
- Hydrogen at peak 11 - very not shielded, the Os take away its electrons, so its further downfield than TMS 
- More affected by magnetic resonance 
- Peak is smaller - there is only 1 hydrogen, compared to 3 in the peak at 2 
- MAGNETIC FIELD REQUIRED TO SPIN THE H IN THE FUNCTIONAL GROUP IS 11 MILLIONTHS LESS 
THAN THE OTHER ONES, ​IN TMS 
- The magnetic field required to spin the h in the functional group is 11 millionths less than the hydrogen in 
TMS.  
- Going ← = going downfield 
 
-  mass spectrometry  
✵ ​Quantitative analytical technique about presence in a sample. 
 -  
- Sample is placed in ionisation chamber - high energy electrons come and knock the electrons off the 
sample, making it a positive ion 
- Using methane → CH​4​ + e- → CH​4​+ + 2e- (one electron used to knock, the other from methane) 
- Uses a particular magnetic field to guide the atom through, deflected exactly so it can get through

too light - too deflected, magnetic field is too strong 

- ONLY THE ATOMS THAT PERFECTLY GET THROUGH ARE DETECTED - HENCE WHY IT'S PERFECTLY 
SET UP FOR THESE 
- Intensity is measured 
- The intensity of the atoms that get through the chamber can be measured at the detector. 
- A m/z profile can measure the ion’s abundance 
 
✵ ​Interpreting ;;;;; 

-  
- The heaviest is furthest to the right 
- Lines are fragment ions 
- Y axis - proportion of the total ions detected that were recorded at a particular m/z value 
- Largest m/z value will belong to the original big molecular ion, with only one electron knocked off (at 60) 
- Heaviest. It’s m/z value is it’s molar mass. 
 - OTHER FRAGMENTS - cracked/broken off pieces of the parent molecule that broke off along the way 
under the stress of electron bombardment. Poor guys 
- Base peak (41) - most abundant fragment ions in the sample. Can be given a relative abundance of 100%, 
so all the other ions can be measured relative to it?????? 

-  
- The location of the line on the x axis determines what the molecule is (qualitative) 
- The height of the peak determines how much there is (quantitative) 
Example:​ what produced the base peak (43) in hexanone 

-  
- Must have 3 carbons or less, as 4 x 12 = 48, higher mass 
- Could be the C​3​H​7​ fragment (mass of 43) or C​3​H​5​O fragment (mass of 57, too high) 
- So it's the C​3​H​7​ fragment. 
 
- Thousands of trials have resulted in a mass spectra of each molecule, data bank, can be compared when 
analysing substances. 
- Small peaks beside the base peak are isotopes, having an extra neutron, making the mass go up by 1 
- Usually rare 
- Chlorine however has isotopes 33 and 37, 3:1 ratio 
- Will have a few different peaks containing their isotopes 
 -  
- Work out the structure of the peak at m/z 65 

- chlorine 36 is rare, don’t use periodic table 

- Instead do chlorine 35 and 37 
- Chlorine 35 = 63 and chlorine 37 = 65 

-  
- In organic analysis, the molecular ion peak/base peak is what we’re interested in, determining the identity of 
the organic compound by providing information about their molecular mass and formula. 
- Molecular ion will then have a charge of +1, so z in m/z will = 1 
- So the value will equal the mass of the original molecule. 
  
Molecular mass of the original = 58 
Alkane formula = C​n​H​2n + 2​. 
58 = 12n + 1(2n + 2) (using periodic table, most common isotopes, as the peak is produced using only these 
isotopes) 
= 12n + 2n + 2 
56 = 14n 
N = 4 
Alkane = C​4​H​2x4 + 4​ = C​4​H​12​ = butane 
 
-  infrared spectroscopy 
✵ ​determines the concentration and nature of polyatomic molecules. How it interacts with organic molecules 
- Infrared - between visible light and microwave radiation 
- Visible light - makes electrons excited, jump energy states 
- Infrared - Bond vibrations affected, make their energy increase 
 -  
- Different bonds absorb different amounts of energy 
- Heavier atoms require more energy, and absorb lower frequencies 
- Double bonds require more energy, and absorb higher frequencies 
- Stronger bonds absorb high frequency radiation and weaker ones absorb lower frequency radiation 
- The same bonds on different areas of a molecule can absorb different frequencies 
- Like AAS - IR light is put into a sample, we measure how much is absorbed. If energy is absorbed in the 
sample, less energy makes it to the detector, troughs in energy 
- If there is 100% transmittance then all the light passed through the sample.  
- If there is less, then some of it has been absorbed, and we can guess what the sample is 
- Measuring the absorbance can help to identify what bonds are present 
- Transmittance - basically above, how much light is absorbed and doesn't make it to the detector 

- the lower the troughs, the more light absorbed 

- X axis is the wavenumber - inverse of wavelength, waves per 1 cm 
- Peaks are either strong, medium or weak. Or narrow or broad 
- Depends on the type of bond and the way it’s vibration changes 
- A lot are ignored 
- Troughs at 2800 are c-h bonds, useless as many have these 
- Between 1500 and 500 is more useful 
 
Example:  
 
Peaks at 1700 and 3000 
 
1700 is C=O double bond - formula sheet 
 
3000 - C-H bonds. Has different spikes, which is distinctive about aldehydes, as these have different interactions 
with other bonds 
 
500-1500 is a fingerprint region - absorbed by C-C and C=O bonds. Not very useful in analysis as many 
molecules contain these bonds 
 
 
- Once you have worked out the type of compound it is, like an aldehyde, the fingerprint region becomes 
more useful 
- Compare with other IR data from that type of compound - if its identical, it's the same compound 
- Eg. ethanal 
Example:  
Peak at 1700 - carbonyl group 
 
Very broad peak at 3000 - OH group 
(acids) 
 
N-H, OH (alcohols) and C-H are also 
in that range, however since it is broad 
it must be OH (acid) 
 
There for it is a carboxylic acid, and the 
formula was given to us in the 
question 
- So ethanoic acid 
Example: Identify this compound 
Peak at 1700 - C=O group 
 
Peak at 3000 - C-H as it is narrow 
 
Only major functional group - C=O 
Ester, aldehyde or ketone 
 
C-H peaks usually split to be an aldehyde, but 
we need stronger evidence 
 
Fingerprint region - C-O bond in the 
fingerprint region 1500-1000 
- C-C bonds 750-1100 but there is a peak at 1250, not in this range. So its a C-O bond at 1250  
- Therefore its an ester = C=O and C-O 
 
 evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process, including but not 
limited to: ​(lol 7 marks question, like in polymer task - 8% of the course) 
✵ ​Synthesis of ammonia NH​3 
- Second most produced industrial compound 
 - N​2 (g)​ + 3H​2 (g)​ ⇋ 2NH​3 (g)​ exothermic 
- High pressures will drive the reaction to the side with less moles - the products. However high pressures 
are dangerous, so a compromise is made - 250x atmospheric pressure 
- Low temperatures will also favour the forward exothermic reaction. However low temperatures mean a low 
reaction rate, so a compromise is made - 400 degrees celsius 
- Though this decreases purity and yield, as unused reactants are recycled and used again 
- High temperature would allow equilibrium to be reached in minutes, however the yield will be 0.1% 
- Also condensing ammonia and removing it will also drive the reaction to the right 
- Unused reactants are fed back into the system, so nothing is wasted 
- This way, yield will be around 45% 
- Catalyst also used to improve reaction 
 
- availability of reagents  

N​2  H​2 

78% of air contains nitrogen, however there is also 21%  More difficult to source, however it can be sourced 
oxygen, which will react explosively with hydrogen  from CH​4​ at high temperatures 
React methane with steam 

Reacting air with methane will remove the oxygen  Use a nickel catalyst, and high temperatures 
CH​4 (g)​ + 2O​2 (g)​ ⇋ CO​2 (g)​ + H​2​O​(g)  CH​4 (g)​ + H​2​O​(g)​ ⇋ CO​(g)​ + 3H​2 (g) 

N​2​ can then be isolated and used   

Both use the combustion of fossil fuels - not very sustainable 
 
-  reaction conditions  
✵  
 
- yield
  and purity 
✵  
 
- industrial
  uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) 
✵ ​Fertilisers - improve leaf structure 
- Pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs and cosmetics 
- Fuels - neutralise acidic impurities in crude oil 
- Metal treatment applications 
- Livestock feed - source of protein 
- Production of nitric acid 
 
-  environmental, social and economic issues  
✵ ​Environmental 
- Production of CO​2​ and burning fossil fuels when sourcing reactants - greenhouse effect 
- Carbon dioxide can dissolve in oceans, acidic and toxic 
- Carbon monoxide is also toxic in small amounts 
- Ammonia is a colourless basic choking gas, can cause respiratory issues 
 - The overall haber process relies on traditional sources of electricity - fossil fuels 
 
✵ ​Social - using ammonia is very positive 
- Fertilisers and feed - improved yield of farmers and stabilised food sources 
- Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals - improved medical treatments 
- Refrigerant gas - started the production of refrigerators and air conditioning 
- Cleaning agent -  
 
✵ ​Economic 
- Energy required, starting materials, plant equipment (setup and maintenance), wages and labour of 
employees