Introduction to Organic

Chemistry
Chap 06

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Organic Chemistry:
 The branch of chemistry that deals with
the study of carbon compounds except
carbon mono oxide, carbon dioxide,
carbonates, bicarbonates, metal carbides
etc is called Organic Chemistry.
 The branch of chemistry that deals with
the study of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives is called Organic Chemistry.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Vital Force Theory:
 According to Vital Force Theory:
◦ “Organic compounds are only obtained from natural
sources, they cannot be synthesized in the
laboratory”.
Wohler’s Experiment:
This theory was rejected by Wohler’s experiment in
1828 who synthesized Urea, an organic compound by
boiling Ammonium Cyanate.
NH4CNO → NH2-C-NH2 (urea)
||
O
This experiment revolutionized Organic Chemistry and
millions of compounds synthesized in the laboratory.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Catenation:
 The ability of an atom to bond with itself
and form long chains and cyclic structures
is called Catenation.
 Carbon has the maximum ability of
catenation.
 Si also posses the ability of catenation but
to a very little extent.
 It is responsible for the large number or
variety of organic compounds.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds:
 1882 ➔ Geneva system.
 1930 ➔I.U.C. (International Union of Chemistry.)
 1960 ➔ I.U.P.A.C. ( International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry)
 Alkane:
 Hydrocarbons in which all the valencies of carbon
are completed with single bond are called Alkane.
 There general formula is CnH2n+2.
 n= number of Carbon atoms
 They are also called Parrafins.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Name of Alkane:
Number of Carbon Molecular Formula IUPAC Name
1 CH4 Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane
3 C3H8 Propane
4 C4H10 Butane
5 C5H12 Pentane
6 C6H14 Hexane
7 C7H16 Heptane
8 C8H18 Octane
9 C9H20 Nonane
10 C10H22 Decane

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Alkyl Group:
 When a hydrogen atom is removed from
an alkane is called Alkyl group.
 General formula is CnH2n+1
◦ Alkane ➔ Alkyl
◦ Methane (CH4) ➔ Methyl (CH3)
◦ Ethane (C2H6) ➔ Ethyl (C2H5)
◦ Propane (C3H8) ➔ Propyl (C3H7)
◦ Butane (C4H10) ➔ Butyl (C4H9)

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

IUPAC Rules of Naming of
Alkane:
 1. Select the longest possible continuous carbon chain either
straight or branched.
 2. Carbon chain is numbered from the end where branch
(alkyl group) is near.
 3. In writing the name position of branch must be indicated
by the number of carbon to which it is attached.
 4. If two or more than two identical branches are present in
carbon chain then prefix di, tri, tetra etc are used.
 5. If two or more than two different branches are present in
carbon chain then alphabetic order is followed in writing
their name, i.e ethyl is written before methyl.
 6. If two different branches are present in carbon chain at
same position then small branch is preferred in numbering.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Examples:
 Branch + chain + suffix


Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Name to structure:
 2-methyl pentane
 3,4-dimethyl heptane
 3-ethyl-4-methyl octane.
 3-ethyl-3-methyl hexane
 2,2,4-trimethyl pentane.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Alkene:
 Hydrocarbons which contain at least one
double bond in their structure are called
Alkene.
 There general formula is CnH2n.
 n= number of Carbon atoms
 They are also called Olefins.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

IUPAC Naming of Alkenes:
 Rules:
 1. Select the longest carbon chain which must contain
all the carbon atoms which form double bonds.
 2. Carbon chain is numbered from the end where
double bond is near irrespective of position of branch.
 3. If position of double bond is same from both ends
then we consider branch in numbering.
 4. Position of double bond must be indicated by number
of carbon at which it is present.
 5. If two or more than two double bonds are present in
carbon chain then prefix di, tri, tetra etc is used.
 6. In writing name, “ane” of corresponding alkane is
replaced by “ene”.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Alkyne:
 Hydrocarbons which contain at least one
triple bond in their structure are called
Alkyne.
 There general formula is CnH2n-2.
 n= number of Carbon atoms
 Naming pattern of alkyne is same as
alkene, only double bond is replaced by
triple bond and ene is replaced by yne.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Compounds contain Double
bond and Triple Bond:
 Rules:
 Select the longest carbon chain which
contain both double bond and triple
bond.
 Carbon chain is numbered from the end
where either double bond or triple bond
is near.
 If both double bond and triple bond are
present at same position then double
bond is preferred in numbering.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Name to Structure:
 2,2-dimethyl hexane
 2,4-dimethyl pentane
 1,3-butadiene
 3-ethyl-4-methyl-2-hexene
 3-ethyl-1-pentyne
 4-ethyl-4-methyl-1-heptene-6-yne
 1-butene-3-yne
 3,3-dimethyl-1-hexyne

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Functional Group:
 An atom, group of atoms or bond which
give specific characteristics to a
compound is called Functional Group.
 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 (Alkane)
 CH2=CH-CH2-CH3 (Alkene)
 CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 (Alcohol)

OH
CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 ( Alkyl Halide)
Cl
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Homologous General
Functional group Example
series Representation

Alkanes None R-H CH4, C3H8

Alkenes Double bond RCH=CH2 C2H4 , C3H6
Alkynes Triple bond RC≡CH C2H2, C3H4

Hydroxyl group (-
Alcohols R-OH C2H5OH, CH3OH
OH)

Alkyl Halides Halide group (-X) R-X C2H5Cl

Amines Amino group(-NH2) R-NH2 C2H5NH2
Thioalcohol SH R-SH CH3-SH
Ethers (-O-) R-O-R CH3-O-CH3

Aldehydes CHO R-CHO CH3-CHO

Ketones (-CO-) R-COR CH3-CO-CH3

Carboxylic acids (-COOH) R-COOH CH3COOH
Esters (-COOR) R-COOR CH3COOC2H5
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Homologous Series:
 A series of organic compounds in which two
successive members are differ in structure
by CH2 is called Homologous Series.
 CH4, C2H6, C3H8,C4H10 etc.
 General Characteristics of
Homologous Series:
 The main characteristics of a homologous
series are given below:
 1. General formula:
◦ All the members of a homologous series follow
same general formula.
◦ General formula of Alkane is CnH2n+2.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
2- Molecular mass:
The difference of molecular mass between
two consecutive members of a homologous
series is 14 a.m.u.
3- Functional Group:
All the members of a homologous series
contain same functional group.
4- Methods of Preparation:
All the members of a homologous can be
prepared by same general method.
e.g. Alkanes are prepared by hydrogenation of
Alkyl halide.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

 5- Chemical Properties:
All the members of homologous
series exhibits similar chemical properties.
e.g. Alkane give substitution reactions.
6- Physical Properties:
Physical properties of the members of
homologous series changes gradually with
increasing molecular masses.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Polymerization:
 The reaction in which many small molecules
( monomer) are combine to form a large
molecule ( Polymer) is called Polymerization.
 Monomers ➔ Polymer
 n(CH2=CH2) ➔ (-CH2-CH2-CH2-)n
ethene Polyethene
Types of Polymerization:
There are two main types of
Polymerization:
i) Addition Polymerization
ii) Condensation Polymerization

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

1- Addition Polymerization:
 The type of polymerization in which same
monomers are linked together to form a
polymer is called Addition Polymerization.
 Example: Polyethene, Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) etc.
 n(CH2=CH2) → (CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2) n
Ethene Polyethene

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

 No by product is form during addition
polymerization.
 The empirical formula of monomer and
polymer is same.
 2- Condensation Polymerization:
The type of polymerization in which
different monomers are link together to
form a polymer is called Condensation
Polymerization.
For example: Bakelite, Nylon6,6 etc.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
 In condensation polymerization by
product is formed.
 Empirical formula of monomer and
polymer is different.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Cracking:
 The process in which a long chain
hydrocarbon splits into small chain
hydrocarbon in the absence of air is called
Cracking.
 In this process molecule of less volatility is
converted into molecule of high volatility.
 It can be done by heating and using catalyst.
 2CH3-CH2-CH3 → CH3-CH=CH2
+CH2=CH2+CH4+H2

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Types of Cracking:
 The two main types of cracking are:
 1- Thermal cracking
 2- Catalytic cracking
 Cracking is widely used in Petroleum
industry to obtain fractions of more
economic importance from the fractions
of less economic importance.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Classification of Organic
Compounds:
 Organic compounds are mainly divided into
two types:
 1- Open chain compounds or Acyclic
compounds
 2- Close chain or cyclic compounds.
 1- Open chain compounds:
 Organic compounds which have open chain
structures are called Open chain
compounds.
 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
 CH2=CH-CH2-CH3

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

2- Close chain compounds:
 Organic compounds which have close
chain or cyclic structures are called Close
chain compounds.

 They are further divided into:

 * Homocyclic compounds
 * Heterocyclic compounds

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

i) Homocyclic Compounds:
 Close chain compounds in which ring
structure is made up of carbon atoms only
are called Homocyclic Compounds.
 They are also called carbocyclic compounds.
 For example: Cyclohexane, Benzene,
Cyclopropane etc.
 ii) Heterocyclic Compounds:
 Close chain compounds which contain an
atom other carbon in their structure are
called Heterocyclic compounds.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Types of Homocyclic
compounds:
 Homocyclic compounds are divided into two
groups:
 i) Alicyclic Compounds
 ii) Aromatic compounds
 i) Alicyclic Compounds:
 Close chain compounds which does not
contain benzene ring in their structure are
called Alicyclic compounds.
 For example: Cyclohexane, cyclobutane etc.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

ii) Aromatic Compounds:
 Close chain compounds which contain
benzene ring in their structure are called
Aromatic compounds.
 For example: Benzene and its derivatives,.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Isomerism:
 Compounds having same molecular formula
but different structural formula are called
Isomers and the phenomenon is called
Isomerism.
 CH3-CH2-OH ; CH3-O-CH3
 Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether
 Types of Isomerism:
 1- Chain isomerism
 2- Position isomerism
 3- Functional group isomerism
 4- Metamerism

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

1- Chain Isomerism:
 Isomers which are differ in structure due to
the difference in length of carbon chain are
called Chain Isomers and the phenomenon is
called Chain Isomerism.
 CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 (n-pentane)
 CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 (iso pentane)
CH3
CH3
CH3-C-CH3 (Neo pentane)
CH3
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
2- Position Isomerism:
 Isomers which are differ in structure due
to the difference in position of functional
group in carbon chain are called Position
Isomers and the phenomenon is called
Position Isomerism.
 CH2=CH-CH2-CH3 (1-butene)
 CH3-CH=CH-CH3 (2-butene)

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

3- Functional Group
Isomerism:
 Isomers which are differ in structure due
to the difference in functional group are
called functional group isomers and the
phenomenon is called functional group
Isomerism.
 CH3-CO-CH3 (Acetone)
 CH3-CH2-CHO (Propionaldehyde)
 CH3-CH2-OH ; CH3-O-CH3
 Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
4- Metamerism:
 Isomers which are different in structure
due to the presence of different alkyl
groups around a multivalent atom are
called Metamers and the phenomenon is
called Metamerism.
 CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3
 CH3-O-CH2-CH2-CH3

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Natural Sources of Organic
Compounds:
 Plant and animals are the rich sources of
organic compounds. Other important
sources are Coal, natural gas and
petroleum.
 1- Coal:
 Bituminous or soft coal is an important
source of organic compounds. On
destructive distillation of coal following
components are obtained.
 * Coal gas * Coal tar * Coke
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Coal gas:
 It is the gaseous component.
 It is the mixture of CH4 and H2 mainly.
 It is used as fuel.
 Coal tar:
 It is the liquid fraction.
 It is a viscous liquid and mixture of hundred
of aromatic and non aromatic compounds.
 These compounds are separated by
fractional distillation.
Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Coke:
 It is the solid fraction.
 It is the purest form of carbon.
 It used as reducing agent in various
industries, such as steel industry, Polish
etc.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

2- Natural Gas:
 Natural gas is a mixture of low molecular
mass alkanes. In Pakistan it is also called “Sui
Gas” because its large reservoirs are present
at Sui in Baluchistan. The composition of
natural gas is:
 Methane (CH4) = 94.60%
 Ethane (C2H6) = 1.05%
 Propane (C3H8) = 0.28%
 Butane (C4H10) = 0.17%
 Nitrogen = 3.88%
 Carbon dioxide = 0.02%

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

3- Petroleum:
 The word PETROLEUM is composed of two
Latin words Petra means rock
and oleum means oil. Petroleum is a dark
brown, thick and viscous liquid which occurs
below the earth's surface. Petroleum is a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons and
different compounds of sulphur, oxygen and
nitrogen in small amounts. Usually it contains
alkanes, alkenes, cyclo alkanes, aromatic
hydrocarbons etc. These compounds are
separated by fractional distillation.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

REFINING OF PETROLEUM
 The process of dividing petroleum into
fractions with different boiling range
volatilities and free from impurities is
called Refining of Petroleum.
Petroleum is refined by fractional
distillation.
 Crude oil is taken to fractionating
columns where it is subjected to heat at
about 400˚C. More than 500 compounds
are separated below 200˚C.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari
Knocking:
 The sharp metallic sound produce in
engine due to the incomplete combustion
of fuel is called Knocking.
 It occurs due to the low octane number
of gasoline.
 In order to reduce knocking, antiknocking
agents are used. For example Tetra ethyl
lead. Pb(C2H5)4.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Reforming of Petroleum:
 The process in which straight chain hydrocarbon
is converted into branch chain hydrocarbon is
called Reforming of Petroleum.
CH3

 CH3-(CH2)6-CH3 → CH3-C-CH2-CH-CH3
CH3 CH3
 It improves the octane number of gasoline.
 OCTANE NUMBER:
 A figure that indicate the antiknocking ability of gasoline
based on its composition is called Octane number.
 Greater the octane number of fuel, less will be
knocking.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

PRIMARY CARBON ATOM
 If a carbon atom attached to
functional group is directly
attached to only one carbon
atom, then it is said to be a
"Primary carbon atom" or "1o
C-atom".
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Secondary carbon atom:
 If a carbon atom attached to
functional group is directly
attached to two carbon atoms,
then it is said to be a “Secondary
carbon atom" or “2o C-atom".

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Tertiary carbon atom:
 If a carbon atom attached to
functional group is directly
attached to three carbon atoms,
then it is said to be a “Tertiary
carbon atom" or “3o C-atom".

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

Important Questions:
 Q.1 Define homologous series. Write its
characteristics.
 Q.2 What is Polymerization. Name its types.
Give equations for the preparation of
following:
 * PVC * Bakelite.
 Q.3 Briefly describe the natural sources of
organic compounds.
 Q.4 Define isomerism. Name its types. Draw
the structures of possible metamers of
molecular formula C4H10O.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari

 Q.5 Define following:
 * Cracking * Reforming of Petroleum
 * Catenation * Position Isomers
 * Heterocyclic compounds * Octane no.
 Q.6 Define functional group. Identify the
functional group in following:
 * CH3-COO-C2H5 * CH3-CHO
 Discuss the classification of organic
compounds.

Muhammad Asfand Yar Ansari