EFFECT OF FIBER ORIENTATION ON

MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SISAL

FIBER REINFORCED EPOXY RESIN COMPOSITE

BY

GASHAW MILUT

DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL

AND

MATERIALS ENGINEERING

DEFENCE UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING

BISHOFTU, ETHIOPIA

DECEMBER, 2022 G.C

 Effect of Fiber Orientation on Mechanical/Physical
Properties of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin
Composite

M-Tech Project/Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of Master of Technology

In
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering (Industrial
Metallurgy)
By

Gashaw Milut

Under the guidance of, Dr. Mezigebu Belay (Captain)

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

Ethiopian Defense University, College of Engineering

December 2022

I
Bishoftu, Ethiopia

II
Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “Effect of Fiber Orientation on

Mechanical/Physical Properties of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composite”
submitted to Defense University College of Engineering is my original work carried out on
December 2022/2023 under the guidance of Dr. Mezigebu Belay (Captain) and this work is
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the M-Tech. Degree. With
a focus area of Industrial Metallurgy, this thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any
degree, associateship, fellowship, or any other similar titles.

Gashaw Milut

Candidate Signature Date

This is to certify that the above testimony made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge and belief. This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval.

Capt. Mezigebu Belay (Ph.D.) _________________________ _____________________

Advisor Signature Date

I
Approved by the Board of Examiners

We, the undersigned, members of the Board of Examiners of the final open defense by
Gashaw Milut Simachew have read and evaluated his thesis entitled “Effect of Fiber
Orientation on Mechanical/physical Properties of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin
Composite” and examined the candidate. This is, therefore, to certify that the thesis has been
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Degree of Master of Science in
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering with a focus area on Industrial Metallurgy.

__________________________________ ________ ________

Chairman, Department Graduate Committee Signature Date

Capt. Mezigebu Belay (Ph.D.) ________ _______

Advisor Signature Date

______________________________________ ________ _______

Internal Examiner Signature Date

______________________________________ ________ _______

External Examiner Signature Date

II
Acknowledgment

Above all, I would like to thank the Almighty God for his blessings in my life. I would also
like to express my special appreciation and gratitude to my advisor Capt. Mezigebu Belay
(Ph.D.) and my previous-advisor Capt. Felege Negatibeb (Ph.D.) for their valuable advice,
constant motivation, and guidance during my study for their help, guidance, and support
throughout this thesis. That continuous support was a source of motivation for me to
undertake this research. I would also like to express my special appreciation to sincere
gratitude to the Material Science Engineering technical staff who patiently assisted me in
moving the project ahead, correcting the laboratory model's development, as well as
supplying the required equipment and materials for the experiment of this research. And,
thank all my friends for their kind and unreserved cooperation, encouragement, and support
during my thesis work. And finally, I must express my deep gratitude to my family for their
unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout the years of my studies and
working this thesis.

III
Abstract

The importance of natural fiber-reinforced composites is rapidly developing both in terms of

engineering application and research fields. This thesis aims to develop a sisal fiber/epoxy
composite and study the effect of fiber orientation on the mechanical/physical properties of a
sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composite. Sisal plant was collected from the high land of
Ethiopia and extracted by manual method. An 8% sodium hydroxide solution was used on the
sisal fiber and was applied to remove further lignin, hemicelluloses, and other fiber remnants
to improve the bonding & interfacial shear strength between the sisal and epoxy. Next sisal
fibers reinforced composite with 30wt%, 40wt%, 50wt%, and 60wt% of fiber was fabricated
by hand layup method. Then, the tensile strength, of the composites was conducted according
to ASTM standards by a universal testing machine. The highest tensile strength was obtained
at a 40wt% sisal fiber. Since the highest tensile strength; was obtained at a 40wt%
concentration of the fiber, a sisal fiber/epoxy composite of 40wt% of sisal fiber was prepared
by varying sisal ply orientation to investigate the effect of fiber orientation effect on the
mechanical/physical properties of the composite. As a step towards this, sisal fiber/epoxy
composites with 0/90, 0/45, and 0 (unidirectional) fiber orientations for a 40%wt weight ratio
were prepared. Then, flexural tests, impact tests, and water absorption tests were carried out
to optimize for the best mechanical/properties. From experimental test results, it was found
that 0/45-degree fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composite has high flexural impact strength
(151.767MPa and 28.667J) than 0-degree and 0/90-degree fiber orientation, and also 0/45-
degree fiber orientation shows that very low water absorption 3.98%, which is acceptable by
ASTMD-570 (below 15%) for aircraft bulk head application.

Keywords: -Sisal, Fiber, Orientation, Flexural Test, Impact Test, Hand Lay-Up, Epoxy.

Table of Contents Page

IV
Candidate’s Declaration...........................................................................................................I

Approved by the Board of Examiners...................................................................................II

Acknowledgment...................................................................................................................III

Abstract..................................................................................................................................IV

Table of Contents....................................................................................................................V

List of Figures........................................................................................................................IX

List of Tables............................................................................................................................X

Nomenclature.........................................................................................................................XI

List of Abbreviations............................................................................................................XII

CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the study..............................................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem............................................................................................4

1.3 General Objective........................................................................................................5

1.3.1Specific Objective.......................................................................................................5

1.4 Significance of the study (Benefits).................................................................................5

1.5 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................5

1.6 Limitation.........................................................................................................................5

1.7 Research Motivation.........................................................................................................6

1.8 Thesis Organization..........................................................................................................6

CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................................................7

LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................7

2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................7

2.2 Natural Fiber.....................................................................................................................7

2.2.1 Sisal Plant..................................................................................................................8

2.2.2 Sisal plant in Ethiopia..............................................................................................10

2.2.3 Sisal fiber.................................................................................................................11

V
 2.2.4 Mechanical and physical properties of sisal fiber....................................................11

2.2.5 Fiber Orientations....................................................................................................11

2.2.6 Alkaline Treatment of Natural Fibers......................................................................12

2.2.7 Natural Fiber Composites Preparation.....................................................................13

2.3 Overview of Composites................................................................................................14

2.3.1 Classification of Composite.....................................................................................15

2.3.2 Classification Based on the Matrix Material...........................................................17

2.4 Previous Works On natural fiber polymer composites...................................................19

2.4.1Research Gap............................................................................................................22

CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................................24

MATERIALS AND METHODS..........................................................................................24

3.1 Materials.........................................................................................................................24

3.1.1 Sisal fiber.................................................................................................................24

3.1.2 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH).....................................................................................24

3.1.3 Matrix.......................................................................................................................25

3.3METHODS......................................................................................................................26

3.4 Weight of sisal fiber/epoxy............................................................................................27

3.4.1 Fiber Matrix Weight and Volume Fraction Content of the Composite...................27

3.4.2 Fiber and Matrix Weight Fraction (WF, WM)........................................................27

3.4.3The Density of the Composite..................................................................................27

3.4.4 Validation of Fiber/epoxy Weight Fraction.............................................................28

3.4.5 Calculation of the Weight of Fiber and Matrix for Specimen Preparation Based on
the Validation....................................................................................................................29

3.4.6 Sample Preparation Methods...................................................................................29

3.4.7 Sisal fiber extraction process...................................................................................30

3.4.8 Alkali Treatment of Sisal Fiber procedures.............................................................30

3.4.9 Fiber orientation.......................................................................................................32

VI
 3.4.10 Hand Lay-Up Technique.......................................................................................33

3.4.11Hand layup process.................................................................................................33

3.4.12 Samples Manufactured by Different Orientations of sisal fiber reinforced epoxy

resin SFRER.....................................................................................................................34

3.5 Experimental Procedure and Setups...............................................................................35

3.5.1 Preparation of specimen...........................................................................................35

3.5.2 Dimension of Test specimens..................................................................................36

3.5.3 Composite Specimen Testing Procedure.................................................................36

3.6 Experimental Test...........................................................................................................37

3.6.1 Flexural Strength Test (ASTM D3039)...................................................................37

3.6.2 Impact Strength Test (ISO 9001:2001)....................................................................37

3.6.3 Water Absorption Test (ASTMD-570)....................................................................38

CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................39

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................39

4.1 Experimental Test Results..............................................................................................39

4.1.1 Bending Test............................................................................................................39

4.1.2 Impact Strength Test................................................................................................41

4.2 Physical Properties.........................................................................................................42

4.2.1 Water Absorption.....................................................................................................42

4.3 Comparisonwith 2A12 aluminum..................................................................................44

4.4 Comparison with the Previous Works on Experimental Lab Test of Flexural and Impact
Test Due to the Preference of Bulkhead...............................................................................45

4.4.1 Flexural Strength......................................................................................................45

4.4.2 Impact strength........................................................................................................46

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION....................................47

5.1 Summary.........................................................................................................................47

5.2 Conclusion......................................................................................................................47

5.3 Recommendations for Prospective Applications............................................................48

VII
 5.4 Recommendations for Future Work...............................................................................49

Reference.................................................................................................................................50

APPENDICES........................................................................................................................54

List of Figures Page

Figure 1. 1 Aircraft seat bulkhead..............................................................................................3

VIII
Figure 2. 1 Classification of natural fiber……………………………………………………...8

Figure 2. 2 Sisal plant.................................................................................................................9

Figure 2. 3 Sisal leaf Photograph of a sisal plant.......................................................................9

Figure 2. 4 Sisal fiber extraction process.................................................................................10

Figure 2. 5 Fiber orientation.....................................................................................................12

Figure 2. 6 Spray layup, Compression molding, Injection Molding, and Hand layup............14

Figure 2. 7 Classification of Composite...................................................................................15

Figure 2. 8 Fiber-reinforced composite....................................................................................15

Figure 2. 9 Particle Reinforced Composite..............................................................................16

Figure 2. 10 Laminate Composite............................................................................................17

Figure 2. 11 Classification Based on the Matrix Material.......................................................17

Figure 3. 1 Extracted sisal fibers……………………………………………………………..24

Figure 3. 2 Epoxy Resin...........................................................................................................25

Figure 3. 3 Mold Release plastic..............................................................................................26

Figure 3. 4 General working flow chart/steps of this thesis.....................................................26

Figure 3. 5 Composite material production approaches(Sharma & Srivastava, 2014)............29

Figure 3. 6 Sisal fiber extraction process.................................................................................30

Figure 3. 7 Alkali Treatment of Sisal Fiber procedures...........................................................31

Figure 3. 8 Fiber orientation a.0-degree b.(0/45) degree c. (0/90) degree...............................32

Figure 3. 9 Wood plate surfaces are made up of HDF of 250mm‘x’215mm’x’10mm...........33

Figure 3. 10 hand layup process...............................................................................................34

Figure 3. 11 product Wight measuring of 0, 0/90 & 0/45 degrees...........................................35

Figure 3. 12 Specimen Dimensions a) Bending b) Impact c) WaterAbsorption Test specimen

..................................................................................................................................................36

Figure 3. 13 Sample Specimen a) Bending b) Impact c) Water Absorption Test....................37

IX
Figure 3. 14 The specimen under flexural testing....................................................................37

Figure 3. 15 Impact testing.......................................................................................................38

Figure 3. 16 Water Absorption Test.........................................................................................38

Figure 4. 1 Comparison of flexural strength for average test results………………………...40

Figure 4. 2 Comparison of impact strength for average test result..........................................42

Figure 4. 3 Comparison of water absorption for average test result........................................44

X
List of Tables Page

Table 2. 1 Mechanical properties of sisal compared with other natural/synthetic fibers.........11

Table 3. 1 Experimental results of fiber/epoxy weight fraction……………………………...28

Table 3. 2 Weight of reinforcement and matrix.......................................................................29

Table 4. 1 Bending Tests Results…………………………………………………………….39

Table 4. 2 Impact Tests Results...............................................................................................41

Table 4. 3 Water Absorption Tests Results..............................................................................43

Table 4. 4 Chemical Composition of 2A12 aluminum alloy...................................................44

Table 4. 5 Comparison of previous work on Flexural properties of composites.....................45

Table 4.6 Comparison of previous works on impact properties of composites.......................46

Table 4.7 Comparison of 2A12 aluminum alloy......................................................................46

XI
 Nomenclature

b Width of the specimen

l Support span length of the specimen

Mb max Maximum bending moment

mc Mass of composite

mr Mass of resin

ms Mass of sisal fiber

vf The volume fraction of fiber

vr The volume fraction of resin

δb Maximum bending

𝜌c Density of composite

XII
 List of Abbreviations

ACM Advanced composite materials

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
FRC Fiber-reinforced composites
GRP Glass fiber reinforced plastic
MMC Metal-matrix composite
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
NFRC Natural fiber-reinforced composites
PMC Polymer matrix composites
UTM Universal testing machine

XIII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The sustainable world’s economic growth and people’s life improvement greatly depend on
the use of alternative product in various fields. In an advanced society like ours, we all
depend on composite materials in some aspect of our lives(Kebede, 2015). Composite
materials are heterogeneous mixtures of two or more homogeneous phases, which have been
bonded together(Abuye, 2017). In composites, properties or sets of properties can be attained
which could not have been obtained separately(Dagnaw Gudayu et al., 2019).

A composite is a material prepared by combining two or more different materials in such a

way that the resultant material advanced with properties to any of its parental ones. They are
the most promising materials nowadays(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b). These materials can be
used for a variety of applications: - such as automotive, sporting goods, marine, electrical,
industrial, construction, household appliances, etc. For instance, polymeric composites have
high strength and stiffness, are light weight, low cost, low density, high toughness, and have
high corrosion resistance(Kuchipudi, 2017).

Composite materials can be grouped into five major categories, which are ceramic matrix
composites, metal matrix composites, intermetallic matrix composites, carbon-carbon
composites, and Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs). The focus of this research is on the
development of PMCs. Polymer matrix composites can consist of either a thermoplastic or
thermoset matrix, which is used to bind the reinforcing fibers together, as well as to transfer
applied stresses from the composite to the fibers. Thermosets are plastics that cannot be
melted once cure, and include resins such as epoxies, polyesters, and phenolics.
Thermoplastics, on the other hand, are plastics that can be repeatedly melted, thus enabling
them to be recycled. Commonly used thermoplastics include polyethylene, polypropylene,
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)(Osman, 2013).

Many naturally occurring materials can be regarded as composite e.g. bones, woods, and
others. Man-made composites are used for thousands of years, e.g. straw and natural fibers in
bricks, laminated woods, etc. In the last century, the use of composites has been extended
after the appearance of pneumatic tiers for vehicles and reinforced concrete(Sahu& Gupta,

1
2018). The next step was the development of glass fiber-reinforced plastics during the Second
World War. In the 1970s and 1980s, new types of composites have been developed to meet
the strict requirements of aircraft and space industries(Negash,n,d, 2021).

Natural fibers show many advantageous properties; they are low-density natural yielding
relatively lightweight composites with high specific properties. Natural fiber composites are
very cost-effective materials, especially in building and construction purpose packaging,
automobile and railway coach interiors, household and storage devices. These can be
potential candidates for the replacement of high-cost fibers that have the advantages of low
density, low cost, and biodegradability(M. A. Kumar et al., 2018).

Sisal fiber is abundant, low cost, degradable, and good strength fiber. The botanical name of
the sisal fiber is Agave sisalana and also known as “sisal hemp” and it is widely present in
southern Mexico(Dust & Composites, 2015). Sisal fiber is used in the fabrication of bio-
composite and fully biodegradable because of its superior engineering properties as
reinforcement in matrix. The structure of fiber consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin,
and waxes(Journal et al., 2021).

Fiber orientation refers to the optimal structural arrangement of individual fibers in the
development and manufacture of advanced composite materials (ACM) and fiber-reinforced
composites (FRC). Most ACMs and FCMs are made from two main constituents: matrices
and reinforcements(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016a).

Fiber orientation is essential when we want to predict the behavior of a composite material,
and also determining the mechanical properties of such materials(M. A. Kumar et al., 2018).
Many types of researches in this field showed that the orientation of fibers has a major role,
for example, in increasing some properties, or decreasing others. This study quantifies the
main influence of fiber orientation and its effect on the mechanical properties, but also on the
influence of the cortical architecture on mechanical properties(Achparaki et al., 2012).

Fiber orientation and fiber loading mainly influence the tensile properties in any natural fiber-
reinforced polymer composites. The tensile properties of the polymer composites are
increased by adding fiber since fiber has good strength and stiffness compared to the polymer
itself(Chandra Sekhar et al., 2018).

Woven fabrics introduce a crimp to fibers, which causes misalignment of load paths(Gupta &
Srivastava, 2016a). Even non-woven fabrics can suffer from some crimping around stitch

2
points. The misalignment of fibers causes a dramatic loss of mechanical properties,
particularly in compression, due to the increased likelihood of buckling(Rawat et al., 2020).
The fiber orientations in plants are optimized to the occurring forces, especially to the
bending of plants by wind forces. To achieve multidirectional isotropic behaviors, proper
fiber orientation in different angles is necessary, which can only be done by multiple laminate
preparation(Kebede, 2015).

A bulkhead is a physical partition that divides a plane into different classes or sections.
Typically, a bulkhead is a wall but can also be a curtain or screen. Bulkheads can be found
throughout the plane, separating the seats from the galley and lavatory areas(Bulkhead
Seating_ The Pros & Cons [Includes Airline Guide], n.d.).

In air plane bulkhead means less legroom because there’s a wall there that restricts you from
extending your feet below a seat in front of you. Airline bulkhead seat seats mean that you
won’t have a seat in front of you to store anything below the armrests may be fixed for a
bulkhead seat.

Figure 1. 1 Aircraft seat bulkhead(Bulkhead Seating_ The Pros & Cons [Includes Airline
Guide], n.d.)

The fiber orientation influence on mechanical properties of NFRC(Gupta & Srivastava,

2016b). This work aims to study the effect of fiber orientation on the mechanical properties
of sisal fiber red fiber-reinforced in composites.

3
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Fabrication of composite materials has many advantages in meeting human demand for
different equipment, machine parts, and household products. This should be economically
manufactured from materials that can be easily available in our country, like sisal plants.

Some researchers have studied the mechanical properties of composite materials but,
studying the mechanical and physical properties becomes vital because the properties of
composite materials are different from manufacturer to manufacturer due to the incorporated
manufacturing methods.

The main difficulty in Ethiopia is importing aircraft bulkheads to maintain different classes of
aircraft and, also wastage of sisal plants is another problem. In Ethiopia, the parts are
assembled but not manufactured right in the country. However, there are alternative bulkhead
production companies outside of Ethiopia like Turkey and Japan which have imported spare
parts. Besides, the inputs for that agency depend closely on imported artificial glass fiber and
aluminum products of bulkhead. This leads our country to an additional cost, denies the
country's useful resources to be used and additionally motive environmental pollutants during
the course of the disposal of the used composite material. Owing to this, the development of
composite materials from locally available materials such as sisal fiber is highly important to
overcome this issue.

Therefore, this work aims to minimize the above problems, which occur on the composite
manufacturers here in Ethiopia, by developing sisal fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite and
evaluate the effect of sisal fiber in different fiber orientations (0/90, 0/45&0) on the
mechanical/physical property of the fabricated composite to optimize for the best
mechanical/physical properties. And use for air craft bulkhead component which have the best
mechanical/physical properties that contributes immediately to the Ethiopian airline and Ethiopian air
forces heavy maintenance industry and indirectly to Ethiopia's ability to generate or save hard
currency and provides expanded opportunities for the rural people as the sisal fiber can be produced
locally in Ethiopia.

4
Research questions

1.Is it possible to extract sisal fiber from sisal plant found in Ethiopia?

2.What is the effect of sisal fiber/epoxy wt% on mechanical properties?

3.What is the effect of sisal fiber orientations on mechanical properties?

4.What is the effect of sisal fiber orientation on water absorption?

1.3 General Objective

To investigate the effect of fiber orientations on mechanical/physical properties of sisal
fiber/epoxy composite and, optimize for the best mechanical/physical properties.

1.3.1 Specific Objective

1. To extract sisal fibers from sisal plants which are found in the high land of Ethiopia.

2. To produce sisal fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite material with different fiber
orientations.

3. To study the effect of sisal fiber orientation on the mechanical properties and water
absorption of the composite.

4. To evaluate the mechanical and physical properties such as flexural test, impact test, and
water absorption of fabricated composite material.

1.4 Significance of the study (Benefits)

Natural fibers are emerging as low-cost, lightweight, and environmentally superior
alternatives to glass fibers in many composites. Fabricating locally reinforced composites
from sisal fiber will increase the use and replacement of the manufacturing process.

Application of a successful result from the study to aircraft bulkhead was rendering a lightweight,
high strength, high vibration absorption, durable, higher impact, fatigue and corrosion resistance. The
composite material has less life cycle cost than metallic one. There will be job opportunity for micro
and middle level enterprises in manufacturing area. Saving of foreign currency as a result of the
reduced import of composite materials for aircraft bulkheads.

Beneficiary: - Air force heavy maintenance industries, Ethiopian airline, micro, and middle-level
enterprises, society, researchers and the country farmers as a whole.

5
1.5 Scope of the Study
This study experimentally explores the feasibility of using sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy
composite. The mechanical properties like, bending (flexural) strength, and impact strength,
and physical properties of water absorption of Sisal fiber epoxy composite were
characterized.

1.6 Limitation
1. Fabrication of composite with hand layup process affects get good result, which forms
week mixing and arrange the fibers.

2. No specific machine available for the preparation of natural composite material to

manufacture a good product.

3. The testing machine for the characterization of composite material is scattered to

synchronize with advanced software

1.7 Research Motivation

It is known that our country is agricultural-based. It has enough rainy season and fertile soil.
Having this natural appearance gives it different plant species. The sisal plant is among one
of them. It has a nice fiber which is extracted from its best. But in our country, it simply
grows and then dries after its germination. No one can carry it about and it simply becomes
degradable. To solve this problem, it is necessary to use its fiber as a composite material with
other reinforcement.

1.8 Thesis Organization

In this section, an overview of the thesis work is explained. Five chapters are done in the
thesis work.

Chapter 1: Introduces the background of natural fiber composite materials and this thesis’s
objectives, Problem Statement, Scope, limitations, Significance of the study (Benefits), and
Research Motivation

Chapter 2: Reviewed all relevant research papers regarding natural fiber composite
materials, ranging from polymer types, fiber types, and composite’s chemical, and
mechanical properties. Recent researches on sisal fiber reinforcement on polymers are widely
and deeply reviewed.

6
Chapter 3: Materials required for sample preparation, experimental setup, and methods for
Fabrication are given for this chapter. The experimentation of measuring, flexural, tensile,
and impact strength are also given in this chapter

Chapter 4: The result and discussion on the characterization of composite materials is given
in this chapter.

Chapter 5: This chapter deals with aspects like the summary, conclusion, recommendation,
and future work.

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The main objectives of the literature are to review the previous works to have the proper
method and identify the existing gap in the literature.

The most important topics included in this review are: -

On Natural fibers
Natural Fiber Composites preparation
Alkaline Treatment of Natural Fibers
On fiber orientations
On overview of composites
Previous Works On natural fiber polymer composites

2.2 Natural Fiber

Natural fibers are subdivided based on their origins, whether they are derived from plants,
animals, or minerals. Plant fibers include bast (or stem or soft or sclerenchyma) fibers, leaf or
hard fibers, seed, fruit, wood, cereal straw, and other grass fibers. Natural fibers are generally
lignocelluloses in nature, consisting of helically wound cellulose micro fibrils in a matrix of
lignin and hemicellulose. The use of natural fibers composites matrices is highly beneficial
because the strength and toughness of the resulting composites are greater than those of the
un-reinforced matrix. Moreover, cellulose-based natural fibers are strong, light in weight,
very cheap, abundant and renewable(Osman, 2013). Lignocellulosic natural fibers like the
pineapple leaf fiber come as a viable and abundant substitute for the expensive and
nonrenewable synthetic fiber. These fibers with high specific strength improve the
mechanical properties of the polymer matrix.

There are two kinds of fibers available i.e. natural fiber and synthetic fiber. Natural fiber,
being non-toxic and harmless, is composed of vegetables, minerals, and animals where
vegetables utilized for this purpose are: sisal bamboo, hemp, sugarcane bagses, flax, currenta,
and banana while the animal’s‟ components include wool, skin, and hair. The second form,
synthetic fiber is manufactured by men while it is a combination of glass fiber, carbon fiber,
and aramid (Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b).

8
 Natural

Animal Plant/veget Mineral

able
Silk Asbestor
sFibrous
Wool
Hair Brucite

Leaf Seed Wood Fruit Grass

Bast

Flax Banana Kapok Soft Oil Bambo

Hemp Sisal wood oBagass
Ramie Abaca Loofah Hard palm eRape
Kenaf Agava Cotton wood Oil Corn

Figure 2. 1Classification of natural fiber (Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b)

2.2.1 Sisal Plant
Agave sisalana (Agavaceae) is a Scientific name: Common names: sisal (English); gaming
boom (Afrikaans) Sisal is Agave species of inhabitant southern Mexico and broadly is refined
and familiar in many countries. Sisal fiber is a hard fiber extracted from the leaves of the sisal
plant (Agave sisal Ana)(Sharma & Srivastava, 2014). Though native to tropical and
subtropical North and South America, the sisal plant is now widely grown in tropical
countries of Africa, the West Indies, and the Far East. Sisal fibers are extracted from the
leaves. Sisal fiber is one of the most widely used natural fibers and is very easily cultivated. It
has short renewal times and grows wild in ton edges of fields. Tanzania and Brazil are the
two main producing countries. A sisal plant produces about 200-250 leaves and each leaf
contains 1000- 1200 fiber bundles which are composed of 4% fiber, 0.75% cuticle, 8% dry
matter and, 87.25% water. So normally a leaf weighing about 600 g will yield about 3% by
weight of fiber with each leaf containing about 1000 fibers. Figure 2.2 shows a typical sisal
plant(Negash, n.d.2021).

9
 Figure 2. 2Sisal plant (Negash, n.d.)
The sisal leaf contains three types of fibers, mechanical, ribbon, and xylem. The mechanical
fibers are mostly extracted from the periphery of the leaf. They have a roughly thickened-
horse shoe shape and seldom divide during the extraction processes. They are the most
commercially useful of sisal fiber. Ribbon fibers occur in association with the conducting
tissues in the median line of the leaf(Journal et al., 2021). Figure 2.3 below shows a cross-
section of the sisal leaf and indicates where mechanical and ribbon fibers are
obtained(Ramakrishna et al., n.d.). The related conducting tissue structure of the ribbon fiber
gives them considerable mechanical strength. They are the longest fibers and compared with
mechanical fibers they can be easily split longitudinally during processing. Xylem fibers have
an irregular shape and occur opposite the ribbon fibers through the connection of vascular
bundles as shown in Figure 2.3. They are composed of thin-walled cells and are therefore
easily broken up and lost during the extraction process(Ramakrishna et al., n.d.).

Figure 2. 3Sisal leaf Photograph of a sisal plant (Ramakrishna et al., n.d.)

10
2.2.2 Sisal plant in Ethiopia
Sisal is a plant in the same position as aloe vera. It resembles a vast aloe vera plant, with very
coarse leaves that are pointy on the ends, and it can grow to be six feet tall. It produces a rigid
fiber that is used for fiber in a mixture of products, such as floor mats, twine, carpet, rope,
and bags(Sciencedirect, 2013). It grows in Ethiopia, especially Southern Nation of Ethiopia
Gamogofa zone Arbaminch, area, and Amhara regional state around the Shwarobit area and it
could be harvested together by local people(Negash& Science, 2021). Here is a requirement
for these products in Ethiopia, and there is a market for sisal in Addis Ababa, so it would go
after that other belonging to people could advantage of the harvesting of the plant, as well.
This would be a great opportunity to generate are industrious people with hope for the
future(Journal et al., 2021). An appropriation of sisal plant leaves was gathered from the
mountain, after wounding at their base from the harvest(Journal et al., 2021). The fibers are
removed from hand extraction with a knife. Initially the leaves were trimmed in the
longitudinal course into strips for simplicity of fiber removal the peel is clamped to the wood
plank and knife and hand-pulled through in a longitudinal direction gently, removing the
resinous material as shown in Figure2.4 then the extracted fiber was washed with pure water
to loosen, and separate the fiber until individual fibers are received then the extricated
filaments are sun-dried which brightens the fiber Once dried, the sisal fibers are prepared for
the manufacture of samples from extracted sisal fiber is appeared in Figure.2.4(Journal et al.,
2021).

Figure 2. 4 Sisal fiber extraction process (Serration process) &Extracted Sisal fiber (Journal
et al., 2021)

11
2.2.3 Sisal fiber
Sisal fiber is a kind of natural fiber, which retains high specific strength and modulus, low
Price, recyclability, and easy availability. Sisal fiber is a potential reinforcement for polymer
composites. Beyond its traditional applications (ropes, carpets, mats, etc.), sisal fiber has
potential applications in the aircraft and automobile sectors. The physical and mechanical
behaviors of sisal fiber depend its heir source, age, and location, but also its fiber diameter,
experimental temperature, gauge length, and strain rate. Sisal fiber is used as reinforcement to
make a composite. Reinforced polymer composites have aroused the great interest of
materials scientists and engineers all over the world(Sciences et al., 2019).

2.2.4 Mechanical and physical properties of sisal fiber

The chemical composition of sisal fiber depends on the location, age factor, and so on. Like
other natural fibers, sisal fiber contains cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, and moisture. Many
researchers reported that sisal fiber-based polymer composites can be used effectively in
automobiles, transportation, and construction household equipment’s. They have been used in
interior paneling in the aerospace and aircraft industries(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b). Table
2.1 compares the physical and mechanical properties of sisal fiber with those of other natural
and synthetic fibers.

Table 2. 1Mechanical properties of sisal compared with other natural/synthetic fibers(Gupta

& Srivastava, 2016b)

Fibers Density(g/cm3) Tensile strength Young’s

(MPa) modulus (GPa)
Sisal 1.33-1.5 400-700 9.0-38.0
Kenaf 1.2-1.24 297-930 53
Bamboo 0.6-1.1 140-800 11-32
Jute 1.3-1.46 393-800 11-32
E-Glass 2.55 3400 71
Carbon 1.4 4000 230-240

2.2.5 Fiber Orientations

The force and rigidity of a composite buildup depend on the orientation series of the
plies/fibers. Appropriate selection of ply/fibers orientation in advanced composite materials is
necessary to give a structurally well-organized design. The part might need 90° plies to
respond to side loads, 45° plies to respond to shear loads, and 0° plies to respond to axial

12
loads. Because the strength design necessities are a function of the practical load direction,
ply/fibers orientation and ply sequence have to be correct. It is critical to fix and restore each
damaged to with plies with similar material and orientation of ply(Kuchipudi, 2017).

Four of the most common orientations in fiber-reinforced composites are unidirectional,

random, bidirectional, and multi-directional. Regardless of the direction of fibers within the
material, fiber orientation can dramatically enhance an injection molded part’s mechanical
and chemical properties (Liben Co-Advisor & Bhaskaran, 2020).

The fibers in a single-directional material run in one direction and the stress and rigidity are
only in the way of the fiber. Pre-impregnated (prepreg) tapes are an example of a
unidirectional ply direction. The fibers in a bidirectional material run in two directions,
naturally 90° apart. A plain weave fabric is an example of a bidirectional ply direction. These
ply orientations have strength in both directions but not necessarily the same strength (see
figure2.5)(Characterization et al., 2015).

Figure 2. 5Fiber orientation (N. Kumar et al., 2020)

2.2.6 Alkaline Treatment of Natural Fibers
Gope (2013) chemical treatments are considered in modifying the fiber surface properties.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment on the fiber would remove the impurities like pectin,
facts, and lignin in the fiber, resulting in improvement in the adhesion between fiber and
matrix and an increasing assess mechanical (tensile, flexural, and compression) properties of
fabricated component (Dagnaw Gudayu et al., 2019).

In general, chemical treatments reduce some portion of hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, wax,
and oil-covering materials. Thus, the fiber surface became more uniform due to the removal
of micro-voids. Stress transfer capacity between Altera-cellules improved and increase
effective fiber surface area for good adhesion with the matrix. It decreases the hydrophilic
nature of fiber by raising its cellulose contestable material(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b).

13
2.2.7 Natural Fiber Composites Preparation
Fiber-reinforced composite has been fabricated by several methods depending upon the shape
of the component to be manufactured. All those methods fall under a principle called
polymerization(Dust & Composites, 2015). Polymerization is the process of joining a large
number of synthetic molecules together to form a rigid structure. The following are some
important manufacturer presences:

Spray layup: is also one of the hand mounding techniques which is an extension of the hand
layup method. In this method, a spray gun is used to spray pressurized resin and
reinforcement that is within the shape of chopped fibers. Matrix material and reinforcement
can be sprayed concurrently or simultaneously one after one. A roller is rolled with a little
strain over the sprayed surface to remove the air trapped in the layups(S. Kumar & Mallesh,
2020).

Compression molding: is usually used for thermoplastic matrices with unfastened chopped
fiber or mats of short or long fiber either randomly oriented or aligned, however, can also be
used with thermoset matrices. Filament winding: is the manufacturing process that mainly
produces open or closed-end cultures. The system entails winding filaments underneath
tension over a rotating mandrel(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016a).

Injection Molding: Material granules for the element are fed through a hopper into a heated
barrel, and melted using heater bands, and the frictional movement of a reciprocating screw
barrel. The plastic is then injected through a nozzle right into a mold hollow space in which it
cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity(Submitted et al., 2014).

Hand layup: It is a molding approach wherein fiber reinforcements are positioned by way of
hand then polymer resin is poured at the fiber reinforcement. The second layer of the fiber
reinforcements is located on the polymer resin surface and a roller is moved with a little
strain on reinforced fiber to avoid the trapped air between the layers as indicated in Figure.
Materials used in this process are Matrix (Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,
unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin) and Reinforcement (Glass fiber, carbon fiber,
aramid fiber, natural plant fibers (sisal, banana, nettle, hemp, flax, etc.)). All these fibers are
in the form of a unidirectional mat, bidirectional (woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, or
mat of randomly oriented fibers(Sciencedirect, 2013).

14
 Figure 2. 6Spray layup, Compression molding, Injection Molding, and Hand layup
respectively (Sciencedirect, 2013)

2.3 Overview of Composites

Over the previous thirty years composite materials, plastics, and ceramics have been the main
developing materials. The amount and number of fabrications of composite materials have
grown progressively, piercing and leading new markets persistently. Current composite
materials constitute an important amount of the engineered materials market ranging from
everyday goods to sophisticated place applications. While composite has already established
their value as mass-saving materials, the present challenge is to make their price effective.
The efforts to produce economically good-looking composite components have resulted in
several inventive manufacturing techniques currently being used in the composite
industry(Ranga et al., 2014).

When compared composites with metals, the composite materials have the following
advantages(Barasa, 2020):

1. Good fatigue resistance 8. As an insulator and thermal

2. Lightweight expansion
3. Simple moldable to complex forms 9. Part joined due to lower overall
4. High specific stiffness and strength system costs
5. Good dumping 10. Internal energy luggage
6. Easy bonding compartment and release
7. Small radar visibility

But composites have also some disadvantages

a) Low ductility b) Temperature limits

15
 c) Extended development time e) Complexity manufacturing
d) Solvent or moisture attack

2.3.1 Classification of Composite

Based on the type of strengthening/reinforcement used, composites are classified as follows

Composites

Fiber
Particulate Laminate
Hybrid

Figure 2. 7Classification of Composite (Abuye, 2017)

Fiber-reinforced Composite: Fiber-reinforced composites enclose reinforcements having
lengths higher than cross-sectional dimensions. Fibrous reinforcement represents physical
rather than a chemical means of changing material to leave well with various engineering
applications. These can be usually classified as(Karim & Zaman, 2018): Composites consist
of fibers in the matrix structure and can be classified according to fiber length. Composites
with long fiber reinforcements are termed continuous fiber reinforcement composites, while
composites with short fiber reinforcements are termed discontinuous fiber-reinforcement
composites. Fibers can be placed unidirectional or bidirectional in the matrix structure of
continuous fiber composites, and they take loads from the matrix to the fiber in a very easy
and effective way.

Figure 2. 8Fiber-reinforced composite(M. A. Kumar et al., 2018)

Particle Reinforced Composite: A composite that strengthens a particle of all dimensions

more or less equal is called particulate reinforced composite. Particulate fillers are working to

16
improve high-temperature performance, reduce friction, increase tear resistance and reduce
shrinkage. The article will also donate the load with the matrix, but to a smaller extent than a
fiber(Aksit, 2004). A particulate reinforcement will therefore get better stiffness but will not
normally strengthen.

Figure 2. 9Particle Reinforced Composite(Negash, n.d.)

Hybrid fiber-reinforced composites: Hybrid fiber-reinforced are those where two or more
types of fibers are reinforced in a single matrix structure. Fibers can be placed unidirectional
or bidirectional in the matrix structure of continuous fiber composites, and they take loads
from the matrix to the fiber in a very easy and effective way. Discontinuous fibers must have
sufficient length for effective load transfer and to restrain the growth of cracks from avoiding
material failure in the case of brittle matrices. The arrangement and orientation of fibers
define the properties and structural behavior of composite material. Improvement in
properties such as impact toughness and fatigue strength can be seen with the use of
chemically treated natural fibers(Negash, n.d.2021).

Composite Laminate: Laminates are sheet constructions that are made by stacking layers
(also called plies or lamina) in a specified sequence. The layers are often in the form of
prepare‟ (fibers pre-filled with partly cured resin) which are consolidated in an
autoclave(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016b).

17
 Figure 2. 10Laminate Composite(Negash, n.d.2021)

A laminate may have more than 2 layers and the fiber orientation changes from layer to layer
regularly through the thickness of the laminate. The figure shown describes how the laminate
is formed from the ply or lamina.

2.3.2 Classification Based on the Matrix Material

Another way of classifying composite material is by concentrating on the type of matrix
constituent of the composite(Negash, n.d.2021).

Composite

Metal matrix Ceramic Polymeric

Composite Matrix matrix
composite

Thermoset Thermoplas Elastomers

polymers tic
polymers

Figure 2. 11Classification Based on the Matrix Material(Abuye, 2017)

Metal-matrix composites typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded in a matrix made
from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix materials such as titanium,
copper, and iron are increasingly being used. Typical applications of MMCs include bicycles,
golf clubs, and missile guidance systems; an MMC made from silicon carbide fibers in a

18
titanium matrix is currently being developed for use as the skin (fuselage material) of the US
National Aerospace Plane(Barasa, 2020).

Ceramic-matrix composites are the third major type and examples include silicon carbide
fibers fixed in a matrix made from borosilicate glass. The ceramic matrix makes them
particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-temperature components, such as parts for
airplane jet engines. The principal advantages of ceramic materials over other materials are
their resilience to oxidation and deterioration at elevated temperatures, their high melting
points, and their high compressive strengths. Unfortunately, ceramics suffer from
susceptibility to brittle fracture and therefore have relatively low values of fracture toughness.
One method of increasing the fracture toughness of a ceramic is to reinforce it with fibers,
whiskers, or particles. Crack propagation is severely hindered by the presence of the
reinforcing phase(Barasa, 2020).

Polymer matrix composites commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. The reason for
this is twofold. In general, the mechanical properties of polymers are insufficient for
structural purposes. In particular, their strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and
ceramics. These difficulties are overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers.
Secondly, the processing of PMC need not involve high pressure and doesn’t require high
temperature. Also, the equipment required for manufacturing PMC is simpler. For this
reason, PMC developed quickly and soon became common for structural applications of
which glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP) is the best-known example, using ceramic fibers in
a plastic matrix(Barasa, 2020).

Because of the above reason, this works interesting on the polymer matrix composite
materials only. They are collected of long chain-like molecules comprising many simple
repeating units. The most commonly adopted polymer composites in more industries are
thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer matrix composites. These fiber-reinforced polymer
composites can be found in products that people interact with even in ready activities(Barasa,
2020).

Thermoset polymers are polymers that are cured into a solid form and cannot be returned
to their unusual uncured form. Composites made with thermoset matrices are strong and have
very good fatigue strength. They are extremely brittle and have a low impact - toughness
making. They are commonly used for high-heat applications because of the thermoplastics.
Thermoset composites are generally cheaper and easier to produce because the liquid resin is

19
very easy to work with. Thermoset composites are difficult to recycle because the thermoset
cannot be remolded or reshaped; only the reinforcing fiber used can be reclaimed(Facture
Toughness Investigation of Chopped Sisal Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Resin Composite Yonas
Tsegaye, 2017).

Thermoplastic polymers are polymers that can be molded, melted, and remolded without
altering their physical properties. Thermoplastic matrix composites are tougher and less
brittle than thermosets, with very good impact resistance and damage tolerance.
Thermoplastic composites are less dense than thermosets making them a viable alternative for
weight-critical applications. The thermoplastic composite manufacturing process is more
energy-intensive due to the high temperatures and pressures needed to melt the plastic and
impregnate fibers with the matrix. The energy required makes thermoplastic composites more
costly than thermosets(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016a).

Elastomers are polymers that are having a viscosity as well as elasticity and therefore are
known as viscoelasticity. The molecules of elastomers are held together by weak
intermolecular forces, generated exhibit low Young’s modulus and high yield strength or
high failure strain. They inherit the unique property of regaining their original shape and size
after being stretched to a great extent(Journal et al., 2021).

Functions of a Matrix: In a composite material, the matrix material helps with the following
functions:

1. Holds the fibers together. 5. Improves impact and fracture

2. Protects the fibers from the resistance of a component.
environment. 6. Helps to avoid the propagation of
3. Distributes the loads evenly between crack growth through the fibers by
fibers so that all fibers are subjected to providing an alternate failure path
the same amount of strain. along the interface between the fibers
4. Enhances transverse properties of a and the matrix.
laminate. 7. Helps to carry interlinear shear.

2.4 Previous Works On natural fiber polymer composites

Since the 1990s, natural fiber composites are evolving as realistic alternatives to glass fiber-
reinforced composites in many applications. Research has begun to focus attention on natural

20
fiber composites (i.e. coir, jute, sisal, banana, hemp, and bagasse fibers) which are composed
of natural or synthetic resins, reinforced with natural fibers.

(M. A. Kumar et al., 2018), studied tensile properties of sisal and glass hybrid composites in
longitudinal and transverse directions. The composite laminate consists of several layers in
which glass fiber layers and sisal fiber layers are placed alternatively until we obtain the
required thickness. A mat with a large surface area is been placed on a floor, and wax is
applied on its surface to avoid the adherence of laminate to the mat. Then a layer of matrix is
applied over the wax in a particular direction. Later alternative layers of hemp and glass
fabrics are placed with the application of matrix in between. This is called the ‘Hand Lay-Up
Method’. Perforated sheets are placed over laminates and resin absorber sheets are placed
over perforated sheets and whole laminates, perforated sheets, and resin absorber sheets are
covered by a vacuum bag and sealed. Then vacuum pressure is maintained inside the vacuum
bag and the laminates are cured at that pressure for four hours. And concluded that tensile
strength in the longitudinal is high compared to the transverse direction.

(Diagnostics, 2018), studied the impact of fiber orientation and thickness of laminated
polymer composites on tensile properties. The materials used are bi-woven fiberglass that
acts like reinforcements and epoxy resin as a matrix material that transfers the load to the stiff
fibers through shear stress. Three different orientations ±30°, ±45°, ±90° and two different
thicknesses 2mm and 3mm are considered. The specimens are made by using a hand lay-up
process. Tensile testing of these specimens is tested by using a UTM machine they came to
some conclusions that specimens with lesser thickness prompt greater ultimate tensile
strength regardless of the fiber orientation. In addition to that, 45° orientations will withstand
higher loads compared to other orientations. Furthermore, Young's modulus and thickness are
very proportional. Finally, they concluded that the elongation of the sample is less in the case
of 90° and higher in the case of 30°.

(Journal et al., 2021), investigated the effects of volume fraction on the fatigue strength of
unsaturated polyester/glass fiber composites. It studies polymeric composites from
unsaturated polyester as a matrix reinforced with glass fiber. Two different volume fractions
i.e. ratio of fiber to with a volume fraction of 40% have more fatigue strength than the
samples with a volume fraction of 20%. The single sheet with the required dimensions is
made and then it is cut into specimens. The instruments used are after the bending fatigue
machine. The study also showed that the samples reinforced with uniform (woven) have

21
fatigue strength than that samples reinforced with random (Continuous fibers). The composite
volume is considered 20% and 40%. The samples were tested for reinforcement uniform
(woven) epoxy-glass fiber and random (continuous fibers). The study shows both samples

(Diagnostics, Sapuan et al 2018), epoxy resins are the prevalent polymer used with advanced
composites. Their extensive use is primarily due to their superior mechanical properties,
excellent adhesion, a good possibility of utilize in adhesion-type reactions, low cure
shrinkage, and low cost.

(Ali et al., 2017), Fabricated of three types (sisal-coir) of hybrid laminates and two pure
laminate composites. Using the manual layup technique Epoxy (Ly556 and HY951) resin is
used as matrix material in this work. The experimental result shows that the sisal-coir fiber
hybrid composites exhibited superior properties when compared to pure composites.

(S. Kumar & Mallesh, 2020), Found the tensile properties of sisal, jute, and glass fiber
reinforced hybrid composites in 0⸰and 45⸰ orientations. Hand lay-up technique was used to
fabricate the composites by reinforcing sisal fibers into the epoxy matrix and they concluded
that fiber orientation and fiber loading plays an important role in tensile strength analysis.

(Sharma & Srivastava, J.Fibre Text.Res. 2014), The hand lay-up technique was used to
fabricate the composites by reinforcing sisal fibers into an epoxy matrix. Composites were
prepared using various fiber weight fractions (15, 20, 25, and 30 wt. %) with the
unidirectional alignment of sisal fibers. A stainless-steel mold having dimensions of 500 ×
300 × 3 mm3 was used for the casting of composites. Silicon spray was used to facilitate easy
removal of the composite from the mold after curing. The cast of each composite was cured
under a load of 50 kg for 24 h before its removal from the mold. Dimensions of specimens
was cut as per ASTM standards using a diamond cutter. The composites manufactured with
varying wt.% of fibers are designated as S15 (15 wt. % of sisal fiber), S20 (20 wt. % of sisal
fiber), S25 (25 wt. % of sisal fiber), and S30 (30 wt. % of sisal fiber).

M. Kumar et al2012.(Ali et al., 2017), found that the tensile strength and tensile modulus of
sisal/epoxy composites increased with increasing sisal fiber content up to 30 wt.%. The hand
lay-up technique was used to fabricate the composites by reinforcing sisal fibers into an
epoxy matrix. Accordingly, the, tensile strength and tensile modulus of the composite at 30%
sisal were found to be 83.96 MPa and 1.580 GPa respectively, which are 148% and 122%
more than that of pure epoxy.

22
(Osman, 2013), Over the last two decades, a great deal of work has been dedicated to
composites reinforced with natural fibers. Indeed, the use of the such natural products for the
reinforcement of thermoplastic or thermosetting resins, leads to composites with lower
density, higher specific stiffness, and strength, together with better biodegradability.

(M. A. Kumar et al., 2018) Experimentally found the effect of different fiber orientation
angles on the mechanical strength of the glass fiber composites. The hand lay-up technique
was used to fabricate the composites by reinforcing sisal fibers into an epoxy matrix. It was
found that the orientation angle of 0° of glass fiber yields maximum strength as compared to
other orientation angles of fiber.

(Gupta & Srivastava, 2016a) evaluated the mechanical properties of hybrid composites
(glass/carbon) with different fiber orientation angles. The hand lay-up technique was used to
fabricate the composites by reinforcing sisal fibers into an epoxy matrix. It was concluded
that the small angle of fiber orientation yielded less stiffness and strength. It was also found
that the composite with a fiber orientation angle of 0°/90° had superior mechanical properties
to the other fiber orientations.

(Karim & Zaman, 2018)Studied two different types of fibers such as chemically treated kenaf
fiber and untreated kenaf fibers. Polypropylene was reinforced with treated and untreated
kenaf fibers. 10%, 20%,30%,40%, and 50% weight of kenaf composites were prepared
during fabrication. The process used for fabrication of kenaf/pp. There in forced composite
was Injection molding process. Testing includes X-ray diffraction, Differential scanning
calorimetric, Thermo gravimetric analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and
Scanning electron microscopy. It is found that chemically treated kenaf/pp composites with
40% wt. loading show the improved mechanical properties (tensile strength, flexural
strength) when compared to untreated kenaf/pp reinforced composite and other loadings such
as 10%, 20 %, 30 %, 5and 0% wt. of kenaf/pp reinforced composite. In the testing process, it
was found that fewer than50% wt. loading burning of kenaf fibers occurred and there was no
proper mixing of kenaf and polypropylene.

(Sharavanan et al., 2018)used hybrid composite consisted of wood flour/ kenaf fiber
reinforced with polypropylene matrix. Bonding agents such as maleic anhydride and cumyl in
peroxide were used. There were two reinforcement and the ratio was carried out as fixed ratio
which is reinforcement 1 and reinforcement 2. The process carried out for fabrication of
sample was injection molding process. Tensile test was carried out by using a Universal

23
testing machine as per standards. The rule of mixtures equation was used to find out the
elastic modulus of composites. They identified that the addition of kenaf fiber to wood
flour/pp matrix composite increased the property of tensile strength and tensile modulus.

(Sharma & Srivastava, 2014)Their work showed that the use of compatibilizer in jute fibers
increases its mechanical properties. At 60% by weight of fiber loading, the use of the
compatibilizer improved the flexural strength by as high as 100%, tensile strength to 120%,
and impact strength by 175%. There was a sharp increase in mechanical properties and
decrease in water absorption values after the addition of the compatibilizer.

2.4.1Research Gap
From the literature, different researchers characterized natural fiber and synthetic material
composites. Several researches have been published on bamboo fiber, jute fiber, banana fiber,
and sisal fiber as a composite material. However, as pure the best of my knowledge no more
investigation on the effect of fiber orientation on sisal fiber characterization. To fill the gap,
investigate the effect of sisal fiber in different orientations of 0/90, 0/45, and 0 or
unidirectional on the mechanical/physical properties of the fabricated composite.

24
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials
This research aims to identify the effect of fiber orientation on sisal fiber composite material,
several varieties of materials and equipment are utilized for the fabrication of composite
materials, for testing in strategy was taken after accomplishing the objectives. The materials
and supplies utilized in this paperwork are listed and explained below.

3.1.1 Sisal fiber

Sisal fiber is a kind of natural fiber, which retains high specific strength and modulus, low
Price, recyclability, and easy availability. Sisal fiber is a potential reinforcement for polymer
composites. Beyond its traditional applications (ropes, carpets, mats, etc.), sisal fiber has
potential applications in the aircraft and automobile sectors. Sisal fiber is used as
reinforcement to make a composite. Reinforced polymer composites have been used with
great interest by materials scientists and engineers all over the world. A suitable quantity of
sisal plant leaves was collected from Bishoftu Afaf Mountain in our country, Ethiopia.

Figure 3. 1Extracted sisal fibers

3.1.2 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, has the molecular formula NaOH and
is an extremely caustic base and alkali salt. Sodium hydroxide is soluble in water, ethanol,
and methanol. This alkali is deliquescent and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide in
the air. Pure sodium hydroxide is a pale solid, which is accessible in pellets, flakes, and
granules; In this work, NaOH is used in pellets form and performed chemical treatment of

25
sisal fiber taken from the metallurgy classical Lab at defense engineering college Bishoftu,
Ethiopia.

3.1.3 Matrix

1. Epoxy Resin
The resin used for this study is Epoxy Resin, which is purchased from the local shop world
fiberglass and waterproofing engineering in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Epoxy resins are the
prevalent polymer used with advanced composites. Their extensive use is primarily due to
their superior mechanical properties, excellent adhesion, a good possibility of utilizing
addition-type reactions, low cure shrinkage, and low cost.

Figure 3. 2 Epoxy Resin

2. Hardener (catalyst)
Epoxy resin is cured by adding a catalyst, which causes a chemical reaction without changing
the resin, is cured by adding a catalyst. The catalyst initiates the chemical reaction of the
epoxy resin and monomer ingredient from liquid to a solid state. The curing agent applied in
this work for the liquid epoxy resin is a hardener that can be purchased from the local shop
world fiberglass and waterproofing engineering in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

3. Mold release
Mold release is essential for preventing the epoxy from sticking to the mold when the
composite is apart. Even though, there are several types of mold release used depending on
the mold material and desired characteristics of the finished part, the most common type used
for this work is polyethylene plastic for a better surface finish of the composite as shown
figure3.3.

26
 Figure 3. 3 Mold Release plastic

3.3METHODS
The general workflow chart/steps of this thesis are as follows

Figure 3. 4 General working flow chart/steps of this thesis

27
3.4 Weight of sisal fiber/epoxy

3.4.1 Fiber Matrix Weight and Volume Fraction Content of the Composite
In the research, the ratio of the epoxy resin and sisal fiber used in the sample preparation will
be based on the weight ratio. This means the weight of both epoxy resin and fiber will
measure using an electronic balance. In the design, fabrication, and analysis of composite
materials, the first and critical task is the determination of ingredient percentages such as sisal
fiber and epoxy matrix fraction presented in laminate.

3.4.2 Fiber and Matrix Weight Fraction (WF, WM)

The composite material consists of fibers and matrix material, the weight of the composite
material is equal to the sum of the weight of the fibers and the weight of the matrix (Mallick,
1993). Therefore(Liben Co-Advisor & Bhaskaran, 2020),

Wc =Wf +Wm (3.1)

Where Wc is the total weight of the composite

WF is the fiber weight fraction and Wm is the matrix weight fraction

3.4.3The Density of the Composite

The density of composite material can be defined as the ratio of the weight of the composite
material to the volume of the composite material (Mallick, 1993)(Liben Co-Advisor &
Bhaskaran, 2020). And expressed as:

Wc (3.2)
ρc=
Vc
But, 𝑉c= 𝑉f + 𝑉m and V = W/ρ, therefore equation (3.2) can be rewritten as:
Wc Wf Wm (3.3)
= +
ρc ρf ρm
Where ρc is the total density of the composite.

3.4.4 Validation of Fiber/epoxy Weight Fraction

As reinforcing fibers are directly responsible for providing strength and stiffness to a
composite, it is necessary to exploit the fiber tensile strength and Young’s modulus to
produce a composite material with enhanced properties. Fiber/Epoxy weight fraction (Wf)
also plays an important part in determining the mechanical properties of the composite. For
composites consisting of brittle fibers in a flexible polymer matrix, two possible failure
regimes exist depending on whether the epoxy/fiber weight fraction is above or below a

28
minimum value (Vmin). To identify epoxy/fiber weight fraction, it must be taken different
proportion/epoxy weight fraction like 0% fiber/100% epoxy, 40% fiber/60% epoxy, 50%
fiber/50% epoxy, 60% fiber/40% epoxy, and 30% fiber/70% epoxy weight fraction. Based on
the thesis weight fraction samples were manufactured by hand lay-up techniques. Then, the
tensile strength, of the composites was conducted according to ASTM standards by a
universal testing machine.

Table 3. 1Experimental results of fiber/epoxy weight fraction

No. Fiber/epoxy weight Universal test Tensile Strength

(%) machine (MPa)
(Mean ± Stdv)
1. 0% Tensile test 8.96±0.09
2. 30% Tensile test 18.74±0.75
3. 40% Tensile test 33.68±0.34
4. 50% Tensile test 23.20±0.52
5. 60% Tensile test 20.50±0.099

From the table of experimental results, the highest tensile strength was obtained at a
40/60weight fraction 33.68MPa it is highest the other weight fraction of fiber/matrix. Since
the highest tensile strength; was obtained at 40/60 concentration, a sisal fiber/epoxy
composite of 40/60 weight fraction with prepared by varying sisal ply orientation to
investigate the effect of fiber orientation effect on the mechanical/physical properties of the
composite. As a step towards this, sisal fiber/epoxy composites with 0/90, 0/45, and 0
(unidirectional) fiber orientations for a 40/60 weight ratio were prepared.

3.4.5 Calculation of the Weight of Fiber and Matrix for Specimen Preparation Based on
the Validation
The volume of the composite was calculated by multiplying the length, width, and breadth of
the mold prepared for molding the composite material. The dimension of the mold for this
research is, the volume of the mold (VC) = 250x215x10 = 537500 mm3 = 537.5cm3

From the literature, the density of epoxy resin, and sisal fiber is 1.2g/cm3 and 1.45
respectively.

29
 Table 3. 2 Weight of reinforcement and matrix

Mass in grams
Orientation of The volume of the mold (VC) =(250mmx215mmx10mm)
Fibers Sisal (g) Epoxy(g) Composite product (g)
0º 154 640 794
0/90º 154 640 794
0/45º 154 640 794
Density 1.45g/cm3 1.2g/cm3

3.4.6 Sample Preparation Methods

Sisal Fiber Reinforced Composite Preparation The guideline preparation of the SFR
composite process approach is shown in figure 3.5.

Figure 3. 5 Composite material production approaches(Sharma & Srivastava, 2014)

The bottom chart appears the scheme for the preparation of SFR composites. The preparation
of the SFR composite is performed by hand layup method different ply orientation of sisal
fiber is utilized as reinforcement resin epoxy resin, and hardener is used as a matrix material.
The reinforcement is chosen based on its weight reduction, tensile strength, and bending.
Fiber arrangement (orientation) will be done for sisal fiber in this research is 0, 0/45, and 90-
degree orientation of fiber.

3.4.7 Sisal fiber extraction process

A suitable quantity of sisal plant leaves was collected from Bishoftu Afaf Mountain, in
Ethiopia after cutting at their base from the harvest. The fibers are extracted through hand
extraction with a knife. Initially, the leaves are trimmed in a longitudinal direction into strips
for ease of fiber extraction The peel is clamped between the wood plank and knife and hand-

30
pulled through in a longitudinal direction gently, removing the resinous material, then the
extracted fiber is washed with pure water to loosen, and separate the fiber until individual
fibers are obtained then the extracted fibers are sun-dried which whitens the fiber. Once
dried, the sisal fibers are ready for the fabrication of test pieces.

Sisal fiber can be extracted from its leaves by the following methods.

Figure 3. 6 Sisal fiber extraction process

3.4.8 Alkali Treatment of Sisal Fiber procedures

After the extraction of sisal fiber to increase interfacial surface adhesion fiber was chemically
treated by using a NaOH solution. The solution was prepared with an 8% NaOH
concentration. Next soaked the fibers in NaOH solution for 24 hours. After treatment, the
fiber was washed many times with distilled and tap water. Finally, these fibers dried in
sunlight. After the fiber dried, bidirectional sisal fiber 0, 0/90- and 0/45-degree oven
orientation was prepared.

The overall importance of chemical treatment of sisal fibers.

a) To improve an adhesive property for fiber–matrix interface.

b) To improve fiber’s shear strength.

31
 c) To improve fiber’s rigidity and stiffness.
d) To improve moisture absorption problems.
e) To reduce fiber’s weight etc.

Figure 3. 7 Alkali Treatment of Sisal Fiber procedures

3.4.9 Fiber orientation

It is unusual for fibers in the composite laminate to be perfectly aligned. Woven fabrics
introduce a crimp to fibers which causes misalignment of load paths. Even non-woven fabrics
can suffer from some crimping around stitch points. The misalignment of fibers causes a
dramatic loss of mechanical properties, particularly in bending and tensile, due to the
increased likelihood of buckling.

The fiber orientations in plants are optimized to the occurring forces, especially to the
bending of plants by wind forces. To achieve multidirectional isotropic behaviors, proper

32
fiber orientation in different angles is necessary, which can only be done by multiple laminate
preparations. Fabric types are categorized by the orientation of the fibers used and by the
various construction method used to hold the fibers together.

a. b. c.

Figure 3. 8 Fiber orientation a.0-degree b. (0/45) degree c. (0/90) degree

3.4.10 Hand Lay-Up Technique

Involves manual laying of fibers with resin on mold by hand. Thermoset resin is in liquid
form at room temperature. The mold has the shape of the product and the product has a better
surface finish over the side that is in contact with the mold. The hand lay-up technique is the
simplest method of composite processing.

Materials requirements of the Hand-lay-up method

Mold: the wood plate surfaces are made up of HDF of 250mm ‘x’215mm ’x’ 10mm.

33
Roller Brush: the roller brush is used after laying each layer to remove the air entrapping in
the resin this process is repeated until the required thickness is acquired.

Mold release: mold release is essential for preventing the epoxy from sticking to the mold
when laminates are apart. The most common type and the one for this work is Mold Release
plastic is chosen because of its excellent release properties, easy application, and exceptional
mirror finish shine.

Figure 3. 9 Wood plate surfaces are made up of HDF of 250mm ‘x’215mm’x’10mm

3.4.11 Hand layup process

The composite was fabricated by using the hand layup technique. However, the drawback of
the process was negotiated.

The mold was cleaned and the mold realizing wax used to make the product removal easier.
A gel coat was applied on the prepared mold with the help of a brush with uniform thickness
to get a better surface finish of the expected product. The epoxy resin matrix was prepared
with a pre-determined composition of 1% with a catalyst which facilitates the drying process
of the composite.

First, introduce a small amount of resin over the gel coat of the mold. And then laid the
prepared sisal fiber plain weave orientation layer over the resin fiber equivalently, and then
proceed to add an adequate amount of matrix while pushing a roller brush to spread properly
and prevent the formation of a bubble. After checking as, the resin spreads well, prepared the
sisal fiber plain weave orientation layer over the resin again. Again, apply the matrix and
swab very well to avoid trapped air and to prevent the formation of porosity which initiates a
crack for failure. The third layer also applied s prepared sisal fiber plain weave orientation
layer that were added in, a similar to the spray one. Finally, clamps were tightened to expel

34
excess matrix material from the mold cavity to avoid the formation of voids that could be
caused by air spaces.

Epoxy (epoxy resin) and hardener (catalyst) were taken in a steel bowl at that point blended
well and made prepared for layup reinforced sisal fiber with a ratio of 100 gram: 1 gram
respectively.

The prepared resin and hardener mixture spread evenly on the fiber. After that, plastic was
put on taking after a beat portion of the mold (Lid). Safety was taken to avoid the formation
of air bubbles during pouring. Next Pressure was applied to the top and the mold was allowed
to compress to room temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours the tests were taken out of the
form after compressing the cover were cut into the required estimate (see figure3.10)

Figure 3. 10 hand layup process

3.4.12 Samples Manufactured by Different Orientations of sisal fiber reinforced epoxy
resin SFRER
Three brunches of tests were made by the distinctive orientation of sisal fiber reinforced
Epoxy resin composites such as 0, 0/90, and 0/45 degrees.

0ºsisal fiber orientation reinforced epoxy resin composite boards, to begin with, 100% of
0ºorientation of sisal fiber arrangement bonded utilizing matrix material. During this sort of
arrangement layer by layer until the preferred thickness is achieved. Binding with matrix
material consisting of resin epoxy and hardener in the ratio of 100:1.

0/90ºsisal fiber orientation reinforced epoxy composite boards 100 % of 0º/90º orientation
(see figure3.11) of sisal fiber arrangement bonded utilizing matrix material. During this type

35
of preparation layer by layer until the specified thickness is accomplished binding with
matrix material consisting of resin epoxy and hardener in the ratio of 100:1.

0/45º sisal fiber orientation reinforced epoxy composite boards 100 % of 0º/45º orientation
(see figure3.11) of sisal fiber arrangement bonded utilizing matrix material. During this type
of preparation layer by layer until the specified thickness is accomplished binding with
matrix material consisting of resin epoxy and hardener in the ratio of 100:1.

Figure 3. 11 product Wight measuring of 0, 0/90 & 0/45 degree

3.5 Experimental Procedure and Setups

3.5.1 Preparation of specimen

ASTM was used to prepare and conduct a test of this sisal fiber-reinforced composite. All the
test pieces for tensile and other testing are based on the ASTM standard.

The test specimens utilized in this study required a total of about 36specimen’s sisal fiber.
Hack saws are recommended for cutting sisal fiber composite specimens after fabrication into
the required dimensions.

3.5.2 Dimension of Test specimens

The appropriate Ethiopian Conformity Assessment Enterprise (ECAE) Testing material (ISO
6892-1) standard were followed while preparing the specimens for the SFR composite for
tensile test and bending (flexural) test their standards are illustrated figures and specimens for
using American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) standards. The thickness is 10mm and
all dimensions are in mm.

36
 a. c.

b.
Figure 3. 12 Specimen Dimensions a) Bending b) Impact c) Water Absorption Test specimen

3.5.3 Composite Specimen Testing Procedure

After the SFR composite Specimen is cut into the desired dimension based on the respective
orientation of fiber such as 0, 0/90, and 0/45 degrees will be tested using different strength
testing procedures: Bending test and impact test for each specimen and water absorption test.

a. b.

37
 c.
Figure 3. 13 Sample Specimen a) Bending b) Impact c) Water Absorption Test

3.6 Experimental Test

3.6.1Flexural Strength Test (ASTM D3039)

Flexural strength is defined as a material’s ability to resist deformation under load. The short
beam shear (SBS) tests are performed on the composite samples to evaluate the value of
flexural strength. It is a 3-point bend test, which generally promotes failure by interlaminar
shear. This test is conducted as per the ASTM standard using UTM. The loading arrangement
is shown in Figure 3.14 the dimension of the specimen is (150 x 25 x 10) mm. It is measured
by loading the specimen.

Figure 3. 14 The specimen under flexural testing

3.6.2 Impact Strength Test (ISO 9001:2001)
The impact test was performed over the samples of length 55 mm, width 10 mm & thickness
10 mm as shown in Figure 3.15. The impact speed of the hammer is 3.8 meters per second
having an 18-kilogram weight mounted pendulum. The notch cut on the specimen shall be facing the

38
opposite direction of the striker. The quantitative result of impact tests the energy needed to fracture
material and can be used to measure the toughness of the material.

Figure 3. 15 Impact testing

3.6.3 Water Absorption Test (ASTMD-570)

For the moisture absorption test, the specimens are dried in an oven for a particular time and
temperature and then located in desiccators to cool. Immediately upon cooling the specimens
are weighed. The material is then submerged in water at determining conditions, often 23°C
for 24 hours or until equilibrium see figure 3.16 deny towards moisture absorption in humid
air or water was found by natural fibers reinforced polymer composite. The effect of moisture
absorption results in the poverty of the fiber-matrix interface reg resulting in a reduction of
mechanical properties along with a change in the dimensions of composites. The properties of
water absorption on composites were investigated by ASTM D-570.

Figure 3. 16 Water Absorption Test

39
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Experimental Test Results

4.1.1 Weight Fraction Test

As reinforcing fibers are directly responsible for providing strength and stiffness to a
composite, it is necessary to exploit the fiber tensile strength and Young’s modulus to
produce a composite material with enhanced properties. Fiber/Epoxy weight fraction (Wf)
also plays an important part in determining the mechanical properties of the composite.

To identify epoxy/fiber weight fraction, it must be taken different proportion/epoxy weight

fraction like 0% fiber/100% epoxy, 40% fiber/60% epoxy, 50% fiber/50% epoxy, 60%
fiber/40% epoxy, and 30% fiber/70% epoxy weight fraction. Based on the thesis weight
fraction samples were manufactured by hand lay-up techniques. Then, the tensile strength, of
the composites was conducted according to ASTM standards by a universal testing machine.
The required data are listed on the table it found at appendices.

Average Weight Fraction

40

35
Average T.S (MPa)

30

25

20
33.68
15
23.2
10 18.74 20.5
5 8.96
0
0wt% 30wt% 40wt% 50wt% 60wt%

Weight Ratio

Figure 4. 1 Average weight fraction

40
Discussion

The tensile strength, of the composites was conducted according to ASTM standards by a universal
testing machine. The highest tensile strength was obtained at a 40wt% sisal fiber.

These were because of the effect of fiber weight fraction on tensile strength and tensile
modulus is linear. Maximum strength and modulus are obtained when the fiber loading is
40wt% for specimen 40wt%. It is due to proper transmission and distribution of the applied
load by the epoxy resin matrix. This agrees with the findings made by Bijwe(Ikbal et al.,
2017) who worked on composites reinforced by aramid fabric in polyethersulfone matrix.
Tensile strength of such bidirectional sisal fiber composite is even higher than that of neat or
unfilled epoxy. The tensile strength varies from 8.96 MPa to 33.68 MPa with the fiber
content varies from 0 to 70%.

Since the highest tensile strength; was obtained at a 40wt% concentration of the fiber, a sisal
fiber/epoxy composite of 40wt% of sisal fiber was prepared by varying sisal ply orientation to
investigate the effect of fiber orientation effect on the mechanical/physical properties of the
composite. As a step towards this, sisal fiber/epoxy composites with 0/90, 0/45, and 0 (unidirectional)
fiber orientations for a 40%wt weight ratio were prepared. Then, flexural tests, impact tests, and water
absorption tests were carried out to optimize for the best mechanical/properties.

4.1.2 Bending Test

Bending strength, also known as flexural strength, was defined as a material's ability to
oppose deformation under load. The disposed of the flexural test is most often working in
which a bar example having either a circular or rectangular cross area is bowed until break
employing a three-point bending test strategy. The bending strength indicates the maximum
stress practiced within the material at its moment of break. It is calculated in terms of stretch,
here given the image δ. When an object formed in a particular material, like a wooden shaft
of light or a steel rod is bending it experiences a series of stresses across its depth. At the
border of the object within the bending (concave confront) the push will be at its highest
compressive stress value. At the outside of the bending (convex face) the push will be at its
highest tensile value. These inside and external edges of the bar or rod are known as the
'extraordinary fibers'. Most materials do not pass in tensile stress before they fail in
compressive stress, so the highest tensile stress value that can be sustained before the bar or
pole fails is its bending (flexural) strength.

41
The bending test results are calculated, tabulated, and presented in table 4.1 based on the
average most extreme values of the specimens and the maximum result obtained.

Table 4. 1 Bending Tests Results

Fiber No. Length Width Thickness Maximum
Orientatio samples (mm) (mm) (mm) Bending in
n in (MPa)
Degree
0 Fs1 150 25 10 89.40
Fs2 150 25 10 99.90
Fs3 150 25 10 84.36
Mean 91.22
STDEV.S 6.062177826
0/90 Fs1 150 25 10 86.40
Fs2 150 25 10 81.90
Fs3 150 25 10 77.40
Mean 81.90
STDEV.S 4.5
0/45 Fs1 150 25 10 148.40
Fs2 150 25 10 155.70
Fs3 150 25 10 151.20
Mean 151.767
STDEV.S 3.682843105

The results obtained during flexural tests on composite specimens of different fiber
orientations are summarized in Figure.4.2.

Average flexural strength

42
 160
Average bending strength
140

120

100
Average B.S (MPa)

80
151.767
60

91.22
40 81.9

20

0
0/0⁰ 0/90º 0/45º

Degree of fiber orientation

Figure 4. 2 Comparison of flexural strength for average test results

Discussion
Figure 4.2 compares different fiber orientations, fiber reinforced composites the highest
flexural strength is observed at 0/45-degree (151.767MPa) and the lowest in the case of0/90-
degree fiber orientation reinforced composites have (81.90MPa).

This is because 0/45 laminates the load does not simply go down the length of the fiber from
one end to the other. Because 0/45° layers serve different laminate “balanced” and from
forcefully bending and twisting when loaded and more fiber length in getting from one end to
the other. This means more stretch and, the load has to transfer from layer to layer by shear
loading of the resin matrix so, 0/45°-degree fiber angle is used when bending both directions
is required, these helps keep the specimen from crushing or buckling when loaded.

4.1.3 Impact Strength Test

Three same samples are prepared to test for each fiber composition and the average of the
three is taken. The specimen must be loaded onto the testing machine to allow the pendulum
until it fractures or breaks. Using the impact test, the energy needed to break the material is
noted. The loss of energy during impact is the energy absorbed by the specimen during
impact.

43
 Table 4. 2 Impact Tests Results

Fiber No. Length Width Thickness Maximum Angle of

Orientation pendulum
samples (mm) (mm) (mm) impact in
rotation
in Degree (J) In(º)
0 Is1 55 10 10 16.0 108
110
Is2 55 10 10 15.5
109
Is3 55 10 10 15.85
Mean 15.783 109
STDEV.S 0.256580072
0/90 Is1 55 10 10 14.0 113
114
Is2 55 10 10 14.75
111
IS3 55 10 10 15.3
Mean 14.683 112.667
STDEV.S 0.652559065
0/45 Is1 55 10 10 27.5 82
79
Is2 55 10 10 30.5
83
Is3 55 10 10 28.0
Mean 28.667 81.33
STDEV.S 1.607275127

The impact test was carried out with the Charpy machine, results are presented in Table 4.2
and the corresponding graphs have been plotted.

44
 35
Average impact strength
30

25
Average I. S(J)

20

15
28.667
10
15.783 14.683
5

0
0/0⁰ 0/90º 0/45º

Degree of fiber orientation

Figure 4. 3 Comparison of impact strength for average test result

Discussion

In the graphs in Figure 4.3 plotted for the energy absorbed in (J or Nm), it has been observed
that the loss of energy during impact is the energy absorbed by the specimen during impact.
Based on the results obtained, the0/45-degree orientation shows that very high impact strength
(28.667J) compared to all other orientations. Therefore, the fiber 0/45-degree orientation is
better than the other because much impact energy is absorbed in that range. It occurs because
at a 0/45-degree angle there was 1.42 times more fiber length in getting from one end to the
other. This means more stretch. And also, the load has to transfer from layer to layer by shear
loading of the resin matrix according to (Boset, 2019) research.

4.2 Physical Properties

4.2.1 Water Absorption

The water absorption test provides information about the adhesion between the fiber and the matrix in
the interface region, as the higher the adhesion (bond) between the matrix and the fiber fewer will be
sites that could store water and will lead to lower water absorption.

45
Composite samples have been immersed in a water bath at 23°C for the duration of a term until the
saturation was reached. Three specimens from each fiber a total of 9 specimen volume fractions were
cut from the composite. An oven was used, firstly drying all the samples at 5 °C for 24 hrs. After 24 
hrs. the samples were eliminated from the water and have been weighed (mass) the usage of a virtual
scale right now once they had been dried with a dry material to weigh. The weight was measured tan
o accuracy of 0.0000g utilizing four-digit equalizations (analytical precision balance).

The water absorption is calculated by the weight difference. The percentage weight gain of the
samples is measured at different time intervals by using the following equation.

WA= (W2-W1/W1) x 100%

Where W1=Weight of the sample before soaking in water

W2 = Weight of sample after soaking in water

Table 4. 3 Water Absorption Tests Results

Fiber No. Thickness Thickness Wight Wight WA=(W2

Orientation Sam before After before after -W1/W1)
in ples immersing(m immersing(m immersing( Immersing ∗ 100%
Degree
m) m) g) (g)
0 Ws1 10 10.30 10.09 11.02 9.22
Ws2 10 10.21 10.32 10.79 4.55
Ws3 10 10.23 10.01 11.07 5.43
Mean 10.247 10.96 8.09
STDEV.S 0.1493318 2.48151
0/90 Ws1 10 10.09 10.54 11.01 4.46
Ws2 10 10.21 10.25 10.99 7.22
Ws3 10 10.10 10.17 10.89 7.08
Mean 10.133 10.9633 6.25
STDEV.S 0.0642910 1.55465
0/45 Ws1 10 10.07 10 10.09 0.90
Ws2 10 10.10 10.50 10.98 4.57
Ws3 10 10.12 10.05 10.70 6.47
Mean 10.097 10.59 3.98
STDEV.S 0.1285820 2.83148

46
 9 Average water absorpation
8
7
Average W.A (%)
6
5
4 8.09
3 6.25
2 3.98
1
0
0/0⁰ 0/90º 0/45º

Degree of fiber orientation

Figure 4. 4 Comparison of water absorption for average test result

Observation: - In these tests, all of the sisal fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite
specimen’s fiber orientations have minimum water absorption, which is, less than 15%
specially 0/45-degree orientations have lower absorption than others. Because the angle of
fiber orientation of 0/45-degree is not favorite for water sleeping than 0 and 0/90- degree
orientation, generally the water absorption of the natural fiber composites increased with the
increase in natural fiber contents in composites sleeping, according to Fickian,(Osman,
2013).

4.3 Comparison with 2A12 aluminum

2A12 aluminum alloy is used to make fuselage skin, bulkheads, wing ribs, wing beams,
rivets, and construction and transportation tool structures(Aircraft Grade 2A12 Aluminum
Sheet, n.d.).

Table 4. 4 Chemical Composition of 2A12 aluminum alloy(Aircraft Grade 2A12 Aluminum

Sheet, n.d.)

Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Ni Zn Ti Standard

2A12 0.50 0.50 3.8-4.9 0.3-0.9 1.2-1.8 0.10 0.30 0.15 ASTM

47
4.4 Comparison with the Previous Works on Experimental Lab Test of Flexural and
Impact Test Due to the Preference of Bulkhead

4.4.1 Flexural Strength

Flexural Properties of the current work compared with that of some/different fillers and
weight fractions of the other researchers' work in table 4.5.

Table 4. 5 Comparison of previous work on Flexural properties of composites.

Matrix Fiber Fiber Fiber/ Method of Flexural References

Materia orientati matrix fabrication Strength
l on ratio(w/ (MPa)
w)
Epoxy Sisal Woven 40wt% Hand lay-up 151.767 Current work
Epoxy Sisal/Coir Random 40wt% Hand lay-up 36.26 (G.Velmurugan
, 2014)
Polyest Glass Chopped 35wt% Hand lay-up 83 (G.
er fiber/Rice Gupta.2016)
husk
Polyest Glass Chopped 35wt% Hand lay-up 89 (G.
er fiber/banana Gupta.2016)
epoxy Sisal/Jute Woven _____ Hand lay-up 46 (MadhuVan,20
16)
Epoxy Abaca–jute– Woven 40wt% Hand lay-up 66.21 (B.VijayaRamn
glass fiber ath a, 2014)
Epoxy Flax and Chopped 40wt% Hand lay-up 13.54 (V.S.Srinivasan
banana with a, 2014)
glass fiber
Epoxy Banana- chopped ____ Hand lay-up 135.21 (AshwinSailesh
Bamboo– 1,2015)
Glass fiber

48
Desiccation: - in this thesis the filler was epoxy resins it have performance advantages over
polyester in five major areas: Better adhesive properties (the ability to bond to the
reinforcement or core) Superior mechanical properties (particularly strength and stiffness)
Improved resistance to fatigue and Micro cracking and Sisal fiber have higher mechanical
property than the other natural fibers due to that, this paper have higher flexural strength than
the previous study.

4.4.2 Impact strength

The impact strength of the current work compared with that of some/different fillers and
weight fractions of the other researchers' work. From Table 4.6.

Table 4. 6 Comparison of previous works on impact properties of composites

Matrix Fiber Fiber Fiber/ Method of Impact Reference

Material orientation matrix fabrication strength(J)
ratio
Epoxy Sisal Woven 40wt% Hand lay-up 28.667 Current
work
Polyester False Woven 40wt% Hand lay-up 8.225 (Fasil and
banana- age,2020)
jute-glass
fiber
Polyester Fiber/Ria Copped 35wt% Hand lay-up 8.3 (G.Gupta.
husk 2016)
Polyester Glass/ Copped 35wt% Hand lay-up 8.3 (G.Gupta.

Banana 2016)

Epoxy Sisal/coir Random 40wt% Hand lay-up 4.42 (G.Velour

agan, 2014

Desiccation: - in this thesis the filler was epoxy resins it have performance advantages over
polyester in five major areas: Better adhesive properties (the ability to bond to the
reinforcement or core) Superior mechanical properties (particularly strength and stiffness)
Improved resistance to fatigue and Micro cracking and Sisal fiber have higher mechanical
property than the other natural fibers due to that, this paper have higher impact strength than
the previous study.

49
Other parameters like weight variation can be compared through table 4.7 (M. N. M. Ansari
et al, 2015).

Table 4. 7 Comparison of 2A12 aluminum alloy(Rawat et al., 2020) and sisal fiber/epoxy
composite for aircraft bulkhead.

Alloy 2A12 Aluminum New or current product

Average energy required 1.19-110(MPa) 151.767 (MPa)
Average weight to resisting 120.0718474 (kg) or 162.134878(kg)
capacity 1177 (N) 1590 (N)
Weight bulkhead 9.07184 (kg) 4.0453(kg)
Bulkhead or seawall cost $800 to $1600 per linear foot $100 to $900 per linear foot
per foot (12 inches). (12 inches).

50
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

The aircraft bulkhead is a structural member. The bulkhead was replaced with natural fiber
composite material to enhance the aircraft’s seat performance. Sisal fiber was used with
epoxy resin as a matrix. The cost of importing the bulkhead and the wastage of sisal plants
are reasons to conduct this thesis work. In this thesis, composite material from sisal fiber was
manufactured. Composite development started with plant collection and was followed by
fiber extraction. The fiber was treated with NaOH to increase its surface roughness to have
better bonding capability with a matrix. Different properties like tensile strength, bending
strength, and impact strength of the developed composite was tested as per ASTM standards
and optimized for the best orientation. In sisal fiber/epoxy composite, the 0/45-degree
orientation is preferable with an average of 151.767MPa bending and 28.667MPa impact
strength and its water absorption of 3.98%, conducting.

5.2 Conclusion

The sisal fiber was extracted manually from the Ethiopian highland sisal plant, it was treated
using sodium hydroxide and distilled water solution for better strength and roughness
properties. Second, a sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composite specimen was produced in
the shop from appropriate materials using materials like fiber epoxy, and resin. Its physical
and mechanical properties such as the tensile, bending, impact and water absorption
properties are determined using the proper testing procedure as per ASTM standards. All the
necessary experimental test results were recorded and comparisons among different
specimens were presented. Moreover, these test results give a fundamental confirmation of
the availability and reliability of sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy resin composite and its use in
aircraft seat bulkhead applications.

Sisal fiber reinforced epoxy resin composite material, which is made of sisal fiber and epoxy
resin, is more environmentally friendly compared to synthetic fiber. Sisal fiber reinforcement
composites have advantages like renewability, low density, biodegradability, good insulation
properties, non-toxicity, and durability compared to synthetic materials. Based on the impact,
flexural, and water absorption properties of experiment data studies in this work, a few points
can be concluded as follows:

51
1. Successful fabrication of composite using sisal fiber reinforced epoxy has been done by the
hand layup technique.

2. From the experiment result, it was observed that different orientations, like 0, 0/90, and
0/45 degrees. Among that orientation, 0/45-degree obtains the highest mechanical/physical
properties of the sisal fiber composite.0/45-degree among

3. From the flexural Experimental test results, it was found that 0/45 degree treated sisal fiber
reinforced epoxy resin composite has better flexural strength (151.767MPa) than 0 and 0/90
degrees.

4. Based on the results obtained, the 0/45 orientation shows a very high impact strength
(28.667J) compared to all other orientations. Therefore, the fiber 0/45 orientation was better
than the other because much impact energy is absorbed in that range.

5. The effect of moisture content obtained from the water absorption test is within the
specifications and has minimum water absorption for aircraft bulkheads.

6. From water absorption tests, the results of each specimen obtained 0/45-degree fiber
orientation was 3.98%, which is lower than the other two fiber arrangements of 6.25% (0/90-
degree) and 8.09% (0-degree). In these tests, all of the sisal fiber reinforced epoxy resin
composite specimen’s fiber orientations had minimum water absorption, which is less than 10
% of ASTMD-570 standards.

5.3 Recommendations for Prospective Applications

It is also recommended to use sisal fiber/epoxy composite to fabricate the non-structural body
parts of the aircraft to reduce the weight and cost of the aircraft bulkhead.

 Using more accurate composite manufacturing techniques may increase the

performance of output, like the resin transfer method, vacuum bagging, vacuum-
assisted hand layup, etc.
 Developing natural fiber composite material properties can be enhanced by using a
matrix having better strength like epoxy resin.

It is recommended that the university has to develop the necessary facilities for the
preparation and testing of composite materials. It is recommended to use sisal fiber/epoxy
composites in other parts of aircraft to reduce weight.

52
5.4 Recommendations for Future Work

In different respects, working on natural materials like composites has several advantages.
From this point of view, regarding sisal fiber reinforced composite, several things can be
made and improved in the future that this study couldn’t address. So, the following research
areas are recommended for future studies.

 Characterization of the fibers by vacuum bagging fabrication techniques on sisal fiber

reinforced composite.
 Characterization of the sisal fibers/epoxy composite (shear, microstructure, and comp-
ration test) according to their application.
 Applying sisal fiber-reinforced composite for the production of other internal parts of
the aircraft and other transporting vehicles. Roof, floor, door, etc.
 Analysis by software like Ansys and Toguchi analysis L9 and above array for further
improvement or increasing the control factor and level of the design.

53
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 APPENDICES

Appendices A

In this appendix, all the data that have been collected during the laboratory specimens testing
were provided.

1. Data collected during the laboratory tesile specimens testing

No. Fiber/epoxy weight (%) Universal test machine Tensile Strength (MPa)
(Mean ± Stdv)
1. 0% Tensile test 8.96±0.09
2. 30% Tensile test 18.74±0.75
3. 40% Tensile test 33.68±0.34
4. 50% Tensile test 23.20±0.52
5. 60% Tensile test 20.50±0.099

58
2. Data collected during the laboratory Bending specimens testing

0/0(zero)-
Degree
Fiber
Orientatio
n Test
Result

0/90-
Degree
Fiber
Orientatio
n Test
Result

59
0/45-
Degree
Fiber
Orientatio
n Test
Result

60
Appendices B

Mold preparation process

Hand lay-up process

61
For all testis’s samples

0-degree 0/90-degree 0/45-degree

Tensile test Bending test Impact test Water

absorption test

62