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Food Wastes: A Review

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ISSN 2522-9400 European Modern Studies Journal Vol 6 No 5
available at journal-ems.com
Food Wastes: A Review

Aleja Alyssa M. Macapodi, Abdani D. Bandera, Louvill M. Ozarraga,

Buhary R. Macapanton, Alliah A. Abdullah-Pandapatan, Abdani R. Al-Rashid,
Mohammad Merhasshan G. Gubat, and Jalila D. Dimapundug
Graduate Studies Department, Mindanao State University, Marawi City, 9700, Philippines

Abstract. Food waste is a major problem that has effects on the environment, society,
and the economy on a global scale. The disposal of food waste and related factors are
reviewed in this article. The original literature's technical phrases have been adapted to define
wasted food. This brought to light the complexity of the problem, which includes behaviors
and attitudes that contribute to food waste in household, institutional, commercial settings,
policies that encourage food waste production, situational, behavioral, attribute, and personal
aspects. The variety of behaviors and reasons for food waste should be addressed in the
prevention methods. They ought to be comprehensive to appeal to people's values, equip
them with the knowledge to reduce waste, and support logistical advancements to promote
avoidance.
Keywords: Food waste, Residential wastage, Institutional food wastage, Commercial
food wastage, Policies driving food waste generation

Introduction
"Food" waste or loss is measured only for products directed to human consumption,
excluding feed and parts of products that are not edible. Per definition, food losses or waste
are the masses of food lost or wasted in the position of food chains leading to "edible
products going to human consumption" (Gustavsson & Cederberg, 2011).
The UNEP (2016) pointed out that food waste is one of the most alarming situations,
given problems in consumption and production. According to World Food Programme
(2018), there is enough food to feed everyone, but one in nine suffers from hunger, and one in
three suffers from malnutrition. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organizations
estimate that one-third of all food produced for human consumption is squandered or wasted
yearly in many parts of the world (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
2014). Black (2015) indicated that food waste could occur in the entire supply chain:
agricultural production, post-harvest handling and trade, processing, food service industry,
retailers, and households.
According to Gustavsson et al. (2011), nearly one-third of food produced for human
consumption is lost or wasted, equaling a total of 1.3 billion tonnes of food per year. As the
production of food is resource-intensive, food losses and wastes are indirectly accompanied
by a broad range of environmental impacts, such as soil erosion, deforestation, water, and air
pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions that were occurring the processes of food
production, storage, transportation, and waste management (Mourad, 2016). Several studies
revealed, such as food handling (Diaz-Ruiz, Costa-Font, & Gil, 2018), purchasing behavior
(Stefan, van Herpen, Tudoran, & Lähteenmäki, 2013), waste management (Diaz-Ruiz et al.,
2018), expiration-date-based pricing, consumer values (Diaz-Ruiz et al., 2018) and
demographics (Quested, Parry, Easteal, & Swannell, 2011) are tackled by many scholars. We
are not just talking about food. Consumers, who are directly and indirectly accountable for
the amount of food waste, can look at the repercussions of behavior on food waste generation
and its impact on natural resources.
BIOIS (2010) examined that private households represent the largest food-waste faction
as Parfitt et al. (2010) explained that given the high amounts of food waste occurring on the

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household level, the prevention of food waste at the final stages of the supply chain is of
utmost importance to help prevent further climate change. To be more specific, all (fossil)
energy (and greenhouse gas emissions) used in the food's production, processing, shipping,
chilling, and preparation will have been in vain if households at the end of the supply chain
waste it.
In some households, waste may be generated due to preparing too much food
(Koivupuro et al., 2012) or preparing food inadequately. People may need the skills to
prepare food well or reuse leftovers. In the U.K., 40 percent of household food waste was due
to the preparation and serving of more food than could be consumed, as found through the
citation analysis of Quested and Johnson (2009). Over-provisioning is intentional and
unintentional, as cooks may find it difficult to estimate how much to cook, but they also
would instead prepare too much food than not enough (Pearson et al., 2013). Portion sizes in
the home, as measured in the sizes of bowls, glasses, and dinner plates, and serving sizes, as
presented in cookbooks, have been increasing. The serving size of some entrees increased by
as much as 42 percent in the 2006 Joy of Cooking cookbook from recipes in the first (1931)
edition (Wansink & Payne, 2009). A closer look at households reveals that the issues of food
waste and sustainable food practices are multifaceted (Evans, 2014). This paper explores the
food waste trends in the past years. It reviews food waste disposal and its factors.

Residential, Institutional, and Commercial Food Wastage: Behavior and Attitudes

Quested et al. (2013) stated food wastage is not the result of a single behavior but a
combination of multiple behaviors. Cultural, political, economic, geographic, and socio-
demographic drivers may cause the behaviors, but so can personal preferences, values, and
attitudes. There has yet to be a clear consensus on attitudes toward food waste, although food
waste awareness has been shown to reduce waste (Parizeau et al., 2015). Some work has
found a lack of concern and awareness regarding food waste (Buzby et al., 2011; Pearson et
al., 2013) and a perception that food waste prevention is not a priority (Graham-Rowe et al.,
2014). However, Neff et al. (2015) found widespread awareness of food waste among
American consumers. Here specific residential, institutional and commercial food wastage
behaviors are described.
Institutional and Commercial Behaviors
According to Buzby and Hyman (2012) the retail and institutional levels, food is
generally wasted due to choices regarding quantities of available food and visual qualities of
food. Specific causes include (1) un-purchased specialty holiday food; (2) damaged
packaging;(3) damaged or inadequately prepared items; (4) overstocking or over-preparation
of food; (5) routine kitchen preparation waste; and (6) out-grading/quality control.
Appearance quality standards cause retailers, mainly supermarkets, to outgrade foods due to
rigorous standards concerning weight, shape, and appearance (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Many
grocers take pride in beautiful food displays with uniform, excellent food, which require the
culling of even slightly imperfect items. Overstocking also is an issue because retailers would
instead put more stock out than run out of items, and restaurants prefer to have a wide array
of available menu options (Stuart, 2009). Inaccurate forecasting of food needs also
contributes to wastage (Mena et al., 2011).
Although these factors may all contribute to food waste, the magnitude of waste varies
across commodity types. Buzby et al. (2015) found that in U.S. supermarkets, the percentage
of fresh produce delivered to U.S. supermarkets that were not sold for any reason ranged
from 2.2 (sweet corn) to 62.9 (turnip greens) percent; the range for fruits was smaller, ranging
from 4.1 (bananas) to 43.1 (papaya) percent. These differences may be attributed to
packaging differences, susceptibility to damage, and the public's knowledge and familiarity
with certain foods. In food service, plate waste significantly contributes to food waste

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(NRDC, 2012) and results from large portions and undesired accompaniments. Portion sizes
are increasing inside and outside the home in the developed world (Wansink & Payne, 2009;
Wansink & van Ittersum, 2007; Wansink & Wansink, 2010). Portion sizes began to rise in the
1970s, then increased sharply in the 1980s and continued to climb in the 1990s. Portion
increases have been seen in supermarkets, where the number of items in larger sizes has
increased tenfold between 1970 and 2000. The average sizes of certain foods, such as bagels
and muffins, have increased significantly over the past 20 years. These large portions
encourage waste and obesity (Young & Nestle, 2002). Kallbekken and Saelen (2013) found
that reducing the physical size of hotel plates reduced food waste by 19.5 percent.
Residential Behaviors
Consumer behavioral choices cause food wastage at the household level through the
interaction of aspects of food's journey into and through the home: planning, shopping,
storage, preparation, and consumption (Quested et al., 2013). Poor planning at the shopping
stage leads to over-provisioning and impulse or bulk purchases (Koivupuro et al., 2012),
which are significant contributors to food waste (Pearson et al., 2013). Food is commonly
purchased without much thought about how it will be used (Gustavsson et al., 2011), which
can contribute to wastage. In the home, waste may be generated due to preparing too much
food (Koivupuro et al., 2012) or preparing food inadequately. People may need the skills to
prepare food well or reuse leftovers. In the U.K., 40 percent of household food waste was due
to the preparation and serving of more food than could be consumed (Quested & Johnson,
2009). Over-provisioning is intentional and unintentional, as cooks may find it difficult to
estimate how much to cook, but they also would instead prepare too much food than not
enough (Pearson et al., 2013). Portion sizes in the home, as measured in the sizes of bowls,
glasses, and dinner plates, and serving sizes, as presented in cookbooks, have been
increasing. The serving size of some entrees increased by as much as 42 percent in the 2006
Joy of Cooking cookbook from recipes in the first (1931) edition (Wansink & Payne, 2009).
Food spoilage due to improper or suboptimal storage, poor visibility in refrigerators,
and partially used ingredients lead to wastage (NRDC, 2012). A survey of U.K. households
found 47 percent more fresh food was wasted than frozen foods because fresh food spoils
faster (Martindale, 2014). Another U.K. study found that more than half of food waste occurs
because the food was not used in time (Quested & Johnson, 2009), possibly due to confusion
over "use by," "sell by," "enjoy by," and "best by" date labeling (Quested & Johnson, 2009;
Van Garde & Woodburn, 1987). In the U.S., there are no federal standards on the presentation
and meaning of date labels on food. State rules vary in coverage and what the dates mean,
leading to consumer confusion (Kosa et al., 2007) and often resulting in safe, edible food
being thrown away. This confusion and general misconceptions about food safety and high
sensitivities to food safety contribute to food waste (Pearson et al., 2013).

Drivers of Food Waste Generation

There are many drivers of food waste generation from residential, institutional, and
commercial sectors, although detailed information on the exact causes is limited (Lebersorger
& Schneider, 2011). In the developed world, particularly the U.S., increases in volume,
availability, accessibility (Rozin, 2005), affordability, and caloric density of food have led to
increased overconsumption and waste (Blair & Sobal, 2006). There needs to be more
understanding regarding what food is, where it comes from, and what its production entails
(Stuart, 2009). Culture and personal choice affect decisions regarding what is too good to
throw away, and these perceptions can change over time. Therefore, food waste generation is
a function of cultural, personal, political, geographic, and economic forces that influence
behavior in specific ways (Pearson et al., 2013), and it may differ from person to person, year
to year, or from society to society.

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Cultural Factors
Culture plays a fundamental role in shaping food, eating, and nutrition (Rozin, 2005;
Sobal, 1998) and waste generation. The amount of food a society wastes depends on cultural
habits and attitudes. People from different cultures regard foods and parts as edible and throw
different parts away (Strasser, 1999). Pollan (2007) points out that some cultures, particularly
the U.S. and Australia, have weak food traditions of their own, meaning there are few
longstanding rules and rituals about what to eat and when to eat it, and there are weak
connections between the production and preparation of food and its consumption. Bloom
(2010) has argued that the U.S. has an unhealthy relationship with food; overall, the U.S.
food culture places little value on food, leading to waste. Other societies have a strong
appreciation for food, including production and preparation. Countries such as France have
deep food cultures which are deeply embedded in culture and have been developed over long
periods (Gatley et al., 2014). French attitudes toward food tend to emphasize moderation and
quality, rather than abundance and quantity, as in the U.S. (Rozin, 2005). Countries with deep
food cultures tend to be more resistant to change (or at least change slower) primarily due to
solid values surrounding what foods can be grown during certain seasons and how foods are
prepared. Many cuisines depend on the longevity of traditional recipes and cooking
techniques (Coveney et al., 2012). Deep food cultures may be less affected by changes
brought on by the modernization of the food supply system.
Furthermore, there are cultural differences in daily food practices, which may affect
wastage. For instance, there may be cross-national differences in shopping patterns in terms
of the amount of food purchased in a single trip, the number of days between shopping trips,
and the amount of food stored in the household (Neff et al., 2015). Household shopping
practices, particularly the size of the store where groceries are purchased and the frequency of
shopping, have been shown to affect wastage (Jorissen et al., 2015). In developing countries,
consumers generally buy smaller amounts of food each time they shop (compared to
developed countries), often just enough for meals that day (Pearson et al., 2013), which may
reduce waste. Extant educational campaigns may also cause differing waste patterns. Mena et
al. (2011) found that Spanish retail food managers did not see food wastage as a significant
problem, but managers in the U.K. placed waste on a higher agenda. This is likely due to
recent campaigns in the U.K. emphasizing food waste as a problem.

Policies Driving Food Waste Generation

Some policies contribute to food waste by mandating food disposal under certain
conditions or preventing its redistribution elsewhere. These policies aim to achieve some
overall benefit (food safety or enhanced nutrition), but they may also lead to increased food
wastage. Furthermore, litigation concerns may discourage the reuse or redistribution of edible
food. As a result, there is tension between the need for food safety and nutrition and the
desire to reduce food waste (Watson & Meah, 2012). A policy that may lead to food wastage
is the 2010 Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act which required the USDA to update the nutrition
standards of the National School Lunch and Breakfast Program. The revised standard
emphasized nutritional quality improvements for student meals. This policy has been
criticized for leading to substantially more food waste because students dislike the new meals
and throw away the fruits and vegetables they are required to take (Jalonick, 2014). At one
elementary school after the implementation of the policy 45 percent of served food and
beverages were discarded by students (Byker et al., 2014).
However, Cohen et al. (2014) evaluated plate waste at several schools before and after
the standards were implemented and found substantial amounts of food waste before and
after. Shwartz et al. (2015) found that the standard reduced plate waste in middle schools, so
it is unclear whether the standard causes increased food wastage. In 2014 a bill was proposed

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to ease the requirements of the meal standards, particularly regarding the number of whole
grains required in meals (Jalonick, 2014). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration sets
federal calls for food safety, promulgated at the state and local levels. Food safety inspections
or labeling requirements mandate the disposal of food that is not allowed to be sold or
consumed, such as food that is improperly labeled or inadequately stored. The USDA and the
European Union (E.U.) have recognized that food safety policies contribute to waste but
consider human health protection the primary concern. Still, both have vowed to reduce food
waste.

Food Waste Factors

Behavioral Factors
Food wastage is not the result of a single behavior but a combination of multiple
behaviors, as found through the citation analysis of Quested et al. (2013). According to
Jörissen, Priefer, and Bräutigam (2015), people who do not plan well are more likely to waste
food. People who shop less frequently are also more likely to incur losses. The relationship
between checking food labeling and generating food waste is well established. For instance,
Watson and Meah (2012) gathered information and a record survey of actual waste in the
United Kingdom to investigate when food is discarded. Cultural, political, economic,
geographic, and socio-demographic drivers may cause the behaviors, but so can personal
preferences, values, and attitudes. Parizeau et al. (2015) empathized that there is no clear
consensus on attitudes toward food waste, although food waste awareness has been shown to
reduce waste.
According to Van Boxstael et al. (2014), consumers must fully understand the
difference between best-before dates and shelf life and that food disposal based on best-
before dates leads to food waste. Furthermore, Waitt and Phillips (2016) interviewed people
in Australia about food refrigeration and disposal. In deciding whether to dispose of food, the
interviewees were influenced more by their subjective feelings toward the food than by
awareness about food waste or labeling information. There are studies on the relationship
between food management and food waste generation.
Graham-Rowe et al. (2014) interviewed consumers in the United Kingdom to show the
need for proper food management technology to reduce household food waste. Terpstra et al.
(2005) interviewed consumers in the Netherlands about food storage methods, periods, and
motivations for storage and found that inappropriate storage management led to food waste,
depending on the type of food.
Attribute Factors
Families with children tend to generate losses (Tucker & Farrelly, 2016), high-income
families tend to be busier and generate more food waste (Marangon, Tempesta, Troiano, &
Vecchiato, 2015). Numerous studies have analyzed the relationship between family structure
and food waste generation. Wenlock et al. (1980) studied the amount of food wasted in
households in the United Kingdom and found that food waste was greatly influenced by
family structure in that adults have a larger absolute quantity of food waste than children, and
larger households have less waste amount per capita than smaller households.
A survey of Koivupuro et al. (2012) conducted a monitoring study of households in
Finland and found that household size and other factors were related to the generation of food
waste. On the relationship between lifestyle and the generation of food waste, Parizeau et al.
(2015) studied the amount of food waste and the attributes and consciousness of households
in Canada. They showed that household lifestyle is related to the amount of food waste
produced. Citation analysis in the study of Evans (2011) conducted interviews with
households in the United Kingdom to show that food waste in households occurred
incidentally as part of the daily eating behavior of consumers, which was influenced by social

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factors such as lifestyle and material factors such as technology. When Bishop and Magicks
(2019) interviewed 48 participants in the United Kingdom to identify the relationship
between respondents' psychological factors and their behavior towards food waste, they
found that awareness of the problem of food waste is unlikely to translate into actual action,
and improvements in shopping and household habits are needed to sustain reduction behavior
in the long term.
Given the previous literature, most of these studies focused on conceptual, normative,
or individual contributing factors, and few quantitative empirical studies exist. A few studies
comprehensively addressed and analyzed the contributing factors of food waste, one of which
is McCarthy and Liu (2017), who examined the factors that impacted the generation of food
waste in Australia using a 346-strong sample and an ordered probit model; focusing mainly
on attribute factors, they pointed out that having children and higher income had a positive
effect on food waste. Min et al. (2021) analyzed the developing economy in China using a
fixed-effects model, focusing on dietary knowledge, and found that the effect of dietary
knowledge on food waste differs between urban and rural areas and between different income
groups. In the study of Landry and Smith (2019), who used data from a survey of 2113
American households regarding food stock and household members' food consumption to
estimate the amount of food waste, they showed that food price, food expenditures,
household structure, skills, tastes, and location are related to food waste. Furthermore, Yu and
Jaenicke (2020) estimated the amount of food waste for 4826 households in the U.S. using
data that recorded information about food, including household demographics and quantities
acquired. This study revealed that household food security and participation in assistance
programs are associated with less food waste and that larger households have less food waste.
Thus, only some quantitative empirical studies have comprehensively addressed
attribute and behavioral factors in developed countries where household food waste is a
critical issue. The study of Lebersorger and Schneider (2011) pointed out that urban residents
generate more food waste than rural residents. The existing literature has ignored the
relationship between regional characteristics and food waste generation. This regional factor
is worth examining, given that household attributes and behavior may vary between urban
centers and rural regions.

Personal Factors
Knowledge and Experience
According to Papargyropoulou, Padfield, Rupani, and Zakaria (2014), most educational
institution users lack waste management knowledge. The users from educational institutions
intend to recycle food waste, but they need to know who is accountable for it and refuse to
implement their food waste practice. Consumers' lack of knowledge of food waste has led to
a lack of awareness and behavior toward food waste management (Aschemann-Witzel et al.,
2015). Packaging is a waste that influences the environment (Otterbring & Gustafsson,
2012). However, educational users need to learn about it (Papargyropoulou, Padfield, Rupani,
& Zakaria, 2014). The whole food packaging system is vital to change the packaging's ability
to reduce food waste and environmental impact (Williams & Wikström, 2011). This
knowledge about the method to reduce food waste must let all consumers know. Therefore
they can reduce food waste to prevent environmental. Source separation depends
fundamentally on public university participation because of individual households.
Behavior and attitudes predominantly affect the success of recycling (Refsgaard &
Magnussen, 2009). When the consumers have a system of sorting or disposing the food waste
at the residential level, and people experience that their sorting efforts are followed up by
others and appreciated later on in the process, then the consumer's behavior and attitudes

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toward recycling food waste may be influenced in a positive way (Refsgaard & Magnussen,
2009).
Individuals continued recycling can change the behavior of residents, and these benefits
at least match the extra effort (Refsgaard & Magnussen, 2009). Farr-Wharton (Farr-Wharton,
Foth, & Choi, 2014) stated that the knowledge of consumers has a theory that is suitable for
the consumers, which the theory called a theory of planned behavior (TPB). TPB is generally
used to explain behavior change by providing possible causes of behavior through
exploratory consumers' attitudes, beliefs, and intentions (Farr-Wharton et al., 2014). TPB
does not assist a consumer's knowledge and skill for particular actions. Knowledge about
food hygiene safety, food storage, and an understanding of use best before dates was also
seen as an essential tool to help avoid food waste (Graham-Rowe, Jessop, & Sparks, 2014).
People's confidence in food management was said to dissolve some of the uncertainties of
getting sick (Graham-Rowe et al., 2014). Therefore, when buying food, many residents will
mind that food management with knowledge and experience is vital if food waste is to be
kept to a minimum.

Situational Factors
Accessibility and Availability
The accessibility of recycling opportunities affects the relationship between people's
behavior and attitudes toward waste management. Reducing food waste is motivation by a
valuable method to prevent environmental (Refsgaard & Magnussen, 2009). Managing waste
is a way in the right direction and cycle of the food production process to prevent food waste.
To reduce the amount of food waste sent to landfill and food waste can be reused as feedstock
to downstream treatment methods or reverse logistics which can be namely composting or
anaerobic digestion, is the method of separation of food waste at its initiation source
identified as applicable (Karim Ghani, Rusli, Biak, & Idris, 2013). The availability of food
waste that includes uneaten food and food preparation remains from residences such as
institutional sources like a cafeteria (Karim Ghani et al., 2013). Food waste separation and
minimization programs have yet to be broadly implemented in Malaysia because of several
constraints, which include low awareness among waste generators and low demand for
products from food waste such as manure (Karim Ghani et al., 2013). Food waste has been
fundamentally limited to investigating its contribution to environmental change through
landfill methane emissions and management practices (Sonnino & Mcwilliam, 2011).
Improved resource utilization will positively influence the profits of the food industry,
produce new growth and develop opportunities through the achievement of a zero-waste
economy (Sze et al., 2013). All people should keep in mind that the food waste issue is not
only linked to economic, social, and environment, but it is also an ethical issue that needs to
be highly considered and find better ways to reduce food waste (Abdul Ghafar, 2017).

Conclusion
This paper deepened the understanding of food waste. It highlighted that it is a complex
issue involving behaviors and attitudes leading to residential, institutional, commercial food
wastage, policies driving food waste generation, factors such as behavioral, attributes,
personal, and situational. Policies to prevent food waste should take into account a variety of
actions and causes. They should have multiple facets to appeal to people's values, equip them
with knowledge to reduce waste, and support logistical advancements to support prevention.
Food waste is a problem that requires consideration, investigation, and action, especially with
relation to strategies for reducing food waste generation. Furthermore, the perceived
unpredictability of daily living combined with greater time to care about food in general and
food waste in particular.

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