Literature Mechanical Unit 10 & 11

MECHANICAL BUILDING
SERVICES
PART 1 : Building Services
MECHANICAL BUILDING
SERVICES
LIST OF SELF-EVALUATING TASKS
• Name 10 different types of Mechanical services that would normally be considered a new 200 bed hospital project.
• Name 3 different requirements that a healthy building should conform to.
• Which building types normally requires air conditioning for optimal operation and usage. Name 7.
• Name 11 physical aspects of a building that must be considered when estimating the cooling load and name 4 that can be improved by proper
Architecture.
• Name 5 conditions which influence thermal comfort.
• Name 4 major components found in any mechanical refrigeration unit, equipped with a reversing valve. Name the component with
respectively the lowest and highest average temperature during the cooling cycle as well as during the heating cycle. Ignore compressor heat.
• Discuss and explain the 3 most commonly ways by which heating is applied in an air conditioning installation.
• Explain why under floor heating is so effective and name 2 types of systems that are currently utilized in buildings.
• Discuss 5 types of air cooled small systems and name one suitable application for each. Name 3 types which can be used in low noise
applications and 2 which require a suspended ceiling for an aesthetically acceptable installation.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with the following small air conditioning units:
– Console unit
– Mid wall split unit
– Ducted split unit
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a water-cooled vs. air-cooled system applicable to small units only.
• Name 2 types of cooling towers currently on the market. Explain the main physical difference between the 2 types and name the application
of each type in the air conditioning industry.
• Discuss the difference between water and air cooled chillers with special reference to its advantages and disadvantages.
• Name at least 5 advantages of chilled water plants.
• Name the main disadvantages of a single zone variable central air conditioning system serving 10 individual offices with different load
profiles.
• Discuss the features of an all water fan-coil unit system and indicate which applications are best suited for such a system.
• Name 2 basic duct shapes, used in the industry and its applications. Discuss insulation practices for both types.
• Name the advantages of a central plant.
BUILDING SERVICES
1.1 Introduction
•Mechanical services forms a substantial part of the overall
capital expenditure of a building project. (between 15% and
30%)
•In addition any mechanical plant, through its life span, will
absorb funds for its operation and maintenance. These costs
will escalate as energy, spare parts, and manpower becomes
more and more expensive over time.
•The planning process should always include a life cycle cost
analyses to select the most suitable and cost effective solution.
•This is of vital importance, from commencement of the
project right through the construction stage.
BUILDING SERVICES
•The continuous research into the original design in
terms of reducing capital and operational costs, is one
of the challenges of the planning and construction
team.
•It is also important that the Architect understands the

basics of mechanical building services so that he can
convey the client’s needs to the Engineer, and that he
can anticipate the building requirements to properly
integrate the service into the building structure.
BUILDING SERVICES
The QS should also have a good knowledge of
the physical and operational aspects of
mechanical building services, because it often
is the responsibility of the QS to perform
measurement, payment and cost control over
such services.
BUILDING SERVICES
1.2 Different types of Mechanical Services
1. Air conditioning and mechanical
ventilation.
2. Fire protection services-hose reels,
hydrants, bulk water supply and sprinkler
installations. (Detection is generally
handled as an electrical service.)
3. Lifts and Escalators
BUILDING SERVICES
6 P.5 Other Mechanical Services
4. Hot and cold water services
5. Central heating
6. Kitchen Equipment
7. Laundry Equipment
8. Refrigeration
BUILDING SERVICES
Other Mechanical Services
9. Medical gas installations (hospitals and
clinics
10. Sterilizers
11. Water treatment
12. Incinerators
13. Steam and boiler plant.
Part 2 : HVAC
PART 2.1 : General

New HVAC - General
The increased quality of life demands that the
internal environment, comfort and safety in buildings
is satisfactory to its inhabitants. These includes but
are not limited to:
1. An acceptable indoor temperature,

adjustable for individual comfort
2. Low ambient noise levels
3. Sufficient ventilation of outside air
4. Clean air.
HVAC - General
The supply and installation of air condition and

ventilation installations requires high capital costs,
mainly towards imported equipment and requires
substantial quantities of energy for its operation,
which will be elevated if the system is not planned
with the necessary care and diligence. The HVAC
plant is without exception, the highest energy
consumer in any commercial building.
HVAC - General
1.2 page 3 The following building types and spaces requires
air conditioning systems for optimal operation and
usage:
1. Multi storey office buildings.
2. Enclosed places of assembly such as bioscope theatres, music
and opera auditoria.
3. Computer Rooms
4. Telephone Exchanges
5. Shopping Malls
6. Laboratories
7. Pharmacies
8. Clean rooms such as operating suites in hospitals,
pharmaceutical manufacturing and filling facilities, electronic
manufacturing and assembly facilities.
9. Textile plants
HVAC - General
1.3 p.4 Ventilation

• Ventilation is the process whereby un-conditioned
air is distributed into an enclosed space with a fan
and (sometimes) a system of ductwork and air
outlets. It is advisable to include an air filter in the
air stream and a heating device, when required.
• Proper ventilation always requires an opening for
the air to escape.
• Ventilation will never guarantee comfort.
HVAC
PART 2.2: Load Estimate

New Load Estimate
The following physical aspects of a building must be
considered when estimating the load:
1. Orientation of the building
1. Sun and wind effects
2. Shading effects
3. Reflective surfaces
2. Use of space
1. Office
2. Hospital
3. Shopping Mall
4. Factory
5. Etc.
Load Estimate
3. Physical dimensions
4. Construction materials
1. Type and thickness of walls
2. Type of roofs
3. Insulation specifications
4. Floor construction
5. Type of internal walls, partitions
Load Estimate
5. Surrounding conditions
1. Exterior colour of walls and roofs
2. Attic spaces-ventilated or unventilated
3. Surrounding internal spaces-conditioned or un-
conditioned and expected temperature.
4. Floors-on ground or lifted or above a
basement.
Load Estimate
6. Windows
1. Size and location
2. Wood or metal
3. Type of glass-single or double, clear or energy
controlling
4. Overhangs and reveals
5. External or internal shading devices
6. Air tightness-infiltration.
Load Estimate
7. People
1. Number
2. Duration of occupancy
3. Activity
4. Clothing
8. Lighting
1. Wattage at peak
2. Type
3. If recessed, does air return over them?
Load Estimate
9. Appliances, business machines and electronic
equipment
1. Location
2. Rated wattage
3. Steam or gas consumption
4. Hooded or un-hooded
5. Make-up air requirement
6. Usage
Load Estimate
10. Ventilation
1. Calculate per person with minimum according
to Regulation requirements
2. Smoking or non-smoking
11. Thermal storage effect
1. Operating schedule of equipment
2. Temperature swing
3. Building mass
Load Estimate
12. Continuous or Intermittent operation
1. Operation every business day of only
occasionally i.e. places of assembly-pull down
or pre-cool.
Load Estimate
1. Loads influenced by outdoor ambient conditions.
1. Sun rays entering windows-solar heat gain
2. Sun rays striking walls and roof-increase surface
temperature
3. Outside air temperature –influence heat flux due to
transmission.
4. Wind blowing against a side of the building-increased
infiltration
5. Air vapor pressure-higher pressure allows more
moisture into the building which adds to the
dehumidification load.
6. Outdoor air load-required for ventilation.
Load Estimate
2. Internal Loads
1. People
2. Lights
3. Appliances
4. Office equipment
5. Electrical motors
6. Services that dissipates heat or moisture
Load Estimate
3. Methods of Heat transfer
1. Radiation-windows and glass doors and roofs The heat
flux is calculated by the product of the radiation load,
the surface area, the solar factor of the glass and the
shading coefficient of the internal or external shading
device.
2. Conduction-through a structure such as a glass window
or -wall, brick wall, roof structure, ceiling and any
building element over which a temperature difference
would prevail. The heat flux is calculated by the
product of the temperature difference over the surface,
the resistance or U value of the surface material and
the surface area.
Load Estimate
3. Methods of Heat transfer
3. Convection : Movement of fluid.
• Due to temperature differences-natural convection
i.e. air above an under floor heating system or water
in a kettle.
• Due to applied motion-forced convection. Hot air
circulated by a fan in a convection oven.
• Physics are complex and problems are not
amendable to mathematical solution and recourse is
made to techniques of dimensional analysis and
experiment.
Load Estimate
4. Sensible, Latent and Total Heat
The purpose of an air conditioning system is not
only to control the temperature of the air but also
the relative humidity of the air. This requires
that both the sensible and latent load must be
controlled. During cooling and dehumidification
processes, these are removed and during heating
and humidification processes these are added.
Load Estimate
4. Sensible, Latent and Total Heat
The room sensible load is the amount of energy
that must be extracted from the air to lower the
dry bulb temperature without the extraction of
any moisture from the air. Heat dissipated by
people, lights and internal appliances, as well as
the outdoor sensible loads from conduction,
radiation, outside air, infiltration etc. contributes
to the room sensible load.
Load Estimate
Sensible, Latent and Total Heat
The room latent load is the amount of energy

that must be extracted from the air to lower the
moisture content from the air without reducing
the prevailing air temperature. Moisture
dissipated by people, and moisture releasing
processes such as boiling water, and moisture
infiltration due to vapor pressure differences and
excessive moisture in the outdoor air all
contributes to the room latent load.
Load Estimate
4. Sensible, Latent and Total Load
The sum of the room sensible and the room latent total
load is the room total load.
The capacity of all air conditioning equipment is rated
by the total cooling capacity. Because most of the
equipment is designed for locations with high latent
loads (Far East, USA etc.) the ratio of sensible to total
heat of this equipment is relatively low, resulting in
having to install larger equipment to offset our higher
sensible loads.
HVAC
PART 2.3 : Comfort

New Comfort
Thermal comfort is that condition of mind which

expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
Conditions that provide thermal comfort (ASHRAE Standard

44-2004):
1. Metabolic rate
• Activity of individual
2. Clothing insulation
– How is the individual dressed
3. Air temperature
Comfort
4. Radiant temperature
– The thermal radiation field about the body
may be non-uniform due to hot and cold
surfaces and direct sunlight and may cause
local discomfort.
5. Air velocity- below 0.2 m/s is generally
acceptable
6. Relative humidity
Comfort (Example)
Clothing Light Medium
Activity Office Office
Air speed (m/s) < 0.20 < 0.20
Relative Humidity (%) 40-55 40-55

Temperature Upper level
(°C) 27 25
Temperature Lower level
(°C) 24 21
New HVAC
PART 2.4 : Design Conditions

Design Conditions
The air conditioning engineer must design a plant

which must control the condition of the room air
(dry bulb temperature and relative humidity)
within comfortable limits using climatic and
similar design data which are available from the
CSIR Report 300 : Climatic and other design data
for evaluating heating and cooling requirements of
buildings.
Design Conditions
Design Room air
Category temperature (°C)
Dining and entertainment centers 21 to 23

Office buildings 21 to 23
Libraries and Museums 20 to 22
Bowling centers 21 to 23
Communication centers (tel.
Exchange) 22 to 26
Airport terminals 23 to 26
Retail Facilities 21 to 23
Design Conditions
Design Room air
Category temperature (°C)
Conference rooms 20 to 24
Hotel guest rooms 23 to 26
Operating rooms 17 to 27
Intensive care 21 to 24
Radiology 21 to 24
Hospital wards 23 to 25
HVAC
PART 2.5 : Theory of Refrigeration

Theory of Refrigeration
3.1 P.14 General
• The process of boiling occurs when a substance change from a liquid
into a vapour. For instance, at 100 kPa (sea level), water boils (changes
to steam) at 100 °C, Helium at -269 °C, Nitrogen at -195 °C, and
Ammonia at -33 °C. (Please note that not al boiling processes occur at
positive temperatures.)
• If the atmospheric pressure surrounding the substance changes, the
boiling point of the substance also changes. For instance, the boiling
point of water at 500 kPa is 150 °C and at 60 kPa (vacuum) it is only
38 °C.
• Similarly, if you trap the steam of boiling water in a glass bottle and
cool the external surface down, without changing the pressure inside,
the steam will start to condense into a liquid state again.
• In order to transform a liquid into a vapour, one
needs to apply heat to raise the temperature of that
liquid to boiling point and have to continue
applying heat, in order to sustain the boiling
process. As soon as the heat source is removed,
the boiling process is stopped. The reason for this
is that evaporation of the liquid into a vapour
requires a continuous heat source, because the
process of evaporation extract heat and causes
the liquid to cool down.
3.2 Refrigerants
• In a refrigeration system, the substance that is used to
transfer the cooling is called a refrigerant. Various
refrigerants were developed over the years but most of the
previous refrigerants were phased out at the turn of the
century because of the depletion effect they had on the
ozone layer.
• Today only hydro fluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants are
produced of which some are commonly used in
commercial refrigeration equipment.
• In addition, inorganic compounds like ammonia are also
widely used, especially in the industrial refrigeration
environment because of its excellent thermal properties.
Refrigerants
• In commercial applications, refrigerants which are
miscible with lubricant, is used.
• The piping installation must therefore be done in
such a way that the oil will be carried along with
the refrigerant to the compressor, otherwise the
compressor will cease.
3.4 Refrigeration Equipment
3.4.1 Compressor
The compressor takes refrigerant vapour in from the low
pressure side of the circuit at approximately 550 kPa, and
discharges it at an approximate pressure of 1500 kPa into
the high pressure side of the system. The compressor is
the heart of the system; it keeps the refrigerant flowing
through the system at specific rates of flow, and at specific
pressures.
TYPE OF
COMPRESS
OR APPLICATION MAINTENANCE
Small air con units, refrigerators, water Little or no maintenance-replace when

RECIPROCATING chillers damaged.
Small air con units, refrigerators, water Little or no maintenance-replace when

ROTARY chillers, vehicles. damaged.
SCREW water chillers up to 1500 kW Uncomplicated-little maintenance required.
Complicated- Expensive to repair when

CENTRIFUGAL Large water chillers damaged.
Heat driven water chiller. Where excess Highly skilled engineers required to
ABSORPTION heat is available maintain.
Rotary compressor
3.4.3 Condenser
The next component in this refrigeration cycle diagram is the condenser.
Condensers are either water or air cooled. In commercial air

conditioning applications, the temperature at which the refrigerant
normally condenses is 35 °C to 40 °C.
The red dots inside the piping (see diagram) represent discharge vapour.
The solid red colour represents high pressure liquid refrigerant.
When the hot refrigerant vapour discharged from the compressor
travels through the condenser, the cool air or water flowing through
the condenser coil absorbs enough heat from the vapour to cause it to
condense.
Why do we want the refrigerant to condense at this
relatively high temperature? So that the air or water
flowing through the condenser will be very cold relative to
the temperature of the discharge vapour. This will allow
the heat energy in the vapour to move into that relatively
cold air or water, and cause the refrigerant to condense.
At this stage in the refrigeration cycle, high pressure liquid
refrigerant will flow down the liquid line, through a filter
drier that is designed to prevent contaminants from flowing
through the system, and on to the metering device
(expansion valve).
The condenser is made up of a coil and fan

combination in air cooled applications and a shell-
in-tube configuration in water applications. In air
cooled applications, the condenser is almost
always integrated with the compressor in a
packaged plant. In water cooled units, the
condenser and compressor forms part of the
indoor unit package. The condenser is always
integrated into the chiller package.
Expansion valve
The metering device or expansion valve, is the dividing point between
the high pressure and low pressure sides of the system, and is designed
to maintain a specific rate of flow of refrigerant into the low side of the
system.
When the high pressure liquid refrigerant passes through the
metering device, its pressure will drop to a low pressure that will
be equivalent to about 6°C to 8°C below the design temperature of
the evaporator. It starts evaporating immediately, similar to when
opening a shaken bottle of coke.
It shoots out into the evaporator foaming, bubbling, and boiling,
absorbing heat from the air or fluid surrounding the evaporator.
3.4.2 The Evaporator
The evaporator is the device through which the cold
evaporating refrigerant vapour expands, back to the
suction side of the compressor.
The evaporator can cool air (DX Unit) or water (chiller)
The evaporator is also the heat exchanger between the
air or water which has to be cooled. In commercial
cooling applications the design temperature of the
evaporator is in the order of 10 °C.
Evaporator
Chilled water evaporator
Schematic Refrigeration Diagram

HVAC
PART 2.6 : Theory of Heating

Chapter 5 Theory of Heating
Behaviour of heated air

When air is heated, the density of the air is
lowered and the warm air rise and stratifies
against the ceiling or roof of the occupancy. The
aim in any heating installation must therefore be
to distribute the heat from as low a location as
possible. That is why an under floor heating
system is so effective.
Theory of Heating
Heating as part of the HVAC installation

1. Direct Electrical Heating 5.2
Install electrical heating elements in the air handling
plant or air ducts in central plant. The air will then be
heated before it enters the room. Electrical heating is
the least expensive option to install but the most
expensive to operate. Electrical heating tends to
increase the kVA demand during peak periods which
will have a detrimental effect on the monthly demand
charge.
Theory of Heating
2. Hot water 5.3

Hot water is heated to approximately 80 °C by electricity
or steam (if available) and is circulated by pumps
through a system of insulated steam pipes to hot water
coils, situated in air handling plant or in the ductwork.
This system is only cost effective in large installations.
This system also lends itself to off peak storage because
large volumes of water can be heated and stored during
the night and used during the day, thereby prevent the
operation of electrical heating equipment during peak
demand periods.
Theory of Heating
2. (Continued)
(The CR Swart, Lebohang and Bram Fisher
buildings are equipped with high pressure, high
temperature off peak hot water storage plants.)
When such a system is considered, space must be
made available for the storage cylinders and pipe
work above the ceilings.
Theory of Heating
3. Steam 5.4
If steam is available, steam heating coils,
installed in central plant, can be used to heat the
air. The pipe work and condensate trapping
arrangements at steam coils are complicated and
expensive and its use is only recommended in
places where other steam appliances are
installed-mainly in hospitals and industrial sites.
Theory of Heating
4. Mechanical with Heat Pumps 4.3 P 22

Due to increased energy costs, almost all air
cooled air conditioning equipment and air
cooled chillers, are equipped with a reversing
valve in its refrigeration pipe work. During the
heating cycle, this valve diverts the hot gas from
the compressor directly to the evaporator where
it condenses and evaporates in the condenser.
Theory of Heating
Because heat is extracted (pumped) from the outside air
and carried to the indoor unit, the only energy cost in the
process, is that driving the compressor motor and the
condenser fan motor which is about 40% of the total
energy transferred. The heat therefore cost the consumer
only 40% of the energy received.
This is also a very effective way to heat domestic hot water
but a separate system including stainless steel storage tanks
is usually provided.
Theory of Heating
The efficiency of the system relies on the
temperature of the outside air. The lower,
the more difficult it becomes to extract the
heat. In sub-zero temperatures the
condenser coil will freeze up and a
defrosting cycle gets activated and during
that time, no heating will be available.
Back-up direct electrical heating might be
an option in such instances.
Theory of Heating
2. Separate heating systems New
1. Under floor electrical heating
Very popular in households. Very efficient way of heating
because it heats at feet level where it counts most. It is expensive
to run and requires a lead time to preheat the floor structure.
Operating floor temperature is ± 28 °C.
2. Under floor heating with pipes
Special cross-linked polyethylene pipes are buried in the floor
structure and distributes water at about 40 °C through the floor
structure. A heat pump or solar heater can be used to heat the
water which is then circulated with pumps. Expensive to install
but cheaper to operate.
Theory of Heating
3. Stand alone heaters
These are electrically operated, floor

standing, convection heaters or radiant
heaters which can be installed either at
high or low level.
HVAC
PART 2.7 : Air Conditioning

Equipment and Systems
HVAC
PART 2.7.1: Small Systems-Air

Cooled 4.2
Air Conditioning Equipment-Small Systems-
Air Cooled
The following is a list of some of the more

popular systems and its associate
equipment:
1. Window Units
2. Console Units
3. Split Units
Air Cooled
Mid wall Split Window Unit Under ceiling split
Cassette unit
Console units
Air Cooled
Ducted Split
Floor standing splits
Air Conditioning Equipment-Small Systems-Air
Cooled
Outdoor units (Condensing Units)

Air Cooled.
Features
1. Of all the small units, commercially available
today, only the window and console units which
are installed in an opening through an outside
wall, can introduce some form of ventilation into
the space. As ventilation is a building regulation,
some form of ventilation must be available when
any other types of small units are installed,
something that is sometimes overlooked.
Air Cooled.
Features
2. Almost all units can supply heating by heat pump
operation.
3. Most units are controlled by switching the cooling or
heating on and of which can be uncomfortable at times.
Certain manufacturers have recently introduced variable
speed compressors and evaporator fans which is a drastic
improvement.
Air Cooled.
4. Any air conditioning unit extract moisture from the air
during the cooling process. A 20 mm drainage pipe must
be available where these units are installed. Please do
not connect any condensate drainage pipes to a sewer
system!
5. In split systems, the indoor unit is made up of the
evaporator, expansion valve and fan. The outdoor unit
houses the compressor, the condenser coil and fan. To
complete the system a liquid line and suction line
together with an electrical cable must be connected
between the indoor and outdoor unit and a route for this
must be worked out. The piping is insulated copper
tubing.
Air Cooled.
6. The outdoor unit must be installed in a

location where air can freely flow over the
condenser coil. Installations in shafts,
rooms, under overhangs, in basements etc.
must be avoided.
7. Due to technical reasons, the pipe
connection between indoor and outdoor
units should not exceed 20m.
Air Conditioning Equipment-
Small Systems-Air Cooled.
8. Every small unit required an electrical connection. The
smaller systems up to 5 kW requires single phase
connections whilst the larger systems, three phase
connections.
Every indoor unit also requires a condensate drainage
connection.
All the above infrastructure, required for these type of
installations must be cost into the overall budget of the
HVAC services during project feasibility studies.
Air Cooled.
9. Maintenance of small units revolves around :

– Cleaning of filters and drain pans
– Cleaning of condenser coils
– Check that the control system functions
properly
If this is done sufficiently and users do not
misuse the equipment, it can operate without
problems for 20 years and beyond.
Air Cooled.
However, if the system is not installed correctly,
compressors and expansion valves will fail,
pipe joints and connections will leak and if a
substantial number of units are incorrectly
installed, this can cause discomfort and high
maintenance costs to the owner and occupants.
It is therefore advisable to have a competent
engineer inspect the installation before the
handover certificate is issued.
Air Cooled.
Applications of various single systems
APPLICATIONS TYPE OF SYSTEM
Small Rooms (with the longest

side not exceeding 4.5 m) Console Unit
Window Unit
Mid wall split
Floor split
Large rooms Cassette Unit(s)

Under ceiling Split
Ducted split
Low noise applications Mid wall split

Floor split
Ducted Split
Air Cooled.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Window unit Low capital Cost Noisy
Introduce fresh air Bulky
No drain required Unattractive appearance
Messy to install
Mar the aesthetics of the
building façade
Requires large opening in
outside wall
Console Unit Low capital Cost Noisy

Unit casing is deeper than
Acceptable appearance split units
Introduce fresh air outside wall.
No drain required Messy to install
Mar the aesthetics of the
building façade
outside wall.
Air Cooled.

Floor split Low capital Cost Cannot introduce fresh air
Pipe installation can spoil
Low operating cost aesthetics
Quiet Requires floor space
Neat and attractive Requires floor skirtings
More difficult to install
Air Cooled.

Mid wall split unit Low capital Cost Cannot introduce fresh air
Drain pipe can spoil
Low operating cost aesthetics
Quiet aesthetics
Air distribution sometimes
Neat and attractive disturbing
Easy to install
Higher Installation costs

Under ceiling Split Low operating cost than mid wall
Neat and attractive Cannot introduce fresh air
Drain pipe can spoil
Easy to install aesthetics
aesthetics
Noisy
disturbing
Air Cooled.

Drain pipe above Requires a suspended
Cassette Unit suspended ceiling ceiling
Pipe installation above
suspended ceiling Cannot introduce fresh air
Higher Installation costs
Easy to install than mid wall
Low operating cost Noisy
disturbing
Not suitable for high ceiling
applications.
Drain pipe hidden above More difficult to install with

Ducted Split System suspended ceiling. more time required.
Pipe installation above
suspended ceiling Highest cost
Requires a suspended
Good air distribution ceiling.
Can be used for multiple
rooms with similar load Requires external ductwork
patterns and diffusers.
Can introduce fresh air
Not noisy if indoor unit is
acoustically treated and
effectively located.
HVAC
PART 2.7.2: Small Systems-Water

Cooled 4.5 P 23
Water Cooled
Introduction
With the exception of the window unit, all other air cooled
products are available in a water cooled configuration. The
difference being that the air cooled condenser is replaced
with a water cooled condenser, located (with the
compressor) in the indoor unit.
One would use water cooled units, only where large
quantities of air conditioning units are needed, for instance
in a large shopping mall, large office building etc. and
where it is unpractical to install a matching large number
of air cooled outdoor units.
Water Cooled
A water cooled system is more expensive than an
equivalent air cooled plant, because a closed loop
condenser water system, including a closed circuit
cooling tower as well as duty and standby pumps
is needed to dissipate the heat.
One would therefore only consider a water cooled
system if an air cooled system is a total
impossibility.
Water Cooled
Comparison between air and water cooled system
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
No unsightly equipment visible on the
outside of building No heating by heatpump action available.
Lower operating costs because
condensing happens at a lower
temperature, decreasing compressor More noise because the compressor is located
electrical input inside the indoor unit
An option if many individual units are
required More expensive than air cooled system.
Less piping than for air cooled units Requires water to operate.
Cannot introduce fresh air
HVAC
PART 2.7.3: Condenser water

systems 4.7 P.24
Condenser water Systems
Introduction
Condenser water systems consists of a water circulation
system connected to an open or closed cooling tower with
a pipe reticulation system. The water is circulated by a
condenser water pump.
Because of the evaporation effect, a water treatment plant
must be furnished with the cooling tower. The function of
the water treatment plant is algae control, lowering of
totally dissolved solids (TDS) and prevention of lime
accumulating on the internal surfaces of the tower, pipe
work and condensers.
Open Cooling Tower
An open cooling tower cool water from air conditioning
equipment from ± 35 °C to 29 °C through an
evaporative cooling process.
Water from the air conditioning equipment is sprayed onto a
wet pack inside the tower and gravitates into a sump from
where it is supplied to the equipment. A fan situated at the
top of the tower exhausts air through the tower which
evaporates and cool the water.
Open cooling tower
Closed Cooling Tower
A closed cooling tower accommodates a heat exchanger
below the wet pack in a construction similar to an open
tower. Water from the air conditioning equipment is
circulated through the heat exchanger and do not come into
contact with the air; therefore oxygen that enhance rusting,
and soot and dirt is not introduced into the system. A
separate pump circulates the water between the sump and
spray tree.
A closed cooling tower is more bulky, heavier and more
costly than an open tower.
Installation
Any tower must be located in open surroundings with ample
space around for air movement and maintenance. Provide
openings in all enclosures.
These units are heavy as they carry a lot of water in them and
can transmit noise into the building by vibration from the
large fans housed in them.
Water and drainage must always be available at cooling
towers.
The cooling tower (Open type only) must be located above
the highest point in the system.
Condenser water pumps
A duty and standby pump is normally installed to circulate
the water though the system.
Condenser water piping
The piping system in a closed condenser water system is
manufactured from welded medium grade black steel
piping, and that of an open system from screwed or
flanged galvanised steel piping. Condenser water piping
need no pipe insulation.
HVAC
PART 2.7.4: Chilled water systems 4.6

P 23
Chilled water systems
Chillers
The heart of any chilled water installation is one or more chillers. A chiller
is a mechanical device that chills recirculating water from air handling
equipment. The water usually enters the chiller at ± 12 °C and leaves
the chiller at ± 6 °C.
The evaporator of a chiller is always a water-to-refrigerant heat
exchanger.
Chillers are available as air cooled and water cooled models. Air cooled
chillers are equipped with integrated air cooled condensers and
condenser fans and water cooled units with shell-and-tube condensers
fitted to the units. For the latter type, a condenser water system with an
open cooling tower is required.
Comparison between water and air cooled chillers
TYPE OF CHILLER ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Requires large installation
AIR COOLED CHILLER Quicker to install space
Easier to maintain More costly to run.
Lower purchase cost More noisy to environment
No water treatment plant
required. Must be installed outside
Heavy and bulky equipment
Requires less space for

WATER COOLED CHILLER accommodation Takes longer to install
Requires a condenser water
Lower running costs system
Less noisy to environment High maintenance input
Requires a water treatment
plant
A chilled water system consists of one or more
chillers, a separate pump to circulate water through
each chiller, a set of secondary pumps to circulate
the water from the chiller plant to the chilled water
coils, insulated and vapour proofed primary and
secondary chilled water pipes, connected to the
chilled water coils in the air handling equipment.
The piping used is welded medium grade black
steel piping.
Secondary Pump
Primary Pumps
Pumps
The pumps used in chilled water plants are usually end suction centrifugal
pumps of the closed coupled or bare shaft type (connect direct to motor
or by fenner-flex coupling.) The operating speed is either a fixed 1440
rpm or 2900 rpm or variable speed for fine control and energy saving.
Expansion tanks
An expansion tank is needed for filling and maintaining the level of water
in the system and should be installed above the highest point in the
system. Water between 4 °C and 30 °C expands and contracts very
marginally as compared to hot water. A fresh water supply is needed at
the expansion tank.
A very wide range of chillers are currently available in
various sizes and configurations, using different types of
refrigerants etc.
The most common types are:
1. Air cooled with reciprocating or rotary compressors
2. Air and water cooled with screw compressors
3. Water cooled centrifugal chillers
Another type, the absorption chiller, uses waste heat to
drive the cooling process and requires little electrical
energy but are not locally popular yet.
Air cooled packaged chiller with rotary compressors
1200 kW Chiller with screw compressors
and water cooled condenser.
Air cooled screw chiller
Water cooled screw chiller package Centrifugal chiller
Chilled water systems are recommended on large building or campus sites
where multiple air conditioning systems are required.
The big advantages of a chilled water plant are:
• Centralised maintenance-Major maintenance tasks are performed
outside of the occupied areas in a centralized location.
• Reliable .-The equipment is factory manufactured and designed,
robust and can take a lot of punishment.
• Low operating costs.-The efficiency of water cooled chillers are
double that of small units.
• Quiet operation in occupied areas.- No compressors in air handling
equipment.
• Excellent control of indoor environment- because the water flow can
be varied, load control is easily managed.
• Extendable- If the chiller plant has sufficient capacity, pipe work can
be extended and air handling equipment can be added .
Ice Storage Plants 4.8
The purpose of an ice storage plant is to “shift” the electrical
demand by building ice on coils and in tanks during off
peak periods and melt the ice during high demand periods.
Ice storage plants can be utilized as add-on systems with DX
plant or integrated into chilled water plants.
Full storage or partial storage plants are currently available.
The capital costs of these plants are high and extensive life
cycle costing needs to be performed to establish its
feasibility on a project.
HVAC
PART 2.7.5 : Central air conditioning

installations (New)
HVAC
ALL AIR SYSTEMS

Central Air Conditioning Installations : (All
Air Type)
Introduction
It is important to understand the different
approaches to air conditioning services and
its implementation and application in new
and existing buildings.
Air Type)
The following major equipment and systems forms the basis of any all air
central air conditioning plant:
1. An air handling plant that can filter, cool or heat a reticulating air
stream. It must also be equipped with a fresh air intake. This plant is
usually fitted with a DX coil, but it can also be a chilled water coil.
2. A set of ducting that distributes and returns the air back to the air
handling plant.
3. A set of diffusers or air grilles that distribute and returns the air back
to the plant.
4. Sound attenuators in the supply air ducting for noise dampening.
5. Fire dampers where ducting passes through fire walls and floor slabs.
Central Air Conditioning Installations : (All Air
Type)
Advantages
1. Fresh air can be introduced centrally.
2. Full outside air can be used during marginal weather
which saves in operating costs.
3. Quite operation
4. Centralized maintenance
5. Low initial cost
Air Type)
Disadvantages
1. A single zone air conditioning system, servicing different
rooms will not provide satisfactory temperature control
unless the different rooms have the same load profile in
magnitude and in time of day, and more sophisticated
systems must be used in such cases.
2. The air conditioning in different rooms cannot be
switched off independently.
Air Type)
7.4 A) Single zone variable temperature system
1. This type of system only serves one zone in a building. It is best
suited for a large space with a uniform heat load pattern such as
a large shop in a shopping mall, an auditorium, a bioscope
theatre, laboratory, hospital intensive care room etc.
2. A single zone air conditioning system can also be used for an
internal zone in a building which has similar internal load
patterns, or a row of offices on the same external façade.
3. A master thermostat, sensing return air temperature usually
controls the cooling and heating output in the air handling unit.
If required, terminal re-heaters can be installed at strategic
locations in the ducting to “trim” room air temperature if
needed, but this type of control waste energy.
Air Handling Unit
Vertical Floor standing air cooled unit
Roof top Package
Roof top package plant
Central Air Conditioning Installations : (All Air Type)
7.5 B) Variable Air volume system. (VAV)

This is a very popular system for larger applications where
rooms with different load patterns needs to be serviced by
one plant.
The main difference between a VAV system and a single
zone variable temperature system is that in a VAV system
the supply air temperature is kept constant and the amount
of air delivered to the room changed according to the load.
There are many variations that can be applied to this
system but it falls outside the scope of this lecture. The
operation and control of such a system can get
complicated.
Type)
Such a system consists of an air handling plant connected to a single duct
which supply air to special VAV diffusers in the rooms.
Each room has its own thermostat that controls air volume delivery
according to the load.
Rooms located internally and those who are facing the outside should be
serviced by separate systems for ease of load control and operational
economics.
Two types of VAV systems are available namely a high pressure, more
noisy type, requiring a lower ceiling void and a low pressure type
which is better suited for offices because it operates quieter.
Type)
7.4.3; 7.5.1 C) Other Types

Two other type of all air central plants were installed in
previous years, namely the induction unit system and the
dual duct system.
Since 1980, none of these systems were installed any longer,
mainly because of high capital costs and skills shortages
on the installation, commissioning and operational side.
Also because factory manufactured low cost packaged
plants from the Far East has taken over much of that
market.
HVAC
ALL WATER SYSTEM

Central Air Conditioning Installations : (All water
systems)
7.4.4Fan-coil unit System

The all weather fan coil unit system is well suited for many applications
and in particular to a multi room building without space to
accommodate large ductwork. It is well suited for office buildings,
hotels and hospitals.
Features
• Individual room temperature control.
• Confined room air circulation.
• Under window air distribution (floor standing models).
• Economic operation-can be switched off independently.
• Quiet operation.
systems)
Fan-coil unit System (cont.)
Description
An all water system uses chilled water for cooling and hot water or
electricity for heating.
The fan-coil unit consists of a fan, a chilled water cooling coil, a hot water
heating coil or electrical heater, a filter and an electrical control box all
housed in a sheet metal or similar enclosure.
The fan-coil units commercially available today are available in various
types of which the following are the most common:
• Floor standing type-Mostly suited for installation against the outside
wall.
• Cassette type-for mounting in suspended ceilings.
systems)
Fan-coil unit System (cont.)

• Concealed Type- These are installed above suspended
ceilings with connections for supply and return ductwork.
Fan coil units only circulates the air and cannot introduce
fresh air. Therefore, with every fan coil unit installation, a
separate fresh air plant must also be installed.
A power point and drainage connection must be available at
every fan-coil unit.
HVAC
New MULTI SPLIT SYSTEM

Central Air Conditioning Installations : (Multi
split type)
Variable refrigerant flow System (VRV)
Japanese air conditioning manufacturers pioneered
VRV technology in 1982 and introduced its highly
advanced VRV direct expansion air conditioning
system to the European market place in 1987. Due
to their extraordinary operating efficiency and
design flexibility, VRV systems have made savage
inroads into the traditional central air conditioning
market throughout the world.
split type)
System Components
The basic system consists of a single or a multiple
number of compressor condensing units connected
to a single refrigerant piping system that can
extend for 150 m in length including up to 50 m in
the vertical direction. The outdoor units are neat in
appearance and can be mounted on a concrete
roof.
Central Air Conditioning Installations : (Multi split
type)
Central Air Conditioning Installations : (Multi split
type)
• Multi split air cooled condensing units
split type)
The indoor units consists of a fan for air circulation, a DX
cooling/heating coil, a filter and electrical and electronic
switchgear and controls.
The following configurations of indoor units are available:
• Floor standing
• Mid wall
• Under ceiling
• Cassette
• Concealed ducted
split type)
System Features
• Quiet operation
• Flexible
• Extremely economical to operate.
• Sophisticated
• Individual room temperature control.
• Confined room air circulation.
• Can be switched off independently.
split type)
System Features
• No chillers or heating plant required.
• Integrated sophisticated control, maintenance management
and fault diagnostic system.
• Maintenance costs are low.
• Installation time is short
• Installation work un-complicated. (All sub-systems are
pre-assembled.)
• Very suitable for building upgrading and in multi room
buildings without space to accommodate large ductwork. It
is well suited for office buildings, hotels and hospitals.
split type)
Disadvantages:
• The indoor units cannot bring in fresh air
and a separate fresh air system must be
provided.
• An electrical connection and drain point
must be available at every indoor unit.
• It is an all imported system and capital costs
can be high.
HVAC
4.9 P.26 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

PLANT
EVAPORATIVE COOLING PLANT
In a direct evaporative cooling plant air flows through a

wetted surface or deck. As it flows, it allows water to
evaporates from the deck which then cool the air to almost
its saturation point.
The leaving air temperature is dependant upon the wet bulb
temperature of the air and the efficiency of the deck. The
web bulb temperature of the air is lower where the relative
humidity is lower. In places like the East and South
coastal areas of Southern Africa the traditional evaporative
cooling unit will not be effective.
An improvement to the direct evaporative

cooler is the indirect-direct cooler in which
the temperature of the air is firstly lowered
by passing it through a cooling coil, before
it flows through the direct section. The
quality of the air from this type of unit is
lower in terms of its dry-and wet bulb
temperature.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
Low intial costs Required large ductwork
Low operating costs Difficult to control
Bulky
Noisy
High water usage
Frequent cleaning required
Limited opportunities to implement.
Requires an air escape route.
HVAC
DUCTING AND TERMINAL

EQUPMENT
DUCTING, ACCESSORIES AND TERMINAL
EQUPMENT
New Ducting
Ducting is manufactured from galvanized sheet metal. The
thickness of the material used depends on the duct size and
air pressure inside the ducting and range from 0.6 mm to
1.6 mm for very large ducting.
Ducting can either be rectangular or round. Round ducting is
cheaper and quicker to install and is well suited for areas
with high roofs with no suspended ceilings such as
warehouses and some large shops.
EQUPMENT
Ducting
Rectangular ducting is otherwise preferred because it
can be sized to suit the available space.
For sound attenuation purposes rectangular ducting
is internally insulated with 25 mm canvass
covered fibreglass insulation. Which is more
expensive than insulating the ducting externally.
EQUPMENT
It is not standard practice to insulate round ducting

internally.
External insulation consists of foil backed, glass
fibre insulation that is wrapped and seal around
ducting. The reflective foil reduce heat flow into
the duct, caused by radiation.
EQUPMENT
Flexible insulated ducting is used to connect

diffusers and grills to ducting, but sometimes
grilles are still connected rigidly to reduce
installation costs.
EQUPMENT
•Ceiling air diffusers
Ceiling mounted linear
grilles
EQUPMENT
Side wall Grilles

EQUPMENT
Floor grilles
Weather louver
Sound Attenuators
Fire Damper
MECHANICAL BUILDING
SERVICES
THE END

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MECHANICAL BUILDING

•It is also important that the Architect understands the

PART 2.1 : General

1. An acceptable indoor temperature,

The supply and installation of air condition and

1.3 p.4 Ventilation

PART 2.2: Load Estimate

The room latent load is the amount of energy

PART 2.3 : Comfort

Thermal comfort is that condition of mind which

Conditions that provide thermal comfort (ASHRAE Standard

Activity Office Office

Air speed (m/s) < 0.20 < 0.20

Relative Humidity (%) 40-55 40-55

PART 2.4 : Design Conditions

The air conditioning engineer must design a plant

Dining and entertainment centers 21 to 23

Hotel guest rooms 23 to 26

PART 2.5 : Theory of Refrigeration

Small air con units, refrigerators, water Little or no maintenance-replace when

Small air con units, refrigerators, water Little or no maintenance-replace when

SCREW water chillers up to 1500 kW Uncomplicated-little maintenance required.

Complicated- Expensive to repair when

The next component in this refrigeration cycle diagram is the condenser.

Condensers are either water or air cooled. In commercial air

The condenser is made up of a coil and fan

Schematic Refrigeration Diagram

PART 2.6 : Theory of Heating

Behaviour of heated air

Heating as part of the HVAC installation

2. Hot water 5.3

4. Mechanical with Heat Pumps 4.3 P 22

These are electrically operated, floor

PART 2.7 : Air Conditioning

PART 2.7.1: Small Systems-Air

The following is a list of some of the more

Outdoor units (Condensing Units)

6. The outdoor unit must be installed in a

9. Maintenance of small units revolves around :

Small Rooms (with the longest

Large rooms Cassette Unit(s)

Low noise applications Mid wall split

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Console Unit Low capital Cost Noisy

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Higher Installation costs

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Drain pipe hidden above More difficult to install with

PART 2.7.2: Small Systems-Water

PART 2.7.3: Condenser water

PART 2.7.4: Chilled water systems 4.6

Requires less space for

PART 2.7.5 : Central air conditioning

ALL AIR SYSTEMS

7.5 B) Variable Air volume system. (VAV)

7.4.3; 7.5.1 C) Other Types

ALL WATER SYSTEM

7.4.4Fan-coil unit System

Fan-coil unit System (cont.)

New MULTI SPLIT SYSTEM

4.9 P.26 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

In a direct evaporative cooling plant air flows through a

An improvement to the direct evaporative

Literature Mechanical Unit 10 & 11

Literature Mechanical Unit 10 & 11