Module No.

: 2
Lesson No.: 635
Title: MECHANICAL SYSTEM
Reporter/s: Omair Cabugatan
Andrea Jean Cantillo
Ladylace May G. Claba

Definition of terms:
● Axial flow fans –are the type of compressor, which produces airflow parallel
to the axis, thus the name. These fans are equipped with impellers, which
suck the air in and discharge in the same direction of the axis.
● Centrifugal fans –are robust, typically drum-shaped devices used to
provide a high-pressure flow of air for cooling, ventilation and other uses.
Commonly known as blowers.
● Ductwork –refers to the system of ducts (metal or synthetic tubes) used to
transport air from heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)
equipment throughout your home.
● Fume hood –is a ventilated, enclosed work space intended to capture,
contain, and exhaust harmful or dangerous fumes, vapors, and particulate
matter generated by procedures conducted within the fume hood.
● Horsepower –refers to the power an engine produces. The horsepower
metric defines the work done by a force of 550 pounds acting through one
foot in one second.

● HVAC System –stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. It

refers to the systems that regulate and move heated and cooled air
throughout residential and commercial buildings, from homes to offices to
indoor stadiums.

● Hydronic System –uses water or stream, heated by a boiler, to heat your

home.

● Mechanical systems -exist to provide an environment that protects the

building structure, creates safe and healthy surroundings for the
 occupants, and allows equipment that is housed within the facility to
operate properly.

● Polyvinyl Chloride – (PVC or Vinyl) is a high-strength thermoplastic

material. It is widely used in applications such as pipes, medical devices,
and wire and cable insulation.

● Zone Thermostat –an HVAC zoning system makes each room the ideal
temperature based on your individual preferences.

Keywords: axial flow fans, Centrifugal fans, Ductwork, Fume hood, Horsepower,
HVAC System, Hydronic System, Mechanical systems, Polyvinyl Chloride, Zone
Thermostat.

Introduction:

Mechanical system. Any building service using machines. They include plumbing,
elevators, escalators, and heating and air-conditioning systems. The introduction
of mechanization in buildings in the early 20th century brought about major
adjustments; the new equipment demanded floor space, and the design team
began to include electrical and HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning)
engineers. Heating and cooling changed dramatically. Modern buildings, with their
large heat gains, turned central heating into little more than a supplement. Heat
removal is a much more serious burden, especially in warm weather. The roofs of
high-rises are occupied by cooling towers and mechanical penthouses; entire
floors are often dedicated to the containment of blowers, compressors, water
chillers, boilers, pumps, and generators.
The purpose of mechanical systems is to safeguard the building's structure, give
its occupants a safe and healthy atmosphere, and enable the equipment stored
within to function as intended. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems is an understanding of the needs that the systems are designed to
address. These needs include, for example, building material response to high
humidity or freezing conditions, human thermal comfort, and the impact of
environmental conditions on teaching or research equipment.

Title 1: BASIC TYPE OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM

1. TRANSLATIONAL (Linear Motion)

2. ROTATIONAL (Rotational Motion)

Title 2: Design and Budget Considerations
Building Functions
The mechanical systems should “fit” the building’s functional use patterns, or
architectural program, as it is often referred to during the architectural design
phase of the building. Systems, or parts thereof, should operate only as needed. It
is important that special conditions (e.g., fume hoods, computer facilities, clean
rooms, animal rooms) be understood early in the design process. Selection,
installation design, and operating needs will be dictated by codes, standards, and
common practices for these types of special needs and will require a balance
between mandates and user desires. Proper selection of HVAC equipment for the
architectural program is important so that environmental conditions can be met
for these special needs. Certain system designs are not able to provide accurate
humidity control or hold tight tolerances, or have other limitations.
Decisions often are short-term and primarily cost-oriented, to the detriment of
future operational and maintenance costs. Early budget planning must
incorporate planning for appropriate mechanical systems
Designing for future enhancements can often be done at little or no extra cost
when funds are not available for the desired system. When faced with critical
choices between what is desired and budget restrictions, life cycle cost analysis
can often prove that the desired system will have a short payback period, thereby
justifying reevaluation of the budget based on the savings over the life of the
building. Budget planning should never compromise the design of critical medical,
research, or similar facilities for which appropriate environmental control is
essential.
Title 3: System Zoning
Zoning of building mechanical systems can be defined as providing for specific
areas or zones that will have individual control of the space environment. This
control can be accomplished by having a separate system for each zone, or a large
system capable of providing specific areas with separate control. A building can
have several separate systems that are able to provide additional zoning to specific
areas within the gross area served by each separate system. This is probably the
most common arrangement.
BASIC ZONES
The basic building zones are determined by the impact of weather on the building.
The primary factor, of course, is the solar effect on each exposure as the sun’s
rays hit different parts of the building throughout day and change elevation
throughout the seasons. In some parts of the United States, the peak cooling
demand for southern exposures may occur in the fall, while northern exposures
may require heating at the same time. Appropriate design can accommodate
off-season cooling. The interior zones are not affected by the weather except for the
roof, and therefore the interior zones can also be separate.
A typical building might have a perimeter zone on each of the four sides and an
interior zone.

FUNCTIONAL ZONES
These zones are created to serve such diverse areas as offices, classrooms,
auditoriums, common areas, and computer rooms. If individual spaces have the
same exterior exposure or interior zone function, they can be combined into a
larger functional zone. Sometimes, as a result of budget concerns, spaces are
grouped together and provided with one environmental control point. This
cost-cutting approach should be avoided.
Individual spaces within a zone cannot have temperature, humidity, air purity, or
hours of operation requirements that are significantly different from the remainder
of the zone unless the entire zone is upgraded to that level. Most often spaces have
one or more significant differences, so they cannot be controlled from one control
point.

TIME ZONES
The best building mechanical system arrangement, within reasonable limits, is to
have separate systems for separate building functions. A common building type on
a campus is one that contains offices, classrooms, auditoriums, and, occasionally,
food service. These functions can have different hours of operation, including
nighttime, weekends, and vacation periods.
For example, quite often these functions can be divided into three time zones of
operation: those that operate from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (i.e., offices), those that
operate from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m. (i.e., classrooms), and those that operate 24
hours per day, 7 days per week (i.e., research laboratories). System selection and
design should take these time zones into account. In general, it will be life cycle
cost-effective to add a small separate system for that one function. Terminal direct
digital control now allows occupancy sensors to be tied to the heating and cooling
system along with the lighting system, bringing the heating and cooling system up
from minimum to occupancy requirements when people enter the space.

Title 4: Mechanical Distribution Systems

Piping System Components
The design of piping systems for heating and cooling of buildings has evolved into
five or six major systems, a few minor and little-used systems, and combinations
of the various systems depending on the types of building and the HVAC systems
installed. Prior to the development of air conditioning, piping systems were used
for heat only and were limited to hot water heating or steam heating. Many times
the choice of piping systems was dictated strictly by economics. On other
occasions the actual physical construction of the building determined whether
water or steam was used for heating.
A wide variety of piping systems are applicable to heating and cooling systems
within buildings. The final selection generally is a function of whether the system
is heating, cooling, or both, and the construction budget for the facility.
Excessively elaborate piping systems are not necessarily the best choice, as they
offer more opportunities for improper operation, which results in higher energy
consumption and the very discomfort that they are intended to avoid. This is
particularly true where interconnections exist between heating and cooling
systems.

One-Pipe System
The success of a single-pipe system depends on the use of mono-flow fittings,
specially designed T-fittings to divert the water from the main into the radiator
and then back into the same main. As the water passes through the radiator, it is
cooled and reintroduced into the main, which lowers the supply water temperature
to the next radiator. Each successive radiator must have its size increased because
of the lower supply water temperature. One-pipe systems are not recommended for
cooling.

Two-Pipe System
A two-pipe system is the most common for heating and cooling. It has a supply
main and a return main, with pipe sizes that vary based on the water flow within
each portion of the system. Two-pipe systems can be divided into two categories:
direct return and reverse return.

DIRECT RETURN

In the direct return system, the first connection to the supply main is the first
connection to the return and therefore has the shortest travel. The water can
short-circuit through the first heating or cooling device, affecting the flow through
the other devices unless the system is carefully balanced, and the balance can be
lost if the balancing valve is closed and not opened to the previous setting. The
system can also be affected by a change in one of the heating and cooling devices,
which would cause a pressure loss different from the previously installed device,
when the system was initially balanced. Direct return systems are used quite often
because of the economics of installation but are not recommended if a reverse
return arrangement can be installed.
REVERSE RETRUN

Reverse return systems result in equal water travel for all the heating or cooling
devices. The first connection to the supply main is also the last connection to the
return main. The water traveling through any device essentially has an
equal-length path; therefore, all have an equal path, and the system tends to be
self-balancing.
It is not unusual to have combinations of reverse and direct return. In some
high-rise buildings, the horizontal main around the perimeter of the building can
be installed in reverse return, and the vertical risers to spaces can be direct
return.

Three-Pipe System
Three-pipe systems were developed in the 1950s, when energy was inexpensive.
They have a chilled water supply main, a hot water supply main, and a common
return. Both the heating and the cooling devices discharge the water into the
common return main, mixing hot and cool water. Through a complicated system of
controls, the system directs the flow of water back to one of the supply mains. The
system can provide heating and cooling simultaneously; however, the control of
water temperature is not accurate, and energy is wasted. This system should not
be used.
Four-Pipe System
A four-pipe system is simply the use of two two-pipe systems, one for heating and
one for cooling. The need for such a system is based on the need to have cooling
and heating available simultaneously. Each heating and cooling device has four
pipes connected, a supply and a return for both the hot and chilled water. The
equipment can have a heating coil and a cooling coil, or a single coil with an
arrangement of valves that permit either cool or hot water to flow to the coil.
One problem with this system is that often valves do not seat properly, causing
leakage, and significant amounts of energy can be wasted if the four pipes are
connected to a common coil wherein the heating water and cooling water become
mixed. In four-pipe systems, it is advisable to have additional control valves to
isolate a heating or cooling zone. Leaking coil valves would not have as much
impact, because the zone supply is cut off. A good compromise in many buildings
is to have a combination of four-pipe and two-pipe systems.
A four-pipe system is more costly and should be investigated carefully. Some
buildings require chilled water year-round because of computer operations or
similar functions. This dictates that the chilled water system be separate from the
hot water heating system.

Title 5: Primary/Secondary Systems

Piping systems in themselves generally are operated with a single pumping source.
The pumping source may be one or more pumps operating in parallel. These are
referred to as primary pumping systems. Under certain conditions, it is
advantageous to have what is called primary/secondary pumping systems. The
main advantage of this system can be found in the ability to provide better control
over the flow of water and the pressures required in the various sections of the
system. The primary system essentially becomes a reservoir of either cold or hot
water, circulating the water throughout a loop to which all of the secondary
systems are connected.
The secondary pumping system can serve a single air-handling unit, a group of
air-handling units, or an entire building. Primary and secondary pumping systems
can be used to great advantage in a central chilled water plant. Some
professionals, however, would not choose a primary/secondary distribution
system because of the imbalance that can be caused by the individual pump
pressure added to the secondary system. In an improperly designed or operated
primary/secondary system, it is possible for the return water pressure in the
primary return main to become higher than the supply water pressure and
actually reverse the flow of water through a building and back into the primary
supply main, or restrict the water’s ability to have adequate flow.
Primary/secondary designs need to be done very carefully, with a full
understanding of pressure separation.

Steam Piping Systems

Steam is rarely used for heating modern buildings. Water systems can be designed
to handle both chilled and hot water, and a water piping system is easier to install.
Steam systems can be divided into low-pressure and high-pressure systems,
which are similar in their operation. Low-pressure systems can be further divided
into gravity return, pumped return, and vacuum return systems.

One-Pipe Gravity System

In a one-pipe gravity return system, the supply main also functions as a return.
The supply main rises from the boiler to the point of entry into the heating system
and from there pitches downward back to the boiler. The radiators are connected
by a single pipe to the main. The steam flow is upward in the connection to the
radiation; the condensate flows out the bottom of the radiator opening, down into
the same pipe, and back into the main. One-pipe systems exist in some older
homes that have been acquired by universities and other institutions.

Two-Pipe Gravity System

A two-pipe gravity system is similar to the one-pipe system. It is more flexible in
that the return and the supply are separate, so less water hammer noise potential
exists in the supply main. The supply main can be run in a different location than
the return.

Two-Pipe Pumped Return System

A two-pipe pumped condensate return system is similar to the two-pipe gravity
system except that the water is returned to the boiler by a pump. The radiation
devices can be below the water level of the boiler or in any location. The
condensate is always drained to a condensate receiver connected to a pump. This
receiver is placed at the low point in the system, which can be well below the
location of the boiler and quite remote. This is the most common type of steam
heating system currently in use.
Vacuum Return System
In the vacuum return system, the condensate return has a specially designed
pump capable of creating a vacuum on the return line. By varying the pressure in
the system, it is possible to have steam at temperatures considerably below the
traditional 212°F. The steam pressure can be modulated; this is turn modulates
the temperature in much the same manner as the water temperature of a heating
system.
A vacuum system requires a tight piping system. If the system has leaks, the
pumping becomes excessive and the energy costs increase. These systems are rare
today.

Piping Materials
The most widely used materials for piping systems are copper and steel. Steel pipe
up to 2 inches in diameter is generally threaded; pipe of larger diameters is
welded. Copper pipe is generally fabricated with soldered systems throughout,
except at valves and connections to equipment. Generally, the selection of
materials is based on the initial cost of the installation.
Whenever dissimilar metals such as copper and steel are connected, they require
proper isolation connections to avoid electrolytic corrosion between different
materials in piping systems or between the piping system and connected
equipment.
Plastic piping systems are widely used in the renovation of buildings because of
the ease of handling and fabrication. Standards have been established for all types
of plastic piping to ensure appropriate strength and quality for the intended use.
Plastic systems offer the advantage of relatively low fabrication costs. If hot water
is to be involved, selection of material and the support are extremely important.
Problems will develop if the plastic pipe is not supported in strict accordance with
the manufacturer’s recommendations for the operating temperature. Non
pigmented polypropylene piping is often specified for deionized (DI) water systems,
as DI water is very corrosive.

Pumps
Pumps are used to move liquid through the piping systems. Pumps are classified
into two types: positive displacement and non-positive displacement. The positive
displacement pump normally is a reciprocating type that creates lift and pressure
through the positive displacement of liquid from the piston chamber. The only
limits on liquid movement are in the structural integrity of the plumbing system.
Another type of positive displacement pump is the rotary type, which uses cams or
lobes that rotate together to force liquid movement.
Non-positive displacement pumps are usually of the centrifugal type and are the
most commonly used type of pump in HVAC applications. In these types of pumps,
the liquid is moved through the centrifugal force that is created by a rotating
spiral-shaped element called the impeller. These types of pumps do not develop
unlimited pressure and thus must be properly sized to ensure that proper
pressures can be obtained at the desired flow rates. This type of pump is simple in
design, has low initial cost, is easy to maintain, and is fairly quiet and vibration
free. Centrifugal pumps are normally driven by a constant-speed electric motor
and may be in-line, close-coupled, or base-mounted, though they are often used in
variable pumping systems as well.
In-line pumps are normally used with fractional horsepower (hp) motors up to 1
hp, and close-coupled (direct drive) pumps are normally used with to 40 hp
motors. Base-mounted pumps are also used with smaller motors, up to the largest
needed.
In all cases, the net positive suction head (NPSH) must also be considered, as the
“vacuum” created on the inlet side of a pump must be high enough to draw the
fluid into the pump.

Air Elimination
Even in a system that is manually vented, air is present because no hydronic
system is completely water tight. As the system operates, water constantly
evaporates through valve stem packing, gaskets, mechanical seals, tiny fissures in
the pipes and fittings, and dozens of other places. And when water leaves a
hydronic system, it must be made up with fresh feed water. Fresh water contains
air and more air means more problems. It is an endless cycle.
The symptoms of air in a hydronic system include:
• Reduced heat transfer efficiency. Air is an insulator and decreases the
ability of the circulating fluid to properly transport thermal energy
throughout the system.
• Inadequate building comfort
• Piping, boiler, and chiller corrosion damage (and eventual failure)
• Circulator cavitation (with its accompanying noise and devastating effects
on the circulator)
• Reduced pump head, water flow, and heat transfer
• Accumulation of corrosion particulate such as rust and pipe scale
• Annoying noises throughout the system (“pinging” and “waterfall” sounds)
• Increased maintenance costs
 • Premature boiler, chiller, pump, valve, heat exchanger and component
failures
Air in hydronic systems can be classified into three types:
• Free air: Large free air bubbles that float along the tops of the pipes and/or
collects in high points
• Entrained air: Tiny air bubbles that travel at the same speed and follow the
same path as the fluid
• Dissolved air: Air that is present but not visible. The amount of air in this
state largely depends on temperature and pressure as dictated by Henry’s
Law and as shown in the following Solubility of Air in Water chart:

Title 6: Types of Air Removal Devices

Types of Air Removal Devices
Manual or automatic air vents are used to address free air which rises up to the
high points throughout a system. Their primary function is to purge free air when
filling the system.
Scoop-type air separators utilizes a straight in-line passage and a dome-shaped
chamber on top of the unit to create a velocity change and slight pressure drop. As
a result, the free air bubbles are able to separate from the flow and follow the
dome up to the vent where they are released from the system.
Centrifugal air separators rely on centrifugal force to separate and release air from
the system fluid. The larger free air bubbles are released to a low-pressure vortex
in the center and expected to rise to the top.
Coalescing air and dirt eliminators, with straight in-line flow passage and a
coalescing medium, provide three critical functions to efficiently remove air:
• Reduce the velocity of the water flow.
• Suppress the turbulence.
• Give the bubbles something to collide into and adhere to.
• As a result, coalescing air eliminators are the only air eliminators capable of
eliminating free, entrained and dissolved air.
Combination air and dirt eliminators are capable of removing both air and dirt
particulate from the system which increases over system thermal distribution
efficiency.

Thermal Distribution Efficiency

Considerable efficiency improvements have been made in generating the hot and
chilled water for building comfort systems, such as high efficiency boilers and
chillers, variable speed pumps, etc. Yet, many designs and specifications still
detail traditional style centrifugal separators which have been around for more
than fifty years. By not fully addressing the air and dirt problems in the system
fluid, the investment made in high efficiency boilers and chillers is not fully
realized. It is only with a coalescing air and dirt eliminator that addresses free,
entrained and dissolved air, that the highest distribution efficiency is reached.

Location
A coalescing air and dirt eliminator should be installed at the point of lowest
solubility. Based on the principles of Henry’s Law, air naturally comes out of
solution where the temperature is the highest and the pressure is the lowest. In a
heating system that would be after the boiler (high temperature) and before the
circulator (low pressure).
Air elimination is even more important in a chilled-water system than it is in a
hot-water system, because cold water holds more air. Add system pressure and
the percentage increases. Without an air separator, the constant air-water mixture
being pumped will dramatically decrease heat transfer capabilities because air
acts as an insulator.
In a chilled water system the proper location is on the return line (warm
temperature) and before the pump (low pressure).
Valves
Valves are needed for isolation of a system for maintenance or for emergencies.
They must be placed at every piece of equipment. Selection of valve types is also
important. Gate valves can be used for isolation because their initial cost is low
and they perform acceptably. Gate valves should not be used for throttling
because of poor control and rapid deterioration. Globe valves should be used for
throttling but not for isolation because of their high cost.
Butterfly valves are an acceptable alternative to gate valves and in certain
circumstances can be used for modulating control. Ball valves in smaller sizes are
gaining wide acceptance for isolation and balancing. Plug valves have been used
for shutoff and balancing for many years. All hydronic systems require balancing
for proper operation. Balancing valves should be designed for the intended
purpose and should be capable of permanent marking or stopping at the point of
balance.
Valves used for balancing flow should have a mechanical stop-open position so
that the valve can be closed for maintenance work and reopened to the balanced
condition. Typically, balancing valves should not be used as shutoff valves.
Valves also have opening and closing characteristics that affect the operation of
the system. Some valves allow a lot of flow in the first part of the opening
movement, with lesser flow in the latter part of the opening movement. Other
valves have the opposite characteristic, whereas still others have more “linear”
characteristics. The valve characteristic must be properly matched to the device it
is intended to control.
Finally, the pressure drop through the valve, compared to the system it is
controlling, must be properly designed. Over- or undersized valves will cause
operating problems and lack of control of the system.
Title 8: Duct System Components
Duct systems are simple in appearance yet can have a significant impact on the
initial cost and the operating costs of a facility. High-quality ductwork generally
costs more but is a good investment. Poor-quality ductwork generally results in
high operating costs because of leakage. Ductwork systems are divided into
high-pressure/high-velocity and low-pressure/ low-velocity systems.
The generally accepted standards for ductwork construction have been established
by the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) and ASHRAE. Currently, the SMACNA standards have more than one
classification based on the system air pressure. Duct construction standards do
not specifically address the subject of air distribution design. Instead, they set
standards for the quality of construction of the duct system relative to structural
integrity and potential leakage.
The lower the air velocity and pressure, the more economically the air distribution
system will operate. A low-velocity system requires more space for installation and
possibly higher initial cost but, because of lower operating costs, is the most
economical on a life cycle cost basis. The traditional high-velocity system is
generally unacceptable by current energy conservation standards.

High-Velocity/High-Pressure Systems
The velocity and pressures involved in a high-velocity/high-pressure system can
be as high as 5,000 feet per minute and 8 to 10 inches of water pressure,
compared to 1,000 to 2,000 feet per minute and 3 to 4 inches for a
low-velocity/low-pressure system. The horsepower requirements for a
high-pressure system are approximately 300 percent greater than those for the
low-velocity system. The duct system requires relatively high-quality construction
to eliminate air leakage and to limit noise levels. A majority of the ductwork is
spiral, machine fabricated, and essentially airtight. Fittings are of relatively high
quality and are welded or stamped and formed. Connection between duct and
fittings involves the use of high-quality tapes and sealants. A high-velocity
ductwork system can reduce the cross-sectional area of the required duct by as
much as 60 percent and thus can fit into smaller areas. Some savings may result
by reducing building size, but this is generally offset by the higher operating costs.

Low-Velocity/Low-Pressure Systems
These systems generally consist of rectangular ductwork. Round ductwork is
increasing in popularity because of its low cost, air tightness, ease of installation,
and efficiency. The structural requirements for a low-velocity/low-pressure system
are far less than those for a high-velocity system, and it tends to have far greater
leakage if improperly constructed. All low-velocity ductwork specifications should
be written specifically with regard to leakage. Leakage as high as 25 percent is not
uncommon in poorly built systems, but low-pressure proprietary duct
construction systems are available that limit leakage to as little as 1 percent.
Low-velocity systems generate less noise than high-velocity systems. However,
improper fittings, construction, and design can result in unacceptable noise levels.

Duct Material
Currently, the most widely used material for ductwork is galvanized sheet metal.
The gauges and construction methods for galvanized sheet metal have been well
established by ASHRAE and SMACNA.

Fiberglass Ductwork
Proprietary systems involving fiberglass boards can be formed into acceptable
ductwork systems. These systems should be limited to areas where the duct is not
exposed to damage from impact. The system must be carefully designed relative to
the air pressures involved.
Some of the early fiberglass duct systems experienced failure of the materials and
adhesives used to form connections between duct sections and fittings. This
problem has been recognized by the industry and apparently solved, although the
history of success of the materials used in a fiberglass system should be checked.
A fiberglass system offers relatively moderate initial cost, low fan horsepower
requirements, and quiet operation.

Flexible Ductwork
Flexible ductwork, insulated or noninsulated, has been available for many years.
Although it offers lower initial cost, its main advantage is that it can be fitted into
tight spaces. The potential for increasing fan horsepower as a result of high
resistance or improper installation must be recognized. A sharp turn in a flexible
duct can result in excessive pressure loss and reduced flow to the space, as well
as excessive noise. Flexible ducts should be limited in length to no more than 4
feet, and should be installed in a relatively straight route.

Flexible Connectors
Flexible ductwork must meet the requirements of NFPA standards for ductwork. A
flexible connector does not meet the ductwork standard but meets the NFPA
requirements for the final connection between an air distribution system and an
air outlet device or piece of equipment. The length of these connectors is strictly
limited by code. An attempt to use this material for ductwork can result in
rejection of the system and expensive changes, in addition to reducing the life
safety of the installation.

Lined Ductwork
Ductwork has been lined for many years to reduce noise levels and to provide
insulation. Generally, lined ductwork is cheaper than ductwork with insulation
applied to the outer surface. Lined ductwork imposes a modest fan horsepower
penalty. This can be overcome by increasing the duct size, although this increases
the initial cost. Lined ductwork is particularly applicable in mechanical spaces
and other areas where exposed insulation would be subject to damage. It cannot
be used in facilities or operations where the liner fibers can be entrained in the air
delivered to the space, such as in critical medical facilities. With increasing
concern for indoor air quality, lined ductwork should be considered carefully
before specifying its use.
Special Ductwork
Many systems require special ductwork because of the nature of the material
conveyed. This can include moisture; corrosive fumes; and air laden with grease,
dirt, and dust. Corrosion-resistant ductwork is used in removal of moisture or
chemical fumes from laboratory hoods and maintenance cleaning operations.
Stainless steel solves many problems, but it can fail rapidly in certain
atmospheres. Polyvinyl chloride and similar materials are used for laboratories.
Aluminum can be used in systems where moisture is removed and chlorine
content is not excessive.
Any system involving the transportation of fumes and dirty or corrosive
atmospheres should have the material specifications carefully verified against
codes and industry standards. Food service exhaust ducts must comply with
NFPA recommendations and local codes. Radioactive and perchloric acid fume
hoods require a wash-down process and should be constructed with stainless steel
ductwork. See the further discussion on these types of fume hoods.

Return Air Plenums

Return air ductwork is frequently eliminated and the ceiling space used for return
air. Life safety codes specify the required materials of construction for the plenum.
Ceiling return air plenums and return air shafts operate successfully and greatly
reduce the cost of ductwork. A return air plenum that is not appropriately
constructed can greatly increase energy costs because of infiltration of outside air
or air from noncooled or heated spaces. It must be recognized that the plenum is
under a slight negative pressure and therefore must meet the construction
standard for air tightness of a ductwork system. All too often the exterior fascia of
a building serves as the outer boundary of the plenum and is poorly constructed
for such a service. These designs should be carefully checked and the construction
monitored.

Fans
Fans are used to move air through ductwork systems. They work similarly to
centrifugal pumps in that a rotating element is used to impart energy to the air to
create air movement and pressure. Fans and compressors are really the same
device, except that fans usually operate at lower pressures. Fans can be divided
into two types: centrifugal or radial flow, and axial flow. Centrifugal fans transmit
their energy to the air by rotating an impeller that moves the air in a radial fashion
from the axle, while axial flow fans move air parallel to the axle of the fan.
Title 7: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Systems
The following discussion covers the basic types of air conditioning systems used in
buildings. The entire mechanical system for a building may include several of the
systems outlined below, creating an infinite variety of combinations within a
building. These variations are often dictated by the differences in requirements for
temperature and humidity control for the different functions housed.

All-Air Systems
All-air systems have the heating and cooling equipment, including coils, fans, and
filters, at a central point such as a mechanical room, with the conditioned air
transported to the spaces by a ductwork system. The heating and cooling media
required are connected to the central air unit and are not distributed throughout
the spaces. Some of the advantages of all-air systems are as follows:
• Centralized location of equipment consolidates maintenance and operations
• The ability to cool with outside air by incorporating a fresh air or economizer
cycle, which provides free cooling to all spaces during mild weather and to
interior spaces in the winter
• A wide choice of zones
• A convenient means of humidity control
• Return air or exhaust fans that are often incorporated into air systems to
provide improved control of air circulation and building pressurization. On
large systems, return air fans are a distinct advantage in preventing doors
from being blown open or being hard to open. They can also help control
“stack effect” in high-rise buildings.

Single-Zone Systems
The single-zone system is the most fundamental type of air conditioning system. It
operates successfully only if all the spaces included in the zone have similar
exposures to exterior weather conditions and similar space occupancies and
operations. A single-zone system contains all the elements necessary to provide
the environmental conditions for the space, including cooling and heating coils,
filters, fans, and controls. Figure 18 shows the basic elements of a single-zone
system. The fan draws air through the coils, and therefore the system is called a
“draw-through” system

Multi-zone Systems
Multi zone Systems
In the air conditioning industry, the phrase “multi-zone system” refers to an
air-handling unit that is specifically designed to provide multiple areas throughout
a building with individual space temperature control simultaneously. The basic
unit has the usual air conditioning components found in a single-zone system,
including the heating and cooling coils, filters, fresh and return air dampers, and
controls. Figure 19 illustrates a typical multi zone unit.

Reheat Systems
A reheat system is a variation of an all-air system. A heating coil is installed
directly in the duct serving each zone. The central fan system supplies air to all of
the zones at a constant temperature, adequate for cooling any space in the zone.
Those spaces not requiring the low-temperature air have a space thermostat that
will actuate the heating coil to raise the air temperature to the point required to
prevent overcooling. The heating coil can be steam, hot water, recovered heat, or
electric. In addition to controlling space temperature, reheat systems are used
where close humidity control of the space is required. A space humidity controller
cools the air to the point where condensation occurs and the air is sufficiently
dried. The air is then reheated to the appropriate delivery temperature.

Dual-Duct Systems
A dual-duct, constant-volume system is flexible in accommodating building
modifications and easily achieves balanced airflow and maintains desired
temperatures in the individual zones. Historically, dual-duct systems have been
high velocity and high pressure, and used unusually high fan horsepower,
contributing to their inefficiency. In later years, dual-duct systems have been
medium pressure or low pressure, thereby greatly reducing the horsepower
requirements.
A dual-duct system is basically arranged in the same manner as a multizone
system. The major difference is that instead of single ducts being extended from
the air-handling unit to individual zones, the hot deck and the cold deck are each
connected to separate ducts, and the two ducts are extended to each zone.
 DUAL DUCT

MODIFIED DUAL DUCT

Variable Air Volume Systems

There are two ways to control the temperature of a space. One is to deliver a
constant volume of air and vary the supply air temperature. The second is to
deliver air at a constant temperature and vary the quantity of air. This latter
method is called a variable air volume (VAV) system. VAV technology was available
for many years prior to the 1973 oil embargo, but was little used because of its
more critical design requirements for successful operation and the availability of
cheap energy. As a result, the technology was not highly developed. With energy
cost increases, the system has become more popular, and the technology has
improved significantly.
The advantage of VAV is that the power requirements to move air vary as the cube
law. Thus, if you need to move only half of the amount of air under low load
conditions, the fan power required is reduced to 1/8 [(1/2)3=1/8]. Since heating
and cooling systems often run at lower load requirements, the savings in fan
power can be significant.
The basic VAV system is a single-duct, cooling-only system. Heat is supplied to the
space at the zone level. This can consist of fin tube radiation on the walls or a
heating coil in the air duct supplying the zone. Figure 23 illustrates the basic VAV
system.

Specialty Air Systems

Heat Recovery
The art of heat recovery is not new and has been practiced in major power plants
and industrial operations for many years. In subarctic climates, the practice has
even been involved in residential ventilation systems for many years. Heat recovery
is not 100 percent efficient, although some systems can achieve energy recovery
levels as high as 80 percent. For many building systems designed prior to the
energy crisis, heat recovery may be the only means for reducing high energy costs.
This is particularly true in buildings that require 100 percent ventilation air, such
as medical and research facilities.

Air-to-Air Heat Recovery

Figure 24 illustrates a typical air-to-air heat recovery system using a heat wheel.
These systems can achieve efficiencies up to 65 percent. They require that the
exhaust and supply air streams be adjacent to each other at the point of heat
recovery. These systems have limited use in highly contaminated air streams
because of the danger of cross-contamination, although there are good
pre-filtering purge units available, and seals eliminate this danger in most cases.
Effectively designed and maintained filtration systems are required for optimum
performance. Air-to-air systems are relatively easy to clean. Properly designed and
installed, they can be very successful.

Heat Pipe/Coil Equipment

Figure 25 illustrates a heat-pipe type of air-to-air recovery. The design is based on
a refrigeration cycle. The tubes in the finned coil contain a refrigerant and a
secondary internal tube with a wick. The opposite ends of the coil are exposed to
makeup air and exhaust air. The high-temperature air causes the refrigerant to
vaporize and flow to the cooler end, where it condenses and gives up the heat. The
liquid refrigerant migrates back to the warm end of the coil via the wick, where it
exits the wick, and the process is repeated. Tilting of the coil can control its
capacity. Heat recovery devices of this sort can achieve recovery efficiencies as
high as 80 percent. These are generally easily maintained systems. They also
require that the makeup air and exhaust air stream be adjacent.
Runaround Systems
Figure 26 illustrates a runaround system for heat recovery. These systems are
applicable where the makeup air and the exhaust air streams are not adjacent.
They are particularly applicable in retrofit applications in existing buildings. The
system simply consists of two coils, one in the exhaust air stream and the other in
the makeup air stream. A piping system, complete with pumps, circulates a heat
transfer medium between the two coils. Control can be achieved by varying the
medium flow or simply cycling the pumps. In cold climates, antifreeze must be
added to the system, although it reduces the efficiency and increases pumping
costs. Such systems can achieve efficiencies as high as 45 percent. Runaround
systems have been applied to energy transfer within buildings involving other than
exhaust and makeup air systems

A simple method of energy recovery involving a typical water-type coil used for air
conditioning can be applied to a laundry or similar operation requiring a large
amount of domestic hot water. The coil is placed in the hot exhaust air stream
from the dryers or irons.

Plate-Type Heat Exchangers

In some operations, it is necessary to transfer heat from one water or air system to
the other while keeping the streams separate. Plate-type heat exchangers meet
this requirement. They are efficient, easily installed, and easily maintained.
However, large sizes are required to avoid high-pressure drops. These systems can
achieve heat transfer efficiencies as high as 70 percent.

Summary:
Mechanical engineering systems are essential for providing a safe and healthy
environment for building occupants and equipment. HVAC systems address specific needs
such as building material response to high humidity or freezing conditions, human
thermal comfort, and the impact of environmental conditions on teaching or research
equipment. Key components of HVAC systems include pumps, piping, fans, chillers, and
cooling towers. Design considerations include building functions, system zoning, basic
zones, functional zones, time zones, and piping systems. Building functions should be
understood early in the design process, and decisions should balance mandates and user
desires. Budget planning should consider future enhancements and life cycle cost
analysis to ensure the desired system has a short payback period. Basic building zones
are determined by weather impacts, while functional zones serve diverse areas like offices,
classrooms, auditoriums, common areas, and computer rooms. Separate systems for
separate building functions are recommended, and terminal direct digital control allows
occupancy sensors to be tied to the heating and cooling system along with the lighting
system.
Piping system components vary depending on the type of building and HVAC
systems installed. The final selection depends on whether the system is heating, cooling,
or both, and the construction budget for the facility. Excessively elaborate piping systems
are not necessarily the best choice, as they offer more opportunities for improper
operation, higher energy consumption, and discomfort. Hot and chilled water piping can
greatly affect the energy required for pumping and the volumes of water to be pumped for
system operation. A well-designed system recognizes the impact of the design on the
pumping and takes advantage of the best features of each system without imposing
undue energy requirements.
References:
https://www.scribd.com/document/526764265/QUANTITY-SURVEYING-MECHANICAL-WORKS
https://www.britannica.com/technology/mechanical-system

https://www.appa.org/bok/building-mechanical-systems/?fbclid=IwAR2Qt0Fs1t8Z7QP2tNW5zDuyS-Ll82gEEN6f
mwH5TOaBjgaaC23s_yjCKqQ

Questions (Multiple Choice):

1. What best describes the Mechanical System?

a. an environmental system
b. provide and environment that protects the building structure
c. both A & B
d. None of the above
2. The following are the design considerations in Mechanical system, EXCEPT?
a. Budget Considerations
b. System Zoning
c. Basic Zoning
d. Time Zones
e. Piping System component
3. It is a type of pipe system that depends on the mono-flow fittings and specially
designed in T-fittings.
a. Three-pipe system
b. Four pipe system
c. One-pipe system
d. Both a & c
e. none of the above
4. It is a type of piping system that can be divided into low-pressure and high
pressure systems, which are similar to its operation.
a. Hot & Chill Piping
b. Primary System
c. Secondary System
d. Steam Piping system
5. A type of system similar to single pipe system. It is more flexible in return and
the supply are seperate, so less water hammer noise potential exist in the supply
main.
a. one pipe system
 b. two-pumped pipe return
c. two pipe gravity system
d. piping materials
6. It is a piping materials used to move liquid through the piping system.
a. Pumps
b. pumps and mechanical system
c. Piping system
d. all of the above
7. Which best describes the High-Velocity/ High-Pressure System.
I. The velocity and pressures involved in a high-velocity/high-pressure system can
be as high as 5,000 feet per minute and 8 to 10 inches of water pressure, compared
to 1,000 to 2,000 feet per minute and 3 to 4 inches for a low-velocity/low-pressure
system.
II. The horsepower requirements for a high-pressure system are approximately 300
percent greater than those for the low-velocity system.
III. These systems generally consist of rectangular ductwork. Round ductwork is
increasing in popularity because of its low cost, air tightness, ease of installation,
and efficiency.
IV. Leakage as high as 25 percent is not uncommon in poorly built systems
V. The duct system requires relatively high-quality construction to eliminate air
leakage and to limit noise levels.
A. i,ii,& iv
B. i,ii, & v
C. i,ii, iii, iv, & v
D. None of the above
8. The most widely used material for ductwork is galvanized sheet metal.
A. Piping materials
B. Duct materials
C. Fiberglass ductwork
D. Flexible ductwork
9. The most fundamental type of air conditioning system. It operates successfully
only if all the spaces included in the zone have similar exposures to exterior
weather conditions and similar space occupancies and operations.
A. Single pipe system
B. Single-pipe Zone
C. Single pumping system
D. All air systems
10. What are the two categories of two-pipe system?
a. Direct & Diverse Return
b. Direct & Reverse Return
 c. Direct and Flowing Return
d. none of the above
1.