Nanosensors: an overview of sensing
principles in nanotechnology
Paola Vega-Castillo
Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica
*Corresponding author:
Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Cartago, CR30101, pvega@itcr.ac.cr
Abstract
Nanosensors are expected to offer a solution for
ultrasensitive sensing at low cost, small size and low power
consumption for physical, chemical and biological
variables. This paper presents a brief overview of sensing
principles in nanotechnology, the advantages and challenges
in implementing nanosensors.
Keywords: sensors, nanotechnology, nanosensors,
sensing principles.
1. Introduction
The high integration density of nanosensors and the ability
for molecular detection makes them an attractive option for
medical, chemical and biological sensing. Chemical
nanosensors may find applications related to security,
environmental and agricultural sensing and food industry.
Sensors can be functionalized to detect a either a specific
analyte or a group of substances with the same functional
group and therefore with similar characteristics.
Due to their small size, an array of sensors can be built in a
small area. By combining sensors with different
functionalization in the same array, complex analytes can be
detected, for example, emulating an electronic nose.
Moreover, advances in nanotechnology may lead to new
sensing principles.
In addition to the advantage of size, nanosensors have the
potential to overcome traditional sensors in the following
aspects:
• Sensibility: an increased output amplitude in response
to the same input magnitude
• Resolution: a smaller change in the input magnitude
required to generate a detectable change in the output
• Selectivity: increased ability to distinguish a specific
agent among a group of agents
• Response time: decrease the sensor´s time constant τ
• Reversibility: increased ability and speed to return to its
original conditions alter a sensing cycle.
Nanosensors offer advantages such as high integration
density, large surface area to volume ratio, high aspect ratio,
fast response, high sensitivity and selectivity, low power
consumption, size compatibility with biological species, and
recovery at room temperature or under heating. Nanosensors
can be based on nanostructured materials such as porous
silicon, nanoparticles, nanosondes, nanowires and
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the latter
commonly based on mechanical deformation or
microfluidics. Among their possible configurations, the
most popular is the nanowire field effect transistor.
However, other configurations also make possible the
implementation of effective nanosensors, such as capacitors.
2. FET nanosensors
In conventional FET sensors, the dielectric is directly
exposed to the analyte instead of fabricating a gate
electrode. When enough analyte molecules deposit on the
dielectric, their charge can either increase or decrease the
transistor current depending on whether the analyte causes
depletion or inversion at the dielectric-substrate interface. In
this approach, the minimum exposed surface required for
sensing may be an issue for scaling down.
On the other hand, a typical nanosensor relies on a nanowire
or nanotube-based field effect transistor, for which
semiconducting nanowires are made of carbon nanotubes,
silicon or other materials.
Figure 1 shows a schematic cross section of a nanosensor
based on nanowires. The nanowire is deposited on a
semiconductive or degenerate [1] substrate, with a thin
insulating layer between them. This insulating layer is
typically fabricated by dry thermal oxidation of the
substrate. The nanowire is contacted on both extremes. The
degenerate substrate operates as a backgate for the CNT
channel. When the substrate is semiconductive, the analytes
act as gate. Alternatively, the gate can be replaced by a
liquid [1].
Analyte
Linking
molecule
Current
Contact
Insulator
Substrate
Figure 1. General scheme of a nanowire sensor.
Once the basic nanowire FET structure has been fabricated,
selectivity for sensing specific biological or chemical
species can be achieved by means of sensor
functionalization, that is, the addition of molecular receptors
to the nanowire.
Sensing of biological species can be achieved by combining
a biological recognition component (bioreceptor) with a
physical-chemical detector. The bioreceptor can be a living
biological system such as a cell, tissue or organism, or a
molecular biological species such as antibodies, proteins or
enzymes. Recognition of proteins, viruses, chemicals,
antibodies, enzymes, vitamins and molecular detection of
diseases are some of the envisioned applications for these
biosensors.
Nanowires are an excellent option for sensor scaling due to
the large mobilities causing carrier flow at ballistic
velocities. In nanowire-based sensors, the high ratio of
surface to volume atoms increases the reactivity of the
nanowire since most of the atoms of the nanowire are
exposed to the analyte and due to their small amount, the
effect of a single molecule on the nanowire resistance is
much noticeable than in substrate channels of conventional
FET sensors. This allows the implementation of highly
sensitive devices capable of sensing a single molecule with
fast response.
In addition to that, these sensors present high sensitivity to
adsorbates. Moreover, they also ease electron transfer in
chemical reactions with proteins and increase molecular
adsorption.
The change in the I-V characteristics of the transistor can be
caused by:
1) carrier transfer from the analyte to the nanotubes, acting
as nanowire doping [2, 3] and therefore increasing or
decreasing the current due to modification of the threshold
voltage. The surface potential of the nanotube is modified by
the analyte, causing causing accumulation or depletion [4, 5]
2) change in the capacitance of the nanowire [1] by
attraction or repulsion of charge by the analyte, causing a
similar effect as a change in permittivity
3) modification of the energy levels at the contact due to
adsorption of the analyte at the nanowire contacts [2]
4) change in mobility due to the scattering caused by the
adsorbed analyte at the surface of the nanotubes [3]; a
similar effect may be caused by analytes enclosed by the
nanotube
3. MEMS/NEMS sensors
The sensibility of MEMS/NEMS sensors can be enhanced
by the large surface area of nanoporous materials, which
increase adsorption and chemical reactivity of sensors, and
have been used to modify electrodes for potentiometric
sensing [6], cantilever sensors [7], conductometric sensing
[8]. The advantages of nanoporous materials for sensor
applications are related to the increase on surface area and
the possibility to modify and functionalize a surface.
Besides funcionalization, pore length, size, geometry and
distribution can be changed to meet a specific sensing
requirement.
The most common molecular sensor based on MEMS is a
cantilever whose displacement is caused by interaction with
the analyte, for example, by means of hydrogen bonds, van
der Waals forces or electrostatic interactions, which modify
the surface stress, the cantilever mass or both. The surface of
the cantilever is functionalized to detect specific chemical or
biological species. Both static deformation and resonant
operation can be used as transduction signals. As in case of
AFM tips, cantilever bending is measured by laser
deflection.
The use of nanoporous thin layers in cantilevers was found
to increase their deformation due to higher surface stress [7].
The thickness of the nanoporous material and the density,
size and geometry of the pores have been identified as
adjustable parameters to reach a specific cantilever bending
or resonant frequency [7].
Capacitive sensors reported in literature have been used in
detection of chemicals in the gas phase by adsorption of the
chemical of interest on the functionalized capacitor [9]. A
fast adsorption rate leads to a fast sensor response.
Metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) capacitors have also
been used together with nanoporous materials to create
nanosensors. In this case, nanoporous materials are
deposited to one electrode of the capacitor to change its
charge and potential by chemical reaction with the analyte
or its adsorption.
The dielectric can also be coated with carbon nanotubes to
form an electrode; the CNTs are contacted with metal
electrodes. A degenerate substrate serves as the second
electrode. The degenerated substrate is oxidized to create a
250nm SiO2; CNTs are deposited by chemical vapor
deposition and contacted by Pt electrodes [9]. A general
schematic draw of this sensor is illustrated in figure 2. Here,
adsorbate polarization is achieved by the fringing electric
fields at the CNT surface. This additional polarization
increases the capacitance. These sensors are capable of
detecting even a monomolecular layer.
Contacts to CNTs
Pt
SiO2
Degenerate Si
CNTs
Bottom electrode
Figure 2. Schematic of a capacitive chemical sensor [9]
On the other hand, nanowire forests made of carbon
nanotubes can be grown to provide electrical connection
between the analyte and a metal electrode.
Also, a humidity sensor was built based on a nanoporous
membrane contacted by electrodes. Three materials were
tested: polyester, polycarbonate and cellulose acetate [8].
Humidity was measured as a change of capacitance,
resistance, or both due to enhanced water adsorption caused
by the nanopores. Although the most common approach for
sensing is based on adsorption, absorption-based sensors
have also been demonstrated. Both effects have been applied
to change the permittivity or the conductivity of the sensing
layer. A schematic of the sensor is presented in figure 3.
Contact
Nanoporous membrane
Gold
Contact
Figure 3. Schematic of a sensor based on nanoporous
membrane [8]
A change in mechanical or electrical resonance frequency
has been used in gas sensors. As an example, a resonator
coated with carbon nanotubes experiences changes in the
resonance frequency in response caused by modification of
the permittivity of CNTs under exposure to NH3 [10]. In
surface acoustic wave sensors, adsorption on a substrate
between the input and output wave transducer leads to a
change in conductivity [11] or mass [12] which shifts the
resonant frequency.
Ionization gas sensors based on carbon nanotubes have been
reported in literature [13]. A schematic of this sensor is
presented in figure 4. The working principle of these
sensors is the gas ionization under high electric fields, which
cause an emission current peak to flow at a breakdown
voltage that is characteristic of the gas. Due to the ability to
grow dense “forests” of vertically aligned CNTs and their
high aspect ratio, the nanotubes are used as ionization tips
that create high electric fields at lower voltages than
traditional ionization sensors, with reported voltages as low
as 20V [14]. Since their operation is not based on a
chemical reaction, these sensors are faster.
Al Cathode
Insulator
Si Anode
CNTs
Figure 4. Gas ionization CNT sensor [13]
4. Challenges [15]
The trends in miniaturization are now beyond Moore´s law
and a “More than Moore” approach is required to provide
electronic systems increasing functionality and therefore
added value. Nanosensors can be the answer to this need.
However, one of the issues to be solved in order to
implement nanosensor products is the development of
methods for mass production and compatibility with silicon
technology for on chip integration and connection in
System-on-Package products and packaging. The fabrication
cost must of nanosensors must decrease, reliability and
reproducibility must reach the level of maturity of silicon
technology.
Sensing with CNTs implies control of their chemical
properties (including their chirality), their physical
properties (nanotube dimensions), their functionalization
and the fabrication of good electrical contacts. Electronic
devices such as CNT FETs require semiconducting single
wall CNTs (SWCNTs). In most synthesis methods, the
resulting material contains both metallic and semiconducting
nanotubes or the resulting CNTs are multiwalled. High
control of the CNT synthesis for low spread of the nanotube
diameter is quite important, since metallic or
semiconducting behavior is determined by this variable.
Moreover, for semiconducting nanotubes the band gap is
determined by the nanotube´s diameter. Furthermore,
advances in research are required to achieve batch
fabrication of horizontally aligned semiconducting
SWCNTs for mass production.
In case of other nanowires, both nanowire diameter and
doping are key properties to control.
When implementing biosensors, size compatibility is an
important aspect to consider. The sensor must interact with
molecules, typically DNA and proteins. Besides high
selectivity, sensibility and resolution must be high enough to
enable detection using the lowest possible amount of cells or
tissue.
Two of the biggest challenges of nanobiosensors real time
sensing and monitoring cells in vivo. This implies not
having to purify or isolate the agent, which is carried out
prior to sensing with traditional sensors. Real time
monitoring would provide detailed information that may
greatly increase the understanding of biological processes,
identification of the specific agents involved and the
duration of the processes.
On the other hand, a highly desirable application for
nanosensors is the molecular disease diagnose. However,
this is a complex task, since diagnose involves
determination of the amount and activation level of the
agent, and must also relate the agent with the state of the
disease.
5. Conclusions
The main methods of sensing in nanotechnology were
presented, together with typical examples of these sensors
and their applications. Nanosensors have great potential to
make the semiconductor industry achieve the “More than
Moore” breakthrough. The challenges to overcome for mass
products were presented.

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