Sensors and Actuators A, 25-27 (1991) 371-377
Resonant Sensors and Applications*
P. HAUPTMANN
Technische Uniuersitiit ‘Otto van Guericke’ Magdeburg,
Abstract
Resonant sensors configured to have a
mechanical resonance frequency are a subject
of special practical interest. They are sensors
with outputs based on a quasidigital fre-
quency signal. This is a great advantage over
conventional analog sensors. This paper re-
views a wide range of such sensors, including
micromachined, gravimetric and large-
volume resonator sensors. They are com-
pared and their properties are discussed.
1. Introduction
In the past the development of analog
control systems was accompanied by the de-
velopment of a wide range of electrical sen-
sors for measuring such variables as pressure,
displacement, temperature, etc., based upon
variable resistance, capacitance or induc-
tance, and giving suitable outputs in the form
of voltage or current. Such sensors are not
intrinsically suitable for digital control be-
cause an analog-digital conversion stage is
required between the sensor and the control
circuit. This is connected with an inevitable
penalty in terms of reliability, cost and speed
of response. The development of sensors
which give an intrinsically digital output is
therefore of fundamental importance to the
further development of digital control.
It is convenient to restrict the definition of
a digital sensor to sensors which create a
series or parallel signal through the mechani-
cal or electrical characteristics of the device
*Invited paper.
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371
Magdeburg, 3010 (Germany)
itself and in advance of any electronic pro-
cessing. Examples of digital sensors in this
sense are angle or displacement encoders [ 11,
applications of CCDs [2] or photosensors [3]
and devices based on flip-flop sensors [4]. The
first group of sensors is excellent in applica-
tions where physical displacements are large.
Optical sensors play an important role, but
they are restricted to periodic geometrical
structures. It can be expected that a large
family of flip-flop sensors for a multitude of
measurands will be developed. Different sens-
ing elements, such as photodiodes, Hall
platelets, ISFETS, thermocouples, photocon-
ductors, etc., can be incorporated in the flip-
flop structure [ 51. However, considerable
research is still necessary in the development
<of this new sensor family.
Another group of sensors exists that, due
to the underlying operating principle, them-
selves generate a frequency output. Such a
quasidigital signal would be much less prone
to noise and interference [6]. Quasidigital
output signals such as a frequency, a pulse
count, a phase shift or a pulse duration can
be measured directly in digital systems. This
is a great advantage over conventional analog
sensors. Resonator sensors generate a fre-
quency output signal and they are therefore
now a subject of considerable practical inter-
est. They can be divided into two categories.
The first is characterized by a mechanical
resonance structure. The principle of opera-
tion is that the resonance frequency, fr, the
damping constant, a, or the phase shift is
altered by the measurand of interest. Another
common approach for obtaining a frequency
output is the use of electronic oscillators in
which the sensor element itself is the fre-
quency-determining element. Ring oscillators
are an example of this [7].
#J Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands
312
This paper reviews the wide range of reso-
nant sensors based on mechanical resonance
structures. Resonant sensors made using
micromachining techniques, piezoelectric
quartz resonators and sensors based on much
larger resonant structures are discussed.
These techniques cover the frequency range
from audio to 100 MHz or more. Resonant
sensors based on quartz or silicon are of
particular interest. They combine high accu-
racy and repeatability with low cost of manu-
facture and potentially very low power
consumption. Applications will be described.
2. Micromachined Resonant Sensors
Microfabrication techniques have been
used to realize resonators in silicon (mono-
crystalline as well as polycrystalline). Differ-
ent structures have been realized, both mem-
branes [8] and beam-like structures [9, lo].
The higher the Q factor of the resonant struc-
ture, the better the resolution. This depends
on the material (single crystals like silicon or
quartz are the best candidates), the resonator
form itself, the means by which it is sup-
ported and strained, the means of coupling to
and from the resonator and the packaging.
These are also the tasks of sensor research in
this field. Force, torque, mass, flow, accelera-
tion or change of the modulus of elasticity
influence the resonance frequency of these
structures. A broad application spectrum can
be realized. Thus a resolution of some ppm of
the frequency is possible in special decoupled
torsional structures with a resonance fre-
quency of 22 kHz [ 111.
A pressure sensor was developed with the
ability to measure pressure from vacuum to
over 1 atmosphere and to resolve less than 1
part in lo5 of full scale [ 121. The resonator
structure, after [9], was modelled using FEM
and useful predictions of the overall pattern
of resonant modes were given. The whole
assembly is shown in cross section in Fig. 1.
Other examples such as resonating micro-
bridge sensors [ 10, 12, 131, microaccelerome-
ter [ 141 or vibrating cantilever sensors [ 151
Fig. I. Cross section of a miniature silicon resonant
pressure sensor.
characterize the situation. Different drive and
interrogation techniques play an important
role in the development of new systems. The
combination of fibre-optic and silicon or
quartz resonators offers promising new possi-
bilities [ 161.
3. Piezoelectric Resonant Sensors
Piezoelectric resonant sensors use the elas-
tic properties of different piezoelectric materi-
als to sense or measure a physical or chemical
phenomenon. They are based on the propa-
gation of elastic bulk or surface waves and
therefore they can be divided into three cate-
gories:
(i) bulk resonator or bulk acoustic wave
(BAW) sensors;
(ii) surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors;
(iii) Lamb wave (LW) sensors.
The first group includes the quartz res-
onator sensors. The historic development of
quartz resonator sensors originated from
work related to the use of quartz resonators
as time bases for frequency control. The high-
quality time basis obtained using a quartz
resonator in an oscillator circuit relies on the
stability of a mechanical resonance in a struc-
ture composed of single-crystal quartz, which
is an inert high-purity solid material. The
long-term stability arises from the inertness
of quartz, and the short-term stability comes
from the high mechanical Q and large equiva-
lent-circuit inductance of the resonators. A
key advantage of quartz resonator sensors is
their high resolution, which stems from their

excellent short-term stability. An advantage
of the long-term stability is the need for less
frequent recalibration.
These properties allow many sensor appli-
cations, quartz microbalance (QMB) sensors
being one of these [ 171.It has been known for
a long time that the deposition of a small mass
of material on the surface of a piezoelectric
crystal oscillator lowers its resonance fre-
quency. In the simplest case it can be de-
scribed through the Sauerbrey equation [ 181:
Af= -filNp(AmlA) (1)
where Am, A, fo,N and p are the mass
change, the crystal area, the operating fre-
quency, a constant and the crystal density. If
an AT-cut quartz crystal working in the
thickness shear mode is being used, it holds
that
f = -2.3 x lOyi(Am/A) (2)
When the layer or thin film on the QMB
exhibits rigid layer behaviour, the QMB pro-
vides absolute information on the mass
changes. The Sauerbrey equation is appropri-
ate for many situations; however, there are
limitations to its use. One assumption im-
plicit in this expression is that the mass added
or lost at the oscillator surface does not
experience any shear deformation during os-
cillation. This is a good approximation for
thin, rigid layers. For thicker, less rigid
solids, however, a more complex theory is
required. Use of the Z-match theory, which
considers the acoustic impedance of a layer
attached to the oscillator, makes the QMB
more useful, but the density and shear mod-
ulus of the attached layer must be known,
BAW sensors have been applied to a wide
variety of mass, chemical and biochemical
measurement applications [ 19- 211. ‘Bulk
resonators’ are commonly used as deposited
mass or thin-film thickness monitors in vac-
uum deposition systems [ 171. They have also
been applied to the detection and quantita-
tion of aerosols and suspended particles. Sur-
face deposition was achieved by the use of a
surface adhesive electrostatic precipitation or
inertial impact [ 191.
373
BAW gas sensors operate by binding
molecules to the device surface via one of
several mechanisms, depending on how the
surface is modified. They were first intro-
duced by King [22]. If a bulk layer of liquid
is placed on the surface, absorption of
gaseous material can take place. Alterna-
tively, if the surface is covered with a thin
molecular layer one or a few monolayers
thick, material will be surface-bound by some
combination of physical and chemical inter-
actions. For selectivity, chemisorption is to
be preferred. However, the analytes are
strongly and irreversibly bonded in that case.
For reversibility, absorption or adsorption is
to be preferred. Obviously a compromise is
required. The influences of humidity and tem-
perature have to be neglected.
For BAW sensors small quartz disks of
lo- 15 mm diameter and 0.1-0.2 mm thick-
ness are used (Fig. 2). The resonance fre-
quencies lie between 5 and 20 MHz. A
sensitivity of about 18 ng cm-’ Hzz’ can be
reached with a 5 MHz quartz sensor. Figure
3 shows our own results for a QMB sensor
sensitive to different gases. The greatest selec-
tivity of detection will be achieved by cover-
ing the piezoelectric sensor surfaces with
biological systems such as enzymes, antibod-
ies, etc. [23].
Studies of quartz crystals in contact with
liquids have also been reported [24]. It was
shown that an exponentially damped shear
wave is developed in solution at the surface
of a submerged QMB, leading to an expres-
sion for the frequency change during submer-
sion of the QMB:
Af= -ff,hsp./(~~qp,lli (3)
Fig. 2. Piezoelectric crystal plate used as QMB sensor.
374
,_ _ _~ i.__.J
-2.1 - _ _.,
0.0 300 6D.0 90.0 120.0 150 0 18C.O 210.0 240 0
min
Fig. 3. Resonant frequency as a function of gas influ-
ence and time. Sensitive material: tetraethylenepen-
tamine; ~ NO, injection 1 ppm; - - - C,H,,
20ppm; -- - - I ppm NOz, IO ppm C,H,,; - -
0.5ppm NOz, 20ppm C,H,,; -. - 1 ppm N02,
20 ppm C8H18.
where qs is the solution viscosity and ps is the
solution density. The penetration dep,th of
this shear wave depends on ($&/~,) -3. The
electronic part is much more complicated,
but very interesting new possibilities are
opened [21,25].
SAW sensors are devices based on high-
frequency mechanical oscillators. The acous-
tic wave energy is constrained to the surface.
The SAW propagates along the surface of a
solid medium. SAWS normally include differ-
ent waves, the most important being the Ray-
leigh waves. The use of the SAW sensor as a
chemical sensor relies on the sensitivity of the
surface wave to changes occurring in the thin
surface film. Consequently, the SAW sensor
represents a sensitive probe for characterizing
thin films and for investigating interaction
mechanisms between chemical vapours and
coating materials. The majority of these stud-
ies rely on the mass sensitivity of the device
to determine such properties as polymer/
vapour sorption thermodynamics and kinet-
ics; adsorption/desorption isotherms and
pore size, surface area and vapour diffusivity.
SAW sensors can also be used to study va-
pour/coating interaction mechanisms [26].
IDTs
/\
i.4
Substrate
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. (a) Principle of a SAW device with IDTs. (b)
SAW dual delay-line oscillator sensor.
SAW sensors are attractive for chemical
sensing because of their high mass sensitivity.
The range of applicability to chemical detec-
tion problems is limited only by our ability to
design, develop or discover coatings for the
SAW sensor that make it sensitive and selec-
tive for the analyte of interest. When a good
coating is available, it is usually possible to
detect vapours at the lo- 100 ppbv concen-
tration level, with a selectivity of 1OOO:lor
more over commonly encountered interfer-
ences and a dynamic range of three to four
orders of magnitude.
SAW sensor devices also require the use of
a piezoelectric substrate such as quartz and,
unlike the QMB, the electrodes are deposited
on the same side of the crystal in the form of
IDTs (interdigital transducers) (Fig. 4(a)).
When a time-varying r.f. potential is applied,
the crystal also undergoes physical deforma-
tion, which can be confined to the surface
region of the crystal and takes the form of a
surface acoustic wave. In a typical delay line
configuration (Fig. 4(a)), one set of IDTs
acts as a transmitter to launch the surface
wave, and a second set of IDTs acts as a
receiver. For many sensors non-conducting
films are employed. The response behaviour
for a SAW device coated with a thin isotropic
non-conducting film is
x [(A+ P)/(l + WI (4)
where k, and k2 are material constants for the
quartz substrate, VR is the Rayleigh wave
velocity, h is the film thickness, p is the
density and ~1 is the shear modulus of the
thin-film material. i is the Lamb constant
and f0 is the fundamental frequency of the
sensor. The first half of the equation yields
the shift resulting from mass loading, whereas
the second half describes the effect of changes
in the elastic properties of the film on the
resonant frequency. At first glance, the SAW
and QMB sensors appear to be the opposite
sides of the same coin. The QMB sensor
would appear to be the more attractive sen-
sor, having a greater mass sensitivity as well
as lower noise levels. However, the operating
frequency of the QMB is determined in part
by the thickness of the bulk crystal, so the
QMB has an upper practical limit of lo-
20 MHz. The SAW sensors are not so con-
strained; devices that operate in the GHz
range have been constructed. Because the
sensitivity of the device increases as the
square of the fundamental frequency, SAW
sensors have greater potential sensitivity.
Many SAW sensor applications use a
dual-device configuration (Fig. 4(b)) consist-
ing of two SAW delay lines. One delay line
can be coated with the sorptive or reactive
film, while the other delay line remains un-
coated or inert. There are two advantages to
such a configuration. The uncoated delay line
acts as a reference to compensate for fre-
quency deviations arising from fluctuations in
temperature or pressure. Secondly, the fre-
quency difference is typically on the order of
kHz and can be easily sampled.
An overview of the newest SAW sensor
developments is given in refs. 27 to 29. There
Chemically
plate
Fig. 5. Schematic cross-sectional view of the Lamb-
wave sensor.
are also many examples for chemically sensi-
tive materials.
A new sensor concept similar to SAW
sensors but employing Lamb waves was first
published in 1988 [29]. A major benefit over
the SAW accrues from the use of Lamb
waves, propagating in a plate whose thick-
ness is small compared with the ultrasonic
wavelength. The convenience of operating in
the low-MHz frequency range, and the possi-
bility of operation while immersed in a liquid
are notable. Another benefit is the high sensi-
tivity of the Lamb-wave sensor to changed
mass per unit area of surface. The thin plate
also has a low heat capacity and hence a
rapid thermal response. Figure 5 shows a
schematic cross section of the sensor. The
core of the sensor is an ultrasonic delay line
consisting of a composite plate of low-stress
silicon nitride, aluminium and zinc oxide,
fabricated on a silicon substrate. IDTs on the
ZnO layer launch and receive the plate waves
and, together with amplifier A, form a feed-
back oscillator whose output frequency f de-
pends on the mass per unit area M of the
membrane. These sensors are very attractive
as gravimetric sensors for chemical or biolog-
ical sensing. They offer advantages over exist-
ing QMB and SAW sensors.
A survey of piezoelectric resonators
should include different kinds of quartz-based
sensors for acceleration, force, pressure, tem-
perature, etc. [30], some of which have been
used for a long time.
Recently a quartz temperature sensor on
the base of a quartz shear mode resonator
376
Fig 6 Cross sectIon of a shear mode quartz tempera-
ture sensor I, quartz sensor, 2, electrode, 3, support
chps, 4, feed-through, 5, sheath, 6, connectors
has become commercially available [31] It
works with a 6 MHz, HT-cut quartz crystal
(Fig 6) The temperature dependence of the
quartz resonance frequency can be described
by
f=fo(l +a(T-TO) +j(T- TO)*
+ Y(T - TCJ3)
with fO the frequency at a reference tempera-
ture, u, /I and y can be calculated The tem-
perature mformatlon 1s encoded m the time
interval between the output pulses of the
dedicated electronic circuit
In prmclple quartz resonators which gen-
erate ultrasonic waves, such as level sensors
for liquid and air and ultrasonic sensors for
process momtormg and control or material
science [32], should also be included m the
category of resonant sensors
4. Other Resonant Structures
Another group of resonator sensors lies
far away from mlcromachmed resonant sen-
sors wrth dlmenslons m the cm and dm range
The physical sensor principle 1s the same
detection of a resonant frequency change as a
function of the measurand Examples are
vibrating vanes, vortex structures and reso-
nant cylinder structures [ 33, 341 Interesting
sensors such as liquid density sensors, mass
flow sensors or low-power resonant pressure
sensors [35] can be reahzed
5. Conclusions
Resonant sensors offer many advantages
Their quasidigital output signals guarantee
simple data acqulsltlon They have a resolu-
tlon that 1s often orders of magnitude better
than that of existing analog sensors Reso-
nant sensors can be produced by mlcroma-
chmmg technology as well as photohtho-
graphic methods Large volume versions are
also included Very sensltlve and low-cost
sensors can be realized
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