nanomaterials
Article
All-Optical Nanosensor for Displacement Detection
in Mechanical Applications
Lorena Escandell 1, * , Carlos Álvarez-Rodríguez 1 , Ángela Barreda 2 , Ramón Zaera 3
and Braulio García-Cámara 1
Citation: Escandell, L.;
Álvarez-Rodríguez, C.; Barreda, Á.;
Zaera, R.; García-Cámara, B.
All-Optical Nanosensor for
Displacement Detection in
Mechanical Applications.
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
nano12224107
Academic Editors: Deepak Kukkar,
Ki-Hyun Kim and
Antonios Kelarakis
Received: 3 October 2022
Accepted: 15 November 2022
Published: 21 November 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12224107
1 Group of Displays and Photonics Applications, Carlos III University of Madrid, Avda. de la Universidad, 30,
Leganés, 28911 Madrid, Spain
2 Institute of Solid State Physics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Helmholtzweg 3, 07743 Jena, Germany
3 Department of Continuum Mechanics and Structural Analysis, Carlos III University of Madrid,
Avda. de la Universidad, 30, Leganés, 28911 Madrid, Spain
* Correspondence: lescande@ing.uc3m.es; Tel.: +34-9-1624-8397
Abstract: In this paper, we propose the design of an optical system based on two parallel suspended
silicon nanowires that support a range of optical resonances that efficiently confine and scatter
light in the infrared range as the base of an all-optical displacement sensor. The effects of the
variation of the distance between the nanowires are analyzed. The simulation models are designed
by COMSOL Multiphysics software, which is based on the finite element method. The diameter of
the nanocylinders (d = 140 nm) was previously optimized to achieve resonances at the operating
wavelengths (λ = 1064 nm and 1310 nm). The results pointed out that a detectable change in their
resonant behavior and optical interaction was achieved. The proposed design aims to use a simple
light source using a commercial diode laser and simplify the readout systems with a high sensitivity
of 1.1 × 106 V/m2 and 1.14 × 106 V/m2 at 1064 nm and 1310 nm, respectively. The results may
provide an opportunity to investigate alternative designs of displacement sensors from an all-optical
approach and explore their potential use.
Keywords: optical sensor; nanowires; displacement sensor; light scattering resonances
1. Introduction
Current requirements in sensing technology are demanding further research about
their design and development to increase the sensitivity and improve the on-chip inte-
gration. In this sense, all-optical approaches and applications of silicon nanowires are
providing in recent decades promising solutions in topics such as nanoelectronics, opto-
electronics, and sensing/detection [1–3].
Micro- and more recently, nano-optoelectromechanical systems (M/NOEMS) have
been widely used to design a huge number of sensors for a large variety of applications, such
as health care, food quality control, or security [4–9]. They are mainly focused on sensing
displacement, mass [10], or force [11] as a consequence of the target phenomena such as
molecular bindings, mechanical vibrations, or external stress. As an example, MOEMS and
NOEMS are present in devices such as atomic force microscopes [12], accelerometers [13], or
biosensors [14]. Current trends show that optical solutions provide a better performance in
terms of sensitivity, resolution, and power consumption compared to other sensing methods
(e.g., piezoelectric or capacitive) [15]. In this sense, we can find in the literature many
proposed sensors based on interferometers [16], nanocavities [17], photonic crystals [18],
or nanocantilevers [19], offering quite interesting performances. However, the readout
system’s complexity and limited dynamic range or bandwidth of these proposals make it
necessary to continue searching for alternatives [20].
Due to the small signal produced by these nanostructures, resonant behaviors are
usually looked for in order to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio. Sensors based on plas-
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107 2 of 11

monic resonances or Mie resonances can be found in almost every sensing field, from
biosensors for lab-on-chip applications [21,22] to integrated NOEMS [23]. The phenomena
appear in scattered light by either metallic or high-refractive-index dielectric nanostructures
producing a remarkable increment of the scattered signal. These resonances are highly
dependent on the properties of the nanostructures (e.g., refractive index, size, and shape)
and the surrounding medium. Additionally, the presence of other resonant nanostructures
can produce joint effects depending on the inter-distances.
Those dependencies make resonant nanostructures suitable for sensing applications
mainly based on variations of the refractive index of the surrounded medium [24]. That
variation may be induced by the presence of target analytes [25] or changes in ambient con-
ditions, such as temperature [26]. These resonant nanoparticles are not usually used in an
individual way. On the contrary way, they are used to compose arrays or metasurfaces [27],
taking advantage of not only the resonant nanoparticles but also other joint effects (e.g.,
diffractive modes) [28]. This kind of sensor provides ultra-high sensitivities and ultra-low
detection limits with a small footprint and low power consumption making them ideal for
the next sensing generation [29].
The research field of plasmomechanics [30] is worth mentioning, where the fundamen-
tal coupling between plasmon resonances and mechanical motions is analyzed. Indeed,
the excitation of plasmon resonances in metallic nanoparticles can be spectrally shifted
under an external mechanical displacement as the sensor described in reference [31] or
produce mechanical motions due to the optical forces induced by the strong confinement
of light in the surroundings of the resonant nanoparticle [32]. Unfortunately, plasmonic
nanosensors are mainly based on the spectral shift of the plasmon resonance as a function
of external stimuli requiring a spectral analysis and then the use of tunable laser sources.
Additionally, all-optical sensors based on plasmonic phenomena are affected by ohmic
losses. For this reason, high-refractive index nanoparticles are a suitable alternative for this
kind of task [33].
The aim of this work is to search for an alternative or an improvement over the existing
sensing principles that simplifies the overall system by proposing a displacement sensor
based on two parallel silicon nanowires with a section such that they are both resonant at a
certain incident wavelength. While the excited resonances produce a remarkable increment
of the scattered field, the distance and consequent interaction between the nanowires
produce a detectable change in the spatial distribution of this field. Both the illumination
and the readout systems are conceptualized as simple. In the case of illumination, the
nanowires have been designed to be resonant at the wavelength of conventional infrared
commercial lasers. On the other hand, the displacement is read by measuring the scattered
field at that wavelength in only one direction, avoiding the incident beam.
The proposed design has been optimized in terms of the geometrical parameters
for two different incident wavelengths in the infrared range and the measurement of
displacement values compatible with vibration sensors in mechanical applications. The
simulated results show high sensitivity, linearity, and reliability, making it suitable for
realistic applications. Additionally, those distance ranges can be tuned by redesigning the
section of the nanowires.

2. Materials and Methods

The considered structure and related simulation setup are constituted by two parallel
suspended Si nanowires (see scheme in Figure 1a) with a diameter (d) of 140 nm and a
length large enough to be considered infinite in our numerical simulations (L ≥ 5 × λ,
λ being is the wavelength of the incident radiation). For this study, previous simulations
were carried out with different values of L to properly establish a limit such that the
response is insensitive to the length. The actual length (L) of the nanowires considered
in the simulations is L = 5 × λ in order to minimize the time and simulation resources
required by COMSOL Multiphysics. This long length also allows us to avoid the inclusion
of the anchoring effects because we are considering the central part of long nanowires. This
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107 3 of 11

we are considering the central part of long nanowires. This proposed geometry is affordable
using nanofabrication
proposed geometry is techniques in state-of-the-art,
affordable using suchtechniques
nanofabrication as electronin
beam (ELB) or focused
state-of-the-art, such
ion beam (FIB) lithography [34]. The theoretical optical material parameters
as electron beam (ELB) or focused ion beam (FIB) lithography [34]. The theoretical for silicon have
optical
been taken
material from Palik
parameters [35].
for silicon have been taken from Palik [35].

(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Scheme of the proposed sensor based on two parallel silicon nanowires and its illumi-
Figure 1. (a) Scheme of the proposed sensor based on two parallel silicon nanowires and its illumi-
nation configuration. (b) Near-field map of the norm of the scattered field in the YZ plane. The gap
nation configuration.
distance (b) Near-field
is 200 nm. Illumination withmap of the
a plane norm
wave of the scattered
propagating alongfield in the YZdirection
the negative of gap
plane. The the
distance is 200 nm. Illumination with a plane wave propagating along the negative
z-axis and linearly polarized parallel to the axis of both nanocylinders (x-axis). direction of the
z-axis and linearly polarized parallel to the axis of both nanocylinders (x-axis).
As mentioned before, the geometrical properties of the nanowires, as well as the inci-
dent As mentioned
wavelength, before,
have the geometrical
been previously optimizedproperties
to giveofrisethetonanowires,
Mie resonances as well
[36] as the
in the
incident wavelength, have been previously optimized to give rise to Mie resonances [36]
near-infrared (NIR) spectral region to observe a strong variation of the scattered field by
in the near-infrared (NIR) spectral region to observe a strong variation of the scattered
changing the separation distance between the two nanocylinders. The variation of the dis-
field by changing the separation distance between the two nanocylinders. The variation
tance between the nanowires due to mechanical vibrations (D) is responsible for producing
of the distance between the nanowires due to mechanical vibrations (D) is responsible for
a variation in the resonant optical coupling between them (Figure 1b) producing a detecta-
producing a variation in the resonant optical coupling between them (Figure 1b) producing
ble change of the scattered field at the detection point.
a detectable change of the scattered field at the detection point.
The simulations were performed using a finite-element method implemented in the
The simulations were performed using a finite-element method implemented in the
commercial software COMSOL Multiphysics. In particular, we used the Optics Waves Mod-
commercial software COMSOL Multiphysics. In particular, we used the Optics Waves
ule that allows us to formulate and solve the differential form of Maxwell’s equations (in
Module that allows us to formulate and solve the differential form of Maxwell’s equations
the frequency domain) together with boundary conditions. The two nanowires were placed
(in the frequency domain) together with boundary conditions. The two nanowires were
at the center
placed at theofcenter
a spherical
of a homogeneous region filledregion
spherical homogeneous with air, whose
filled with radius is 10 × λ
air, whose (Figure
radius is
2). A perfectly matched layer (PML) domain, with a thickness of 2 × λ
10 × λ (Figure 2). A perfectly matched layer (PML) domain, with a thickness of 2 × λ was was placed outside the
embedding
placed outside medium domain. The
the embedding PML layer
medium acts as
domain. TheanPML
absorber
layerfor theasscattered
acts an absorberfield.for
In ad-
the
dition, an inner sphere of radius 6 × λ was added to place the electric field
scattered field. In addition, an inner sphere of radius 6 × λ was added to place the electricsensing points. This
sensing spherepoints.
field sensing is located
Thisclose to the
sensing nanostructures
sphere is located to avoid
close the nanostructures
to the occurrence of noise or other
to avoid the
disturbances that may arise from placing it at greater distances. It is not recommended
occurrence of noise or other disturbances that may arise from placing it at greater distances. to sense
on
It isthe
notsurface of the PML
recommended to since
senseerroneous results
on the surface of tending
the PMLtosinceinfinite values can
erroneous be obtained.
results tending
The mesh was
to infinite chosen
values can besufficiently
obtained. fine
The to allow
mesh wasnumerical convergence
chosen sufficiently of to
fine theallow
results. In par-
numerical
ticular, the element size of the mesh of the embedding medium was smaller
convergence of the results. In particular, the element size of the mesh of the embedding than λ/5, and that
of the nanowires was smaller than λ/[3ℜ(n)], n being the silicon refractive
medium was smaller than λ/5, and that of the nanowires was smaller than λ/[3<(n)], n index.
being the silicon refractive index.
The described system was illuminated with an incident plane wave polarized along
the x-axis and propagating along the negative direction of the z-axis (red arrow in Figure 1a).
Illumination with a plane wave propagating in the negative direction of the z-axis and
linearly polarized to the y-axis (polarization perpendicular to the axis) is not presented here
because simulated results show no clear and detectable change in the spatial distribution
of the scattered field despite the variation in the distance between the nanowires as in the
other polarization state.
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107 4 of 11

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Scheme
Scheme of
of the
the structure
structure modeled
modeled in
in COMSOL.
COMSOL.

described
The chosen system was
illumination illuminated(λ)
wavelength with an incident
corresponds toplane wave
1064 nm or polarized
1310 nm, along
emission the
x-axis and propagating
wavelengths of commercial alonginfrared
the negative direction
(IR) lasers, which of the
are z-axis
cheaper (red
thanarrow in Figure
tunable lasers. 1a).
TheIl-
lumination
scattered with
field wasa plane wave
detected in propagating in the of
the central region negative
the air direction of the z-axis
layer surrounding theand linearly
nanowires
at 90◦ to the
polarized to illumination
the y-axis (polarization perpendicular
direction (green arrow intoFigure
the axis)
1a).isFrom
not presented here because
an experimental point
simulated
of view, the results showfield
scattered no clear
is notand detectable
easy to measurechange dueintothe spatial
the distribution
difficulty of the scat-
of separating the
incident
tered field from the scattered
despite the variationsignal. Measuring
in the distancethe scattered
between the signal
nanowiresat 90◦asisina the
good waypo-
other of
avoiding
larizationthe signal coming from the incident field [37]. In addition, the sensing point has
state.
been The
fixed laterally
chosen to the axis
illumination joining the(λ)
wavelength two cylinders to
corresponds (in1064
the direction
nm or 1310 the y-axis
of nm, emission in
Figure 1a). Both
wavelengths the illumination
of commercial infrared and detection
(IR) systems
lasers, which arewould
cheaper bethan
performed
tunablewithlasers.either
The
lensed
scattered optical fibers
field was or shaped
detected in theoptical fibers
central regionproviding
of the airsub-micron spot sizes
layer surrounding the for a futurist
nanowires at
prototype of the proposal [38].
90° to the illumination direction (green arrow in Figure 1a). From an experimental point of
view,Ourthe main
scatteredobjective
field isisnot
to accurately reproduce
easy to measure due tothethe
evolution
difficultyofofthe scatteredthe
separating field in the
incident
far
fromfield
theof the nanosystem
scattered as a function
signal. Measuring of the separation
the scattered signal at 90° distance
is a good (D),waywhich varies due
of avoiding the
to the mechanical
signal coming fromdisplacements.
the incident field To[37].
obtain a strong the
In addition, confinement
sensing point of thehaselectromagnetic
been fixed later-
radiation
ally to the(hot-spot)
axis joining between
the twothe nanowires
cylinders (gap),
(in the small distances
direction are required
of the y-axis in Figure[39–41].
1a). BothCon-the
sidering this fact and conventional vibrational distances,
illumination and detection systems would be performed with either lensed optical the smallest spacing considered
fibers or
in this work
shaped opticalwasfibers
200 nm.providing sub-micron spot sizes for a futurist prototype of the pro-
posal [38].
3. Results and Discussion
Our main objective is to accurately reproduce the evolution of the scattered field in the
far fieldorder
In of theto attain the as
nanosystem resonant
a functionbehavior at 1064 nmdistance
of the separation or 1310(D),nm,whichthe radius
varies dueof the
to
cylinder was fixed to 70 nm after a previous optimization process.
the mechanical displacements. To obtain a strong confinement of the electromagnetic radi- A parametric sweep of
the distance
ation (hot-spot) (D) between
from 200the nmnanowires
to 600 nm(gap),with asmall
step distances
of 50 nm arewasrequired
performed. [39–41]. Consid-
ering this fact and conventional vibrational distances, the smallest and
To corroborate the suitability of the selected detection point spacing to obtain reliable
considered in
far-field scattering
this work was 200 nm. results, a convergence test was performed, and the detection point on
the inner auxiliary sphere was chosen. It is found that placing sensing points on the surface
of the PMLand
3. Results canDiscussion
lead to numerical errors, especially when a single point is involved.

In order
3.1. Case Studytofor
attain the resonant
Operation behavior
Wavelength at 1064at 1064
nm nm or 1310 nm, the radius of the cylin-
der was fixed to 70 nm after a previous optimization
The first case of study corresponds to the wavelength process. A parametric
operation sweep of the
at 1064 nm.
distance (D) from 200 nm to 600 nm with a step of 50 nm was performed.
Any vibrational movement due to the excitation of a mechanical resonance will pro-
duce To corroborate
a periodic change the in
suitability of the selected
the gap distance detection point
and, consequently, and to obtain
a detectable changereliable
in the
far-field scattering results, a convergence test was performed, and the detection
scattered field. The optical response (detected scattered field in far-field) as a function point on
of
the inner auxiliary sphere was chosen. It is found that placing sensing
the distance between the nanowires presents a global maximum and a global minimum points on the sur-
face of
such theitPML
that allowscanalead to numerical
qualitative errors,
analysis of theespecially
vibration.when a single
Figure point the
3a shows is involved.
modulus
of the scattered field at the detection point as the function of the gap distance. This curve
3.1. Case Study
presents for Operation
two minimum Wavelength
points at 450 nm at and
10641600
nm nm and a maximum point at 825 nm.
AfterThe
the first case
second of study corresponds
minimum at 1600 nm, theto the wavelength
behavior operation
is repeated, at 1064
and the nm.
other maximum
pointAny vibrational
is reached movement
around 1900 nm.dueTherefore,
to the excitation of a focused
we have mechanical
on resonance willofproduce
the analysis results
a periodic change in the gap distance and, consequently, a detectable change in the scattered

Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107
field. The optical response (detected scattered field in far-field) as a function of the distance
between the nanowires presents a global maximum and a global minimum such that it allows
a qualitative analysis of the vibration. Figure 3a shows the modulus of the scattered field at
the detection point as the function of the gap distance. This curve presents two minimum 5 of 11
points at 450 nm and 1600 nm and a maximum point at 825 nm. After the second minimum
at 1600 nm, the behavior is repeated, and the other maximum point is reached around 1900
nm. Therefore, we have focused on the analysis of results obtained in the distance range
obtained in the distance range from 400 nm to 1600 nm. Regardless of their maximum o
from 400 nm to 1600 nm. Regardless of their maximum o minimum points conditions, other
minimum points conditions, other points of interest have been selected to attend on the
points of interest have been selected to attend on the basis of the following issues:
basis of the following issues:
(1) It is not recommended to work with variations of the distance between the nanowires
(1) It is not recommended to work with variations of the distance between the nanowires
greater
greater than
than400
400nm
nm because the the
because deformation of theofnanocylinders
deformation can cause
the nanocylinders cansecond
cause
harmonics.
second harmonics.
(2) The
(2) The identification
identification of
of intervals
intervals with
with linear behavior is
linear behavior is highly
highly desirable,
desirable, and
and according
according
to the first recommendation, it is not necessary to consider the whole
to the first recommendation, it is not necessary to consider the whole range. In range. In our
our
case,
case, selecting
selecting small
smalldisplacement
displacementintervals
intervalswith
withthe
thebest
bestpossible
possiblelinear behavior
linear behavior is
sufficient.
is sufficient.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a) Norm of the
the scattered
scattered field
field versus
versus distance
distance between
between nanocylinders
nanocylinders for
for an
an incident
incident
wavelength λλ == 1064
wavelength 1064 nm.
nm. Scattered
Scattered field
field patterns
patterns at
at (b)
(b) D
D == 450
450 nm.
nm. (c)
(c) D
D == 750
750 nm.
nm. (d)
(d) D
D== 825
825 nm.
nm.
(e) D
(e) D == 1400
1400 nm.
nm.

The near-field
The near-fieldmapsmapsatatthe
thegap
gapdistances
distancesmarked
markedininFigure
Figure3a3aare
aredepicted
depictedininFigure
Figure3b–e,
3b–
e, where
where a change
a change of the
of the scattered
scattered fieldfield in detection
in the the detection direction
direction is observed.
is observed.
The near-field
The near-field pattern
patternshown
shownininFigure
Figure 3b3b (label 1 in1 Figure
(label 3a) corresponds
in Figure 3a) correspondsto thetoscat-
the
tered field
scattered emitted
field emittedby byanan
electric dipole
electric dipoleexcited
excitedininthethey-direction.
y-direction.ForForthat
that reason,
reason, in thethe
detection point, far-field
detection far-field along
along the
the y-axis,
y-axis,ititisisnot
notpossible
possibleto todetect
detectthe thesignal.
signal.ForForlabels
labels2
2(Figure
(Figure3c)
3c)and
and3 3(Figure
(Figure3d),
3d),different
differentpatterns
patternscan canbebe observed,
observed, increasing
increasing the amount of of
radiation
radiation that
that is
is scattered
scattered along the y-axis.
along the y-axis. Finally,
Finally, inin case
case four
four (Figure
(Figure 3e),
3e), the distribution
distribution
has
has a more complex
complex shape,
shape, andandat atthe
thesame
sametime,time,thethescattered
scatteredfield
fielddistribution
distribution in in
thethe
y-
y-axis directiondecreases.
axis direction decreases.FromFrom16001600nm,nm,the
theprevious
previouspattern
pattern ofof aa minimum followed by
aa maximum
maximum is is found
found again.
again.
In
In agreement with the
agreement with the above
above explanation
explanation and to to facilitate
facilitate the
the interpretation
interpretation of of the
the
results, Table 1 shows the behavior of the scattered field in three different
results, Table 1 shows the behavior of the scattered field in three different gap intervals. gap intervals.
Regarding the norm of the scattered field versus Si nanowires distance, we see the
largest variations for interval III, but this is not the only aspect to consider. As a parameter
of interest, we also analyze the sensitivity. For the design of an effective optomechan-
ical sensor, high sensitivity values are necessary for accuracy during the measurement
process. However, the higher the sensitivity, the narrower the measuring range, and
the worse the stability. According to Equation (1), the sensitivity of a standard sensor is
expressed as the change in the output value (in our work, detected scattered field) as a
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107 6 of 11

consequence of variations in the input value (displacement between the nanowires due to
the mechanical movement).

Table 1. Most significant intervals of the scattered field for λ = 1064 nm.

Distance between
Electric Field (V/m)
Nanowires (nm)
Interval I 500–750 0.019–0.295
1064 nm Interval II 825–1575 0.297–0.011
Interval III 1575–1925 0.011–0.298

∆(Sensor output value)

S= (1)
∆(Sensor input value)
This suggests that for our particular study, Equation (1) can be expressed as Equation (2).

∆E h i
S= × V/m2 (2)
∆d
As can be seen in Table 2, the highest sensitivity was obtained for “Interval I.” It
should be noted that high sensitivity values were achieved for the three different analytical
regions (intervals I-III), keeping a similar order of magnitude among all of them.

Table 2. Sensor sensitivity for λ = 1064 nm.

Sensitivity (V/m2 )
Interval I 1.10 × 106
1064 nm Interval II 3.81 × 105
Interval III 8.21 × 105

Although large sensitivity values are necessary, a linear response of the output signal
(scattered field) with respect to incident one (the gap between the nanowires) is required in
the design of the sensor. To analyze the linearity of the proposed device, we have made
a linear curve fitting for the three different intervals and have compared the coefficient
of determination (R2 ). In all the cases, R2 takes values close to 1, confirming the linear
response of the scattered field to changes in the gap between the nanowires.

3.2. Case Study for Operation Wavelength at 1310 nm

For the study with an operating wavelength of 1310 nm, the same procedure as in
the previous case (Section 3.1) was followed. The dimensions of the nanowires were
set as specified above, and a sweep of the nanocylinder distance (D) values was per-
formed from D = 200 nm to D = 2200 nm with a step of 50 nm. Figure 4a shows the
norm of the scattered field as a function of the displacement. Again, the behavior is the
following, after reaching an absolute minimum for separation of 660 nm (pointed out in
Figure 4a with label 1), it begins to increase almost constantly until reaching a maximum
value at 950 nm (Figure 4c with label 2). Then, the behavior of reaching a minimum and
increasing again is repeated.
In comparison with the previous one, different near-field patterns were obtained for
this wavelength due to variations in the scattered field distribution. The first ones are
similar to the case of λ = 1064 nm, but as the separation between the nanowires increases, a
symmetry with respect to the y-axis is generated, as seen in Figure 4e.
Nanomaterials2022,
Nanomaterials 2022,12,
12,4107
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of 11
of 11

Figure 4.
Figure 4. (a)
(a)Norm
Normofofthe scattered
the field
scattered versus
field distance
versus between
distance nanocylinders
between for anfor
nanocylinders incident wave-
an incident
length λ = 1310 nm. Scattered field patterns at (b) D = 660 nm. (c) D = 825 nm. (d) D = 950 nm. (e) D =
wavelength λ = 1310 nm. Scattered field patterns at (b) D = 660 nm. (c) D = 825 nm. (d) D = 950 nm.
1400 nm.
(e) D = 1400 nm.

In comparison
As in the previouswithstudy,
the previous one, different near-field
three well-differentiated patterns
intervals were
emerge obtained
in which goodfor
this wavelength due to variations in the scattered field distribution. The
linearity with well-defined maxima and minima can be seen. These three intervals are first ones are sim-
ilar to the case
summarized of λ =3.1064 nm, but as the separation between the nanowires increases, a
in Table
symmetry with respect to the y-axis is generated, as seen in Figure 4e.
Table As in the
3. Most previous
significant study,ofthree
intervals well-differentiated
the scattered intervals
field for λ = 1310 nm. emerge in which good
linearity with well-defined maxima and minima can be seen. These three intervals are
Distance between
summarized in Table 3. Electric Field (V/m)
Nanowires (nm)
Interval
Table 3. Most significant intervals of the Iscattered field for650–950
λ = 1310 nm. 0.005–0.346
1310 nm Interval II 975–1950 0.336–0.009
Distance between Nanowires (nm) Electric Field (V/m)
Interval III 1950–2200 0.009–0.273
Interval I 650–950 0.005–0.346
1310 nm Interval II 975–1950 0.336–0.009
In this case, slightly
Interval III more pronounced maximum
1950–2200 and minimum values are observed
0.009–0.273
with respect to the previous study (λ = 1064 nm), leading to the sensitivity values of Table 4,
according
In thistocase,
Equation (2).more pronounced maximum and minimum values are observed
slightly
with respect
Table 4. Sensortosensitivity
the previous
for λ study
= 1310 (λ
nm.= 1064 nm), leading to the sensitivity values of Table
4, according to Equation (2).
Sensitivity (V/m2 )
Table 4. Sensor sensitivity for λ = 1310 nm.
Interval I 1.14 × 106
1310 nm Interval II Sensitivity (𝐕⁄𝐦𝟐 ) 3.36 × 105
Interval I Interval III 1.14 × 10 1.06 × 106
1310 nm Interval II 3.36 × 10
Interval III 1.06 × 10
A linear fitting was carried out for each interval corresponding to the operation
wavelengths of 1064 nm and 1310 nm, respectively. The coefficient of determination (R2 )
A linear
concludes thatfitting was carried
the linearity out for each
is acceptable, andinterval corresponding
the coefficients to the operation
of determination are wave-
close
lengths of 1064 nm and 1310 nm, respectively. The coefficient of determination
to 1 in most cases. The approximations to the corresponding straight lines in each section (R 2) concludes

thatbe
can theseen
linearity is acceptable,
in Figure and theobserved
5. It is clearly coefficients of the
that determination
numerical are closefittowell
points 1 in most cases.
to a linear
The approximations
response in both cases. to the corresponding straight lines in each section can be seen in Figure
5. It is clearly observed that the numerical points fit well to a linear response in both cases.
erials 2022,Nanomaterials 2022,
12, x FOR PEER 12, 4107
REVIEW 8 of 11 8 of 11

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 5. Linear fittings
Figure 5. ofLinear
the norm of the
fittings ofscattered
the normfield forscattered
of the 1064 nm.field
(a) Interval
for 1064I.nm.
(c) Interval II. I. (c) Interval II.
(a) Interval
(e) Interval III. Linear fittings of the norm of the scattered field for 1310 nm. (b) Interval I. (d) Interval
(e) Interval III. Linear fittings of the norm of the scattered field for 1310 nm. (b) Interval I. (d) Interval
II. (f) Interval III .
II. (f) Interval III.

4. Conclusions4. Conclusions
These days, theThese
trend is to design
days, smaller,
the trend is tolighter,
designand integrable
smaller, sensors
lighter, and with the sim-
integrable sensors with the
plest operationsimplest
principleoperation
to reduceprinciple
the power to and space
reduce therequirements.
power and space In this sense, all- In this sense,
requirements.
optical nanosensors are one
all-optical of the mostare
nanosensors promising
one of the alternatives
most promising to achieve this target.
alternatives to achieve this target.
This work
This work demonstrates thedemonstrates the potential
potential application of lightapplication of light to
resonant nanowires resonant
meas- nanowires to
ure mechanical measure mechanical
displacement displacement
by analyzing the lightby analyzing
scattering the light
signal. scattering design
The proposed signal. The proposed
is based on twodesign
parallelisnanowires
based on two parallel by
illuminated nanowires illuminated
a plane wave. by a plane are
These nanowires wave.
com- These nanowires
posed of a high are composed
refractive index ofdielectric
a high refractive
material,index dielectric
particularly material,
silicon, particularly
providing silicon, providing a
a resonant
resonant
signal in the visible signal in the visible
or near-infrared region.orInnear-infrared
this case, theregion. In thisproperties
geometrical case, the geometrical
of the properties
nanowires haveofbeenthe optimized
nanowiresinhave orderbeen optimized
to observe in order effect
this resonant to observe this resonant effect at the
at the wavelength
wavelength
of a typical commercial of a typical
infrared commercial
laser (1064 nm and 1310infrared
nm).laser
The (1064 nm andproperties
geometrical 1310 nm).ofThe geometrical
the nanowires are affordable to the current nanofabrication state of the art. The scattered state of the art.
properties of the nanowires are affordable to the current nanofabrication
The measured
field is numerically scattered field is numerically direction
in a perpendicular measuredtointhe a perpendicular
illumination one direction
to removeto the illumination
Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 4107 9 of 11

one to remove the incident signal. The resonant phenomenon and their coupling effects
strongly depend on the distances between the nanowires, giving us information about
this parameter.
The observed results show that the scattered electric field has a periodic variation as a
function of the gap distance between the two nanowires. These variations are characterized
by a maximum and a minimum signal with linear behavior between them at certain distance
intervals. In this sense, we have obtained a maximum sensitivity of 1.14 × 106 V/m2
considering a distance gap in the interval between 650 and 950 nm and under an illumination
wavelength of 1310 nm. On the other hand, the best sensitivity at 1064 nm has a value of
1.1 × 106 V/m2 in the interval between 500 and 750 nm, so both lasers are competitive.
Additionally, in both cases of operating wavelengths and for most of the intervals presented
in Figure 5, a coefficient of determination (R2 ) larger than 0.9 can be seen, demonstrating
the linear fit of the model and its reliability. This behavior is reproducible at larger gap
distances but with smaller sensitivities.
We can conclude that the proposed sensing principle provides interesting results
about sensitivity and linearity in measuring mechanical displacement using an all-optical
signal. In addition, the design operates with commercial infrared lasers, which are much
cheaper than supercontinuum lasers. Both the illumination and detection system can
be implemented using small spot size systems, such as lensed optical fibers, providing
an illuminated spot on the center of the nanowires and avoiding anchoring and non-
uniform effects. This system could have applications in vibration detection in mechanical
engineering, predictive maintenance, or system monitoring, among others.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.E., R.Z. and B.G.-C.; methodology, L.E., C.Á.-R. and
Á.B.; software L.E., C.Á.-R. and Á.B.; validation, Á.B., R.Z. and B.G.-C.; formal analysis, L.E., C.Á.-R.,
Á.B. and B.G.-C.; investigation, L.E., C.Á.-R., Á.B., R.Z. and B.G.-C.; resources, B.G.-C.; data curation,
L.E., C.Á.-R. and Á.B.; writing—original draft preparation, L.E., C.Á.-R. and B.G.-C.; writing—review
and editing, L.E., C.Á.-R., Á.B., R.Z. and B.G.-C.; visualization, L.E. and C.Á.-R.; supervision, Á.B.,
R.Z. and B.G.-C.; project administration, B.G.-C.; funding acquisition, B.G.-C. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was funded by the Spanish Research Agency (AEI), PID2019-109072RB-C31/AEI/
10.13039/501100011033, Comunidad de Madrid by SINFOTON2-CM (grant number S2018/NMT-
4326). These grants are also co-founded by the European Fund for Regional Development. This
work was also funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foun-
dation) through the International Research Training Group (IRTG) 2675 “Meta-ACTIVE,” project
number 437527638. This work has been supported by the Madrid Government (Comunidad de
Madrid-Spain) under the Multiannual Agreement with UC3M in the line of Excellence of University
Professors (EPUC3M26), and in the context of the V PRICIT (Regional Programme of Research and
Technological Innovation).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: L. Escandell want to express her gratitude for her predoctoral contract grant
financed with research funds, called by resolution of 12 November 2020 (REF. I03-2021).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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