AC-02-6-3

How to Raise Chilled Water

Temperature Differentials

Donald P. Fiorino, P.E.

Fellow ASHRAE

ABSTRACT rates, and chilled water storage tanks will store many more
ton-h (MJ) of cooling. This fundamental approach provides
This article recommends practical methods for achieving
significant, enduring improvements in the performance of
high, i.e., 15°F (8.3"C) or greatel; chilled water temperature
variable-flow hydronic cooling systems.
differentials (ATs) in new and existing variableflow hydronic
cooling systems. Once high chilled water ATs are realized,
ANALOGY: ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
more Btu's (Jh)of cooling will be accomplished per gallon
(liter)of chilled water distributed (Figure 1). Pressure losses A useful analogy for understanding the causes and effects
and pumping energy will decline considerably in existing of lowhelow design chilled water temperature differentials
(ATs) in variable flow hydronic cooling systems is power

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hydronic cooling systems, and smaller pumps and piping may
be installed in new hydronic cooling systems. Also, water chill- factor correction in alternating current electrical distribution
ers will no longer be limited by maximum evaporator flow systems (Table 1). In effect, a low power factor is equivalent
to a lowhelow design chilled water AT. Furthermore, operat-
ing an alternating current electrical distribution system with a

i SLOPE = 8.33/1.W
TABLE 1
ElectricaVCoolingAnalogy

Electrical Distribution Hydronic Cooling

Symptoms High current demand High flow demand and
and high voltage losses high pressure losses in
in conductors and pipcs and heat
transformers exchangers
-- Low power factor Low A ï
I Problems

'1 /
/
/-I
I

I
I

II
I Root Cause

Solution
I Large, underloaded
induction motors

Power factor correction

Improperly designed,
operated, and/or
maintained cooling loads
AT correction at
O I I I I
I I I
I
I I ~ f I I
at induction motors cooling loads
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Benefits Increased power Increased cooling
DELTA-1 ('F)
distribution and lower distribution and lower
current demand and flow demand and lower
Figure 1 Hydronic cooling leverage. lower voltage losses Dressure losses

~ ~ _____~

Donald P. Fiorino is an engineering manager at Enron Energy Services, Houston, Tex

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 lowhelow design power factor is as problematic as operating
a variable flow hydronic cooling system with a low AT.
That is, a low power factor (AT)results from large, under-
loaded induction motors (poorly designed, installed,
controlled, and/or maintained cooling loads). This is
evidenced by high current (flow) demand and high voltage
(pressure) losses in conductors (pipes) and transformers (heat
exchangers). In existing systems, the conductors (pipes) and
transformers (heat exchangers) can readily distribute addi-
tional power (cooling) by simply raising the power factor
(AT), rather than installing larger conductors (pipes) and
larger transformers (heat exchangers). Finally, increasing the
power factor (AT)is best accomplished at the motors (cooling
loads).
EXAMPLE: COMMERCIAL OFFICE BUILDING
Next, consider a commercial office building served by a
variable flow hydronic cooling system (with partial storage)
that was designed for a 15°F (8.3"C) chilled water AT.
This building's design cooling load is 1500 ton (1119
kJ/s) and the design pressure drop in the secondary chilled
water circuit is 150 ft (249 Wa). The building is served by
two 75 hp (56 kJ/s) secondary chilled water distribution
pumps-each capable of 1500 gpm (94 L/s) maximum
flow. The design capacity of its chilled water storage tank
is 500 ton (384 kJ/s) sustained over a 10-hour discharge
cycle, yielding 5000 ton-h (63.4 MJ) of stored cooling.
Two 500 ton (384 kJ/s) water chillers having three-pass
evaporators selected at 8 fps (2.4 m / s ) cool the building in
conjunction with the chilled water storage tank during the
discharge cycle, then recharge the chilled water storage tank
during the 14-hour charge cycle.
What will the effect be on cooling performance if the
actual chilled water ATis only 10°F(5.6"F), or 67% of design,
at peak cooling conditions?
The flow rate in the secondary chilled water circuit will
increase by 50%-from 2400 gpm (15 1 L/s) to 3600 gpm
(227 W s ) .
The pressure loss in the secondary chilled water circuit
will increase by 125%-from 150 ft (249 kPa) to 338 ft
(561 kPa).
Assuming 80% pump efficiency, pumping energy in the
secondary chilled water circuit will increase by 237%-
from 114 hp (85 kJ/s) to 384 hp (285 kJ/s).
Chilled water storage capacity will decrease by 33%-
from 5000 ton-h (63.4 MJ) to 3335 ton-h (42.3 MJ)-
permitting.only 333 ton (256 kJ/s) of cooling to be sus-
tained over the 10-hour discharge cycle.
The cooling capacities of the water chillers will be
reduced by 17% in order that maximum evaporator tube
velocity of 10 fps (3 m / s ) not be exceeded-from 500 ton
(384 kJ/s) to 417 ton (320 kJ/s) each. That is, the water
chillers will become "flow-limited" because the 25%
maximum allowable increase in chilled water flow, from
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8.0 fps (2.4 m / s ) [design] to 10 fps (3 m / s ) [maximum],
will not be sufficient to offset the 33% decrease in the
chilled water AT.
Overall, the combined cooling capacity of the water
chillers and chilled water storage tank will be limited to
1167 ton (871 kJ/s) versus a design peak cooling load of
1500 ton (1119 kJ/s)-resulting in a 333 ton (248 kJ/s)
cooling capacity shortfall (22%). Also, chilled water
distribution performance will be very poor due to the
tremendous pumping capacity shortfall.
Symptoms associated with the lowhelow design chilled
water AT will likely include high space temperature and
humidity levels, lowhelow design chilled water APs at
cooling coils and wide-open control valves at cooling
coils. At the central water-chilling plant, chilled water
distribution pumps will be operating at maximum flow
rates, chilled water Ms at evaporators will be above
design, and compressors will be operating below full
load amps.
Paradoxically, the water chillers will not be fully
loaded, i.e., compressor electrical demand will be below
design, at peak cooling conditions.
It is quite evident that the lowhelow design chilled water
AT (33% below design in this example) will prevent this build-
ing's cooling load from being satisfied at peak cooling condi-
tions. This example may sound extreme, so please read the
actual case study by Kirshner (1995).
BACKGROUND: SYSTEM DYNAMICS
It is obvious that the chilled water flow rate in a variable
flow hydronic cooling system should decrease as the cooling
load decreases. What is not obvious, and rarely observed in
practice, is that the chilled water AT should be equal to design
or greater than design at part load.
To clarify this important point, it is important to realize
that air-to-water heat exchangers, Le., cooling coils, must
satisfy all four of the following equations at all load condi-
tions. For simplicity, sensible cooling is assumed. However, to
analyze applications with dehumidification, Equation 1 may
be modified with appropriate enthalpy expressions.
Q = M (air) x Cp (air) x (EAT - LAT) (1)
Q = M (water) x Cp (water) x (LWT - EWT) (2)
Q = U (air-side) x A (air-side) x MLTD (air-side) (3)
Q = U (water-side) x A (water-side) x MLTD (water-side)
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(4)
Q is the heat transfer rate, M is the mass flow rate, Cp is
the specific heat factor, EAT is the entering air temperature,
LAT is the leaving air temperature, LWT is the leaving water
temperature, EWT is the entering water temperature, U is the
thermal transmittance factor, A is the heat transfer surface
area, and MLTD is the mean logarithmic temperature differ-
ential.
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 Next, evaluate a cross-flow cooling coil with 42°F Application 1: Variable-air-volume applications with
(5.6"C) EWT, 80°F (26.7"C) EAT, 53°F (1 1.7"C) LAT.General constant entering air temperature and constant leaving
cooling coil characteristics have been developed for three air temperature, e.g., commercial office building recir-
common applications (Table 2) (Brown 2000). culating air systems.

TABLE 2
Cooling Coil Characteristics

% Load % Water Flow Leaving Water Temperature Water AT % Design Water AT

1O0 1O0 57.O"F (13.9"C) 15.O"F(8.3"C) 100.0
90 85.3 57.8"F (14.3"C) 158°F (8.8"C) 105.3
80 71.7 58.7"F (14.8"C) 16.7"F (9.3"C) 111.3
70 59.3 59.2"F (151°C) 17.7"F (9.8"C) 118.0

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60 47.8 60.8"F (16.0"C) 18.8"F (10.4"C) 125.3
50 37.8 62.1"F (16.7"C) 20.1"F ( 11.2"C) 134.0
40 27.9 63.5"F (17.5"C) 21.5"F (11.9"C) 143.3

% Load % Water Flow Leaving Water Temperature Water AT % Design Water AT

1O0 1O0 57.O"F (13.9"C) 15.O"F (8.3"C) 100.0

90 70.9 61.1"F (16.2"C) 19.1"F (10.6"C) 127.3
80 53.0 64.6"F ( 1 8.1"C) 22.6"F (12.6"C) 150.7
70 40.7 67.8"F (19.9"C) 25.8"F (14.3"C) 172.0
60 I 31.5 I 70.6"F (21.4"C) I 28.6"F (159°C) I 190.7
50 24.1 73.1"F (22.8"C) 31.1"F (17.3"C) 207.3
40 18.1 75.1"F (23.9"C) 33.2"F (18.4"C) 221.3

Application 3-Make-up Air System

Constant Air Volume
Variable Entering Air Temperature - 80°F (26.7"C) at 100% load
Constant Leaving Air Temperature - 53°F (1 1.7"C)
Constant Entering Water Temperature - 42°F (5.6"C)
% Load % Water Flow Leaving Water Temperature Water AT % Design Water AT

100 1O0 57.O"F (13.9"C) 15.O"F (8.3"C) 100.0

90 89.1 57.2"F (14.0"C) 15.2"F (8.4"C) 101.3
80 78.6 57.3"F (14.1"C) 153°F (8.5"C) 102.0
70 68.7 57.3"F (14.1"C) 153°F (8.5"C) 102.0
60 59.0 57.3"F (14.1"C) 15.3"F (8.5"C) 102.0
50 49.6 57.1"F (13.9"C) 15.1"F (8.4OC) 100.7
40 40.4 56.9"F (13.8"C) 14.9"F (8.3"C) 99.3

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 Application 2: Constant-air-volume applications with tions" to cooling problems in occupied spaces. This
constant entering air temperature and variable leaving shortcoming can be avoided by providing protection for
air temperature, e.g., computer room and clean room temperature and humidity setpoints in BMS software.
recirculating air systems.
Application 3: Constant-air-volume applications with The consistent and predictable results of these types of
variable entering air temperature and constant leaving technical shortcomings are lowhelow design chilled water
air temperature, e.g., outdoor air make-up systems. ATs, plus associated cooling system performance problems.
The truth is that many things must be done correctly to achieve
These results show that part-load chilled water ATs for equal to design or greater than design chilled water ATs,
applications 1 and 2 should always exceed design chilled while only a f e w shortconzings will result in lowhelow design
water ATs in the 40% to 100% load range. In fact, the percent- chilled water ATs. The best solution is thorough and effective
ages of design chilled water AT for applications 1 and 2 esca- system commissioning, beginning at system design and
late continuously from 100% to 40% load. The limiting factor continuing through system operation. ASHRAE Guideline I -
is that LWT cannot exceed EAT of 80°F (26.7"C). For appli- 1996, The HVAC Commissioning Process, provides excellent
cation 3, the results reveal a constant rather than an escalating guidance on this subject.
percentage of design chilled water AT in this load range.
What this means is: OBJECTIVES
1. A 15°F (8.3"C) chilled water ATis readily achievable in a Now that the problem is clearly understood, three objec-
variable flow hydronic cooling system Serving 2lppliCatiOnS tives can be established:
1,2, andlor 3 between 100% and 40% load.
1. Design or above design chilled water ATs are achievable
2. If a variable flow hydronic cooling system for applications from 40% to 100%load conditions in properly designed,
1,2, andor 3 has cooling coils selected for 15"F(8.3"C) AT installed, operated, and maintained variable flow hydronic
at 100% load and is performing at less than 15°F (8.3"C) cooling systems.
chilled water AT between 100% and 40% load, something
.. _ _ _ _D'
i s wrong.
_I
2. Design chilled water ATs of 15°F (8.3"C) to 18°F (10.0"C)
are readily achievable in three common applications:
ROOT CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM Application 1 : Variable-air-volume applications
If the adverse consequences of lowhelow design chilled with constant entering air temperature and con-
water ATs are so severe (see "Example" section) and cooling stant leaving air temperature, e.g., commercial
coils produce equal to design or above design chilled water office building recirculating air systems.
ATs between 100% and 40% load (see "Background" section), Application 2: Constant-air-volume applica-
why do so many existing variable flow hydronic cooling tions with constant entering air temperature and
systems suffer from lowhelow design chilled water ATs? variable leaving air temperature, e.g., computer
Unfortunately, there is no single technical root cause. room and clean room recirculating air systems.
Rather, multiple technical shortcomings usually are at fault. Application 3: Constant-air-volume applica-
These technical shortcomings usually happen during all tions with variable entering air temperature and
phases of a system's life cycle (design, installation, operation, constant leaving air temperature, e.g., make-up
and maintenance) and have a synergistic effect. Some air systems.
common examples are as follows:
3. These objectives can be achieved by proper application of
Low design chilled water ATs, e.g., 10°F (5.6"C), result cooling coils, control valves, controls systems, distribution
when standard rating conditions for water chilling pack- pumps, and piping systems. Thorough system commission-
ages are adopted as the design AT for variable flow ing is the key to achieving these objectives.
hydronic cooling systems. This shortcoming can be
avoided by a design intent that clearly specifies a high APPROACH
chilled water AT, e.g., 15°F (8.3"C) to 18°F (lO.O°C), To apply resources most effectively, it is important to
for applications 1,2, and 3. realize that chilled water ATs are determined by the various
Below design chilled water ASS result when three-way terminal devices, i.e., cooling loads, and not by the central
bypass control valves are installed at cooling coils and chilled water plant. So, to effectively raise chilled water ATs,
heat exchangers in variable flow hydronic cooling sys- the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of the
tems. This shortcoming can be avoided by thorough cooling coils, control valves, distribution piping, and pumps
project specifications and equipment schedules requir- located in equipment rooms throughout affected facilities
ing two-way control valves. must be addressed. This is the fundamental solution that yields
Below design chilled water ATs result when temperature enduring improvements relative to ineffective symptomatic
and humidity setpoints are subset as symptomatic "solu- solutions (discussed below).
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 After this is understood, it is easy to realize that more 5. Omit external balancing devices. Best practices 3 and 4
water chillers, larger chilled water pumps, and/or larger make these devices unnecessary.
chilled water pipes at the central water chilling plant will not 6. Specify digital control for more precise control valve posi-
overcome the cooling system performance problems (see tioning.
“Example” section) associated with lowhelow design chilled
7. Use chilled water multiple times before allowing it to return
water ATs in variable flow hydronic cooling systems. These
to the central water chilling plant (Figure 2).
symptomatic approaches are capital-intensive and energy-
intensive and do not address the fundamental problem. 8. Use chilled glycol for low-temperature/humidity applica-
This is mentioned because the symptoms of lowhelow tions that would require excessively close approach temper-
design chilled water ATs, e.g., high space temperature and atures and/or subset supply temperatures if chilled water
humidity levels, lowhelow design chilled water APs at cool- were used.
ing coils, and wide-open control valves at cooling coils, are 9. Use non-bypass blend-water systems rather than water-to-
frequently misinterpreted as evidence of inadequate capacity water heat exchangers (Figure 3) to supply non-condensing
at the central water chilling plant. However, rather than install- (sensible) cooling water.
ing larger pipes, pumps, and water chillers at the central water
10. Treat sensible cooling and cooling/dehumidifying sepa-
chilling plant, existing pipes, pumps, and heat exchangers can
rately.
readily distribute additional cooling, thereby improving cool-
ing system performance simply by raising the chilled water 11. Use two cooling coils in series (Figure 4).
AT. 12. Use run-around precooling/preheating coils for make-up
Checking the water chillers will confirm the true problem. air (Figure 5).
The evaporator AT at the central water chilling plant is the 13. Replace three-way bypass control valves with two-way
composite ATof the entire variable flow chilled water cooling control valves.
system. Below design evaporator ATs, above design evapora-
14. Close control valves when air-handling unit fans are off.
tor APs, and compressors operating below full-load amps
during peak cooling conditions in conjunction with symptoms 15. Calibrate temperature and humidity sensors.
of poor variable flow hydronic cooling system performance 16. Protect temperature and humidity setpoints.
are clear evidence of lowhelow design chilled water AT
17. Minimize water-side fouling and air-side restrictions.
syndrome. If poor cooling performance were due to inade-
quate water chilling capacity, the compressors would be oper-
ating at full-load amps at peak cooling conditions.
Another important point to realize is that 200% of design
chilled water flow will only yield about 1 i 5% of design cool-
ing coil output. Furthermore, this approach will result in a
chilled water ATthat is 40% below design and a chilled water
APthat is 300% above design. It will also starve other terminal
devices of needed chilled water flow.
400 TONS
U F wm
BEST PRACTICES

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2 0 7 F AT

Following are 25 “best practices” to achieve high chilled

62.77 CHWR
water ATs. They range from component selection criteria to 464 gpm

distribution system configuration and are applicable to new

installations as well as retrofit projects.
1. Select cooling/dehumidifying coils for high ATs.
2. Specify modulating two-way globe-style control valves
with equal-percentage plugs for linear control of cooling
coils.
3. Specify control valve actuators capable of accurately posi-
tioning the plug and shutting off flow at the highest @that 400 TONS
42.F Wm
the chilled water distribution pump can apply at low flow zs.rF AT

conditions.
7 i . r ~uma
4. Specify control valve cages, trim, plugs, and seals capable 327 gpm

RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
of withstanding the erosion and cavitation present when
throttling flow at the highest AP that the chilled water distri-
bution pump can apply at low flow conditions. Figure 2 Cascade cooling.

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 100 TONS
70.F CHWR
2WF A l
- I 100 TONS

4 r CHW
~
CWUND nui
<M w m . EXCWGUI

CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE

CHWR C H W

CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE

RECOMMENDED PRACTICE

Figure 3 Blended water cooling.

18. Reduce chilled water distribution pump speeds at partial

cooling loads.
19. Use multi-zone and primary/secondary chilled water distri-
bution pumping. Figure 4 Series cooling coils.
20. Reduce differential chilled water pressure setpoints at
partial cooling loads.
21. Elevate chilled water supply temperatures at partial cooling
loads.
22. Design reverse-return and loop-style chilled water distribu-
tion systems.
23. Eliminate constant speed chilled water "booster" pumps.
24. Replace marginally performing cooling coils and heat
exchangers.
25. Monitor chilled water ATs and take corrective actions.

COST-OF-OWNERSHIP
Cost-of-ownership considerations include capital expen-
ditures and annual operating expenditures.
A hydronic cooling system with a 15°F (8.3"C) chilled
water AT will require smaller pumps, piping, heat exchangers,
and cool storage tanks than an equivalent-capacity system
with a 10°F (5.6"C) AT. However, the high AT system will
spend more for ( i ) cooling/dehumidifying coils having addi- 1 J
&3T
tional rowslenlarged face areas and (2) equal-percentage RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
control valves having globe-style bodies with robust actua-
tors, cages, trim, lugs, and seats, than the low AT system. Figure 5 Run-around coils.
When combined, these factors will tend to yield lower capital
expenditures for systems with higher chilled water ATs in
large applications having fewer/larger air-handling units, Annual operating expenditures are clearly lower for
more distribution pump stations, greater lengths of distribu- hydronic cooling systems having higher chilled water ATs due
tion piping, and large cool storage tanks. Good candidates to lower flow rates and pressure losses year-round. Also,
include university campuses, airports, and the like where a providing cooling/dehumidifying coils with enlarged face
large central water-chilling plant serves multiple buildings. areas precludes increased air-side pressure losses (and
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 increased fan energy usage) normally associated with addi- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tional rows. Larger hydronic cooling systems (such as those Avery, G. 1998. Controlling chillers in variable flow sys-
described in the above paragraph) stand to realize the greatest tems. ASHRAE Journal 40(2): 42-45.
savings in annual operating expenditures.
Fiorino, D. 1999. Achieving high chilled water delta Ts.
ASHRAE Journal 41(11) 24-30.
REFERENCES
Hansen, E.G. 1985. Hydronic system design and operation.
Kirshner, W. 1995. Troubleshooting chilled water distribu- New York: McGraw-Hill.
tion problems at NASA Johnson Space Center. Heating/ Hansen, E.G. 1998. Letter to the editor, Re: Low delta T.
PipingIAir Conditioning 67(2): 51-59. ASHRAE Journal 40( 11): 19.
Brown, W. 2000. Letter to the editor, Re: Achieving High Kirshner, W. 1998. Low delta t central plant syndrome.
chilled water delta Ts. ASHRAE Journal 42(2): 12. ASHRAE Journal 40( 1): 37-32.
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