DENTAL PUBLIC HEALTH PRELIMS
COMMUNITY DENTISTRY
 Dental public health is simultaneously a field of study
within the broader field of public health and one of
dentistry’s eight specialties.
 Although dental public health evolved from organized
dentistry, its philosophy and substance have been more
reflective of that of public health.
 The focus of the dental practitioner is the individual
patient, whereas,
 The focus of the dental public health practitioner is
the community.
HEALTH (WHO) – is a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.
PUBLIC (KNUTSON) – of or pertaining to the people of
the community, state, or a nation.
PUBLIC HEALTH
— The science and art of preventing disease, prolonging
life, and promoting physical and mental efficiency
through organized community effort for the sanitation
of the environment, the control of communicable
infections, the education of the individual in personal
hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing
services for the early diagnosis and preventive
treatment of disease and the development of the social
machinery to insure everyone a standard of living
adequate for the maintenance of health.
PUBLIC HEALTH IS CONCERNED WITH 4 BROAD AREAS:
1. Lifestyle and behavior
2. Environment
3. Human biology
4. Organization of health programs and systems
 Public health, then, is concerned with keeping people
as healthy as possible and controlling or limiting
factors that impede health
— The organization and application of public resources to
prevent dependency that would otherwise result from
disease or injury.
DENTAL PUBLIC HEALTH (AMERICAN BOARD OF DENTAL
PUBLIC HEALTH)
— The science and art of preventing and controlling
dental disease and promoting dental health through
organized community efforts.
 A form of dental practice which serves the community
as a patient rather than the individual.
 It is concerned with the dental health education of the
public, with research and the application of the findings
of research, with the administration of programs of
dental care for groups, and with the prevention and
control of dental disease through a community
approach.
COMMUNITY HEALTH
 Came into popular use in the late 1900’s and early
1970’s
 Some view community health as focusing on personal
health care provided in the local community.
 Others use the term to mean environmental health
activity, and still others have in mind the totality of
personal health services for the whole community.
 It is comparable and synonymous with public health
and encompasses the full range of health services,
environmental and personal including other major
activities such as health education of the public and
the social context of life as it affects the community.
 This is not limited to governmental efforts. Thus, both
public health and community health could be seen as,
“the effort that is organized by society, to protect,
promote, and restore the health and quality of life of
the people.”
PRIMARY CARE
May 30, 1977: World Health Assembly decided that the
main health target of the government and WHO is the
attainment of a level of health that would permit them to
lead a socially and economically productive life by the year
2000.
September 6-12, 1978: First International Conference on
PHC in Alma Ata, Russia (USSR) The Alma Ata Declaration
stated that PHC was the key to attain the “health for all”
goal
October 19, 1979: Letter of Instruction (LOI) 949, the
legal basis of PHC was signed by Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos,
which adopted PHC as an approach towards the design,
development and implementation of programs focusing on
health development at community level.
BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 1
RATIONALE FOR ADOPTING PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
— Magnitude of Health Problems
— Inadequate and unequal distribution of health
resources
— Increasing cost of medical care
— Isolation of health care activities from other
development activities
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
— An essential health care made universally accessible
to individuals and families in the community by means
acceptable to them, through their full participation and
at a cost that the community and country can afford.
— A practical approach to making health benefits within
reach of all people
— An approach to health development, which is carried
out through a set of activities and whose ultimate aim
is the continuous improvement and maintenance of
health status.
 Your general practitioner(GP) is a primary healthcare
provider, and so are nurses, pharmacists and allied
health providers like dentists.
OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
 Improvement in the level of health care of the
community
 Favorable population growth structure
 Reduction in the prevalence of preventable,
communicable and otherdisease.
 Reduction in morbidity and mortality rates especially
among infants and children.
 Extension of essential health services with priority
given to the underserved sectors.
 Improvement in Basic Sanitation
 Development of the capability of the community aimed
at self-reliance.
 Maximizing the contribution of the other sectors for
the social and economic development of the
community.
MISSION:
→ To strengthen the health care system by increasing
opportunities and supporting the conditions wherein
people will manage their own health care.
TWO LEVELS OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE WORKERS
1) BARANGAY HEALTH WORKERS– trained community
health workers or health auxiliary volunteers or
traditional birth attendants or healers.
2) INTERMEDIATE LEVEL HEALTH WORKERS- include the
Public Health Nurse, Rural Sanitary Inspector and
midwives.
PRINCIPLES OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE
1. 4 A’s = Accessibility, Availability, Affordability &
Acceptability, Appropriateness of health services.
 The health services should be present where the
supposed recipients are.
 They should make use of the available resources
within the community, wherein the focus would
be more on health promotion and prevention of
illness.
2. Community Participation
 Heart and soul of PHC
3. People are the center, object and subject of
development.
 Thus, the success of any undertaking that aims at
serving the people is dependent on people’s
participation at all levels of decision-making;
» Planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating.
Any undertaking must also be based on the
people’s needs and problems (PCF, 1990)
» Part of the people’s participation is the partnership
between the community and the agencies found
in the community; social mobilization
 In general, health work should start from where
the people are and building on what they have.
Example: Scheduling of Barangay Health Workers
in the health center
 Barriers of Community Involvement
» Lack of motivation
» Attitude
» Resistance to change
» Dependence on the part of community people
» Lack of managerial skills
4. Self-reliance
 Through community participation and
cohesiveness of people’s organization they can
generate support for health care through social
mobilization, networking and mobilization of local
resources. Leadership and management skills
should be develop among these people. Existence
of sustained health care facilities managed by the
BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 2
 people is some of the major indicators that the
community is leading to self reliance.
5. Partnership between the community and the health
agencies in the provision of quality of life.
 Providing linkages between the government and
the nongovernment organization and people’s
organization.
6. Recognition of interrelationship between the health
and development
 Health- Is not merely the absence of disease. Neither
is it only a state of physical and mental well-being.
» Health being a social phenomenon recognizes the
interplay of political, socio-cultural and economic
factors as its determinant.
» Good Health therefore, is manifested by the
progressive improvements in the living conditions
and quality of life enjoyed by the community
residents (PCF,
 Development- is the quest for an improved quality of
life for all. Development is multidimensional.
 It has political, social, cultural, institutional and
environmental dimensions (Gonzales 1994). Therefore,
it is measured by the ability of people to satisfy their
basic needs.
7. Social Mobilization
 It enhances people participation or governance,
support system provided by the Government,
networking and developing secondary leaders.
8. Decentralization
 This ensures empowerment and that
empowerment can only be facilitated if the
administrative structure provides local level
political structures with more substantive
responsibilities for development initiators.
ELEMENTS OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE
 PUBLIC EDUCATION
— The first, and one of the most essential, component of
primary health care. By educating the public on the
prevention and control of health problems, and
encouraging participation, the World Health
Organization works to keep disease from spreading on
a personal level.
 PROPER NUTRITION
— Nutrition is another essential component of health
care. WHO works to prevent malnutrition and
starvation and to prevent many diseases and afflictions
 CLEAN WATER & SANITATION
— A supply of clean, safe drinking water and basic
sanitation measures regarding trash, sewage and
water cleanliness can significantly improve the health
of a population, reducing and even eliminating many
preventable diseases.
 MATERNAL & CHILD HEALTH CARE
— Ensuring comprehensive and adequate health care to
children and to mothers, both expecting and otherwise,
is another essential element of primary health care.
— By caring for those who are at the greatest risk of
health problems, WHO helps future generations have a
chance to thrive and contribute to globally. Sometimes,
care for these individuals involves adequate counselling
on family planning and safe sex.
 IMMUNIZATION
— By administering global immunizations, WHO works to
wipe out major infectious diseases, greatly improving
overall health globally.
 LOCAL DISEASE CONTROL
— Prevention and control of local diseases is critical to
promoting primary health care in a population. Many
diseases vary based on location. Taking these diseases
into account and initiating measures to prevent them
are key factors in efforts to reduce infection rates.
 ACCESSIBLE TREATMENT
— Another important component of primary health care is
access to appropriate medical care for the treatment
of diseases and injuries. By treating disease and injury
right away, caregivers can help avoid complications
and the expense of later, more extensive, medical
treatment.
 DRUG PROVISION
— By providing essential drugs to those who need them,
such as antibiotics to those with infections, caregivers
can help prevent disease from escalating. This makes
the community safer, as there is less chance for
diseases to be passed along.
BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 3
 FOUR OVERALL CATEGORIES OF DENTAL PUBLIC THE HEALTH SYSTEM
HEALTH/ COMMUNITY DENTISTRY:
 System – a set of interrelated and independent parts
1. Health policy and program administration
that form a complex whole and each of these parts can
2. Research methods in dental public health be viewed as a subsystem with its own set of
3. Oral health promotion and diseases interrelated and independent parts.

4. Oral health services and delivery system  Health system – the interrelated ways in which
the country organizes available resources for the
SPECIFIC AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERISE ASIDE maintenance and improvement of the health of its
FROM THE FOUR INCLUDE: citizens and communities .
▪ Planning ▪ Human resource
 The system includes a health infrastructure which
management
delivers a variety of health programs and provides
▪ Implementation ▪ Financial management,
health care to individual families and communities.
marketing
▪ Regulation ▪ Communication  Such health care consists of a combination of a
promotive, preventive, curative, and rehabilitative
▪ Policy process ▪ Quality assurance measures.

▪ Operation and evaluation of dental health program THE HEALTH SYSTEM IS USUALLY COMPOSED OF
VARIOUS LEVELS :
▪ Management information system 1. Point of contact– between individuals and system where
care is delivered.
2. Intermediate
PARALLELISM IN THE METHODS OF PRIVATE VS 3. Central
COMMUNITY PRACTICE
 The latter two provide more specialized services and
PRIVATE COMMUNITY support.
▪ Examination ▪ Survey
▪ Diagnosis ▪ Analysis
▪ Treatment Planning ▪ Program Planning
▪ Case Presentation ▪ Program Presentation
▪ Treatment ▪ Program Operation
▪ Payment for Service ▪ Financing
▪ Follow up ▪ Evaluation

 The present thrust in oral health system are usually

based on primary health care approach, it is deemed Health sector- indicates the group of services or
essential that any management system in oral health institutions in the community which are concerned with the
care program should include the following: health protection of the population.

 Monitoring elements used to define and follow
trends in community oral health
 Evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the
system of promoting oral health.
 Evaluating the comparative importance of the
system in relation to the elements of primary
health care approach or strategy
FUNCTIONS OF THE HEALTH SECTOR
1) Direct supervision of health services covering the
aspects of promotion, prevention, diagnosis and
treatment and medical / dental rehabilitation.
2) Development and provision of health manpower, drugs,
medical supplies and financing support schemes.
3) Research and development to continuously maintain
the relevance and capability of the present health care
system to the evolving national and local situations.
4) Coordinating, controlling and directing organizations
and activities associated with other functions.

BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 4

 The functions enumerated coincide with the generic
nomenclature given by Kaluzny et al namely:
production, maintenance, adaptive, managerial.
PROGRAMS OF THE HEALTH SYSTEM
— These are specific courses of action with assigned
resources designed to accomplish a given objectives.
CATEGORIES:
a. General Health
b. Tuberculosis Control
c. Malaria Control
d. Maternal and Child Health
e. Family Planning
f. Environmental Health
g. Nutrition
h. School Health
i. Oral Health
FINANCING OF THE HEALTH SYSTEM
1. USERS CHARGES
— Particularly suited for those aspects of health care that
are considered private goods, benefits of the service
accrue directly to the user.
 Curative services and personal health care fall in this
category.
2. PUBLIC SUBSIDY
— Aspect of health care whose benefits are widely spread .
 Would also be needed to provide private goods such as
curative and personal care for indigents and
low-income segment of population.
3. COMMUNITY FINANCING
— The most readily available resource tapped in
community financing is voluntary labor coupled with
mass action of fund raising activities.
 Effective in environmental sanitation, setting up and
maintaining potable water supply facilities.
4. HEALTH INSURANCE
— More complex and structured form of health financing
based on a system of risk sharing.
 The main advantage is the ability to raise revenues
commensurate with the assured levels of health cost
protection offered to its members by breaking down
into regular small cost premiums in exchange for
assurance of full or substantial coverage of cost or
dreaded events such as medical needs.
5. INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE SECTOR
— Company financed health benefits for employees and
dependents , sponsorship of medical bills by
philanthropic societies, groups or individuals
spontaneous or inspired public donations to finance
medical or emergency needs of disaster victims, special
lotteries to raise funds to support operation of a
medical facility or services.
HEALTH SYSTEM BASED ON PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
1. The system should encompass the entire population on
the basis of equality and responsibility.
2. It should include components from the health and other
sectors whose interrelated actions contribute to health.
3. the essential elements of Primary Health Care should be
delivered at the first point of contact between individuals
and the health system.
4. The other levels of the health system should support the
first contact level to permit it to provide essential elements
on a continuing basis.
5. At the intermediate levels more complex problems would
be dealt with more skilled and specialized logistic support.
More highly trained staff should provide :
a. continuing training to peripheral health workers
b. guidance to communities and community health
workers on practical problems arising in connection with all
aspects of PHC.
6. The central level should coordinate all parts of the system
and provide :
a. planning and management expertise
b. highly specialized staff
c. teaching for specialized staff
d. expertise of central laboratories
e. central logistics and financial support units
DISTRICT HEALTH SYSTEMS
District (WHO)
— the smallest manageable health units in small areas.
— Has the ingredients for self-reliant health care.
» Primary health care facilities in communities
» Referral hospital
» Laboratory facilities
» Health office with a full time health officer.
 The concept is also labeled the “ first referral level”
which has the advantage of stressing the need to be
close enough to the front line in order to provide
effective back-up for the primary healthcare level.
BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 5
 MIDTERMS
MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH SERVICES
LEGISLATION AND HMO LEGISLATION AND MANAGED HEALTH SERVICES

DOH A. Constitution of the Philippines of 1987 (Art 1-18)

 Art. III- Declaration of Principles and state policies “the
state shall protect and promote the right to help of the
SECRETARY people and instill the right consciousness among them”
 Art. 18- Social Justice and Human Rights
4 UNDERSECRETARIES
 Sec. 11- The state should adopt an integrated and
CHIEF OF STAFF comprehensive approach to health development to
ensure availability, affordability, priority to under
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES privileged, disabled, women and children.
MANAGEMENT SERVICES & B. The National Health Insurance Act of 1995
STANDARD REGULATIONS  Republic Act 7875- An act instituting a national health
HOSPITAL FACILITIES SERVICES insurance program for all Filipinos and establishing the
Philippine Health Insurance Corp.
 There are 14 Regional health offices in charge of field C. The Local Government Code 1991
service for each region and 75 provincial offices for each  Chapter 3- Local Legislation and Legislative
province.
Power shall be exercised and presided by:
BARANGAY HEALTH SERVICE (BHS) 1. Province- Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Vice Governor
— The smallest unit for health service delivery administered 2. City- Sangguniang Panglungsod, Vice Mayor
by a midwife. 3. Municipality- Sangguniang Bayan, Vice Mayor
RURAL HEALTH UNIT (RHU) 4. Barangay- Sangguninag Barangay, Punong Barangay
— Composed of 3-10 BHS headed by a rural physician LOCAL HEALTH BOARD CREATION AND COMPOSITION
— It is in the municipality, and serves an average of 20,000 IN PROVINCES,CITY,MUNICIPALITY
population.
A. Provincial Health Board
MANPOWER OF RHU  Chairman: governor
 1 physician  Vice chairman: Provincial Health Officer
 1 public nurse  Member: Chairman, Committee on Health of Sangguniang
 1 sanitary inspector Panlalawigan, Representative from private sector or NGO,
 1 public health dentist Representative of DOH in the province.
 Several midwives
B. City Health Board
CITY HEALTH OFFICER  Chairman: City Mayor
— Has its own BHS within the city.  Vice Chairman: City Health Officer
— Manpower and administrative services depends on the  Members: Chairman, Committee on Health Sangguniang
financial capability of the city. Panglungsod, Representative of private sector or NGO,
LOCAL GOVERNMENT CODE 1991 Representative of the Department of Health in the city.
— DOH has transferred health services, assets, liabilities, C. Municipal Health Board
personnel, equipments, and records to the provincial, city,  Chairman: Municipal Mayor
and municipal government (LGUs).  Vice Chairman: Municipal Health Officer
JANUARY 1992- the delivery of health services is the sole  Members: Chairman, Committee on health Sangguniang
responsibility of LGUs Bayan, Representative of private sector or NGO,
Representative of DOH in the Municipality
 Provincial Health Offices (PHO)
 Rural Health Offices (RHU) D. The Health Management Organization (HMO) Concept
 Hospitals — It is a health care organization that signs up health
However, the Regional Health Office, teaching/training provider and hospitals and clinics into a network.
hospitals and medical centers and special hospitals are still Members pay a set per person fee which give them access
under DOH. to the HMO services.
Examples: Ayala Health care Inc., CAP Health maintenance, Fortune
Care, Health Card International Inc., Philam Care, Maxicare, etc.

BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 6

 EPIDEMIOLOGY
 The word “Epidemiology “ is derived from the Greek epi –
upon , desmos – people, logos- discourse or science.
 The scope of this branch of science was originally confined
to the origin , development and distribution of
communicable disease or epidemic infections .
 Nowadays , it is defined as “ orderly study of diseases and
other conditions in the human population where the
group rather than the individual is the unit of interest.”
 It is the study of the distribution and determinants of
disease.
 Its primary tool is the systemic observation of human
beings as they relate to their environment.
OBJECTIVES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY :
* Investigation of the disease and other conditions in
population , to ascertain the public health needs .
*To conduct research into factors that may influence the
occurrence of the disease or conditions , with a view to their
ultimate prevention or control.
FACTORS OF DISEASE CAUSATION AND BEHAVIOR:
1) Agent
2) Host
3) Environment
BIOLOGIC LAWS FOR COMMUNICABLE AND
NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES
1. Disease result from an imbalance between a disease agent
and man
2. The nature and extent of the imbalance depends on the
nature and characteristics of the host and agent.
3. The characteristics of the two are influenced considerably by
the conditions of their environment.
FACTORS INFLUENCING HEALTH EQUILIBRIUM
AGENTS HUMAN HOST
Biologic, nutrient,
chemical, Age, sex, race,
physical, and habits
mechanical
Physical,
Social,
Economic,
Biologic
THE AGENT FACTOR OF DISEASE
AGENT – is any element, substance, or force whether living
or non living, the presence, or absence of which can initiate or
perpetuate a disease process.
1. Could be non-living , living or borderline
2. Could be physical and mechanical in nature : light ,
electricity , temperature, and physical trauma.
3. Agents exhibit characteristics of both lifeless and living
agents combined. ( rickettsiae and viruses.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENTS OF DISEASES:
1. Physical features
2. Biologic requirements
3. Chemical make-up
4. Viability
5. Resistance
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISEASE IN RELATION TO
THE HOST
INFECTIVITY – ability to gain access and adapt to the human
host to the extent of finding lodgement and multiplying.
PATHOGENICITY – refers to the ability of an agent when
lodged in the body to set up a specific reaction, local general,
clinical and subclinical.
VIRULENCE – refers to the severity of the reaction produced
and usually measured in terms of fatality.
ANTIGENICITY – ability to stimulate the host to produce
antibodies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISEASE IN RELATION TO
ENVIRONMENT
— Refers to reservoir , sources of infection and modes of
transmission :
1. Reservoir of infections are man, animal, plants, soil or
inanimate organic matter in which an infectious agent lives
and multiplies and depends primarily for survival, reproducing
itself in such a manner that it can be transmitted to a
susceptible host.
2. Source of infection – defined as the thing, person, object or
substance, from which an infectious agent passes immediately
to a host .
3. Modes of transmission – are the mechanisms by which an
infectious agent is transported from reservoir to a susceptible
human host.
— Airborne spread could be through the respiratory
inhalation of residue of droplets from humans or from
sources such as the laboratory.
4. Vehicle of infection – refers to inanimate objects soiled or
contaminated by an infectious agent; water, food, milk,
instruments, utensils, blood, etc.
BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 7
5. Vectors – are arthropods or other invertebrates which
transmit infection by inoculation or by depositing infective
materials on the skin or objects.
THE HOST FACTOR OF THE DISEASE:
a) Age
b) Sex
c) Race
d) Habits , Customs and Religion
e) Exposure to agent
f) Defense mechanism of the Host
DEFENSE MECHANISM OF THE HOST
A. Specific anatomical defenses
B. Immunity – defined as the resistance usually associated
with possession of antibodies having a specific action on the
microorganism concerned with a particular infectious disease.
C. Inherent susceptibility – ability to resist disease
independently of antibodies or specifically developed tissue
responses.
D. Resistance – is the sum total of body mechanism which
interpose barriers to progress of invasion of infectious agents.
Includes both immunity and inherent susceptibility .
E. Tolerance – applied to the conditions whereby the
infectious agent can be demonstrated from the individual and
yet the person does not show clinical manifestation as should
be expected.
F. Premonition – applied to condition of refractoriness to
further infection in an individual already sick or harboring the
infectious agent due to a previous infection.
G. Allergy – is the untoward reaction of the body towards
certain specific substances which stimulate the formation of
histamine responsible for the allergic phenomenon.
H. State of nutrition.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS OF DISEASE
ENVIRONMENT - is the sum total of an organisms, external
surrounding conditions and influences that affect its life and
development.
 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT :
1. climate
2. humidity
3. geography
 BIOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT:
 SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
MAJOR PARAMETERS:
a. INCIDENCE - # of cases that will occur within a
population during a specified time period
cases/person-time
b. PREVALENCE – is the term used to indicate what
proportion of a given population is affected by a
condition at a given point in time. It is expressed in
percentage of the population, its range is 0% to 100%.
c. Cases/population x 100%
II. ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
— Used in studies to determine the etiology of the disease
— A researcher may attempt to establish that a casual
relationship exists between a factor and a disease
COMMON STUDY DESIGNS :
1. PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDY- conducted on general
population that is followed through time to see which member
develop the disease or outcomes in question .
2. CASE CONTROL STUDY – conducted using a population
that has a disease and a matching population that does not. In
this study the researcher thinks back from effect to cause.
Relatively inexpensive and requires a fairly short period of time
to obtain results.
3. RETROSPECTIVE FOLLOW-UP STUDY – used to evaluate
the effect that a specific exposure has had on a population.
Most commonly used in the area of occupational health
hazards. This study starts with an exposure in time past and
evaluate the histories of those exposed through to time
present.
III. EXPERIMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
— Used primarily in intervention studies
— Used to judge the cause and effect relationship of the
risk factors ( preventive factors and development of
disease ).
→ The experimental population is divided into 2 groups , one
will receive the preventive treatment and one that will
not.
→ Studies are done to assess the value of a particular
intervention or treatment such as antimicrobial therapy.
Also in artificial fluoridation of water supplies.
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES
— Collecting of data to describe normal biological processes.

THREE DIVISIONS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY — Understanding the natural history of diseases

1) DESCRIPTIVE EPIDEMIOLOGY — Measurement of distribution of diseases in populations.
2) ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
3) EXPERIMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY — Identification of determinants of diseases.

I. DESCRIPTIVE EPIDEMIOLOGY — Testing hypotheses for prevention and control of diseases

- Used to aid in the conceptualization and quantification of through special studies in populations.
the disease status of the community — Planning and evaluating health care services.

BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 8

 BASIC BIOSTATISTICS: CONCEPTS & TOOLS
STATISTICS BAR GRAPH
— The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing
and interpreting the data.
BIOSTATISTICS
— Is a study of statistics application in biology.
USES OF BIOSTATISTICS:
1. Become an essential and inseparable part of dentistry.
2. To measure the state of health of a community and to
identify its health problems and their nature.
3. Comparing health status and the present status with that of
other. PIE DIAGRAM

4. Planning and administration of health services and for

preventive measures.
5. For prediction of health trends.
6. Evaluate progress and development of disease.
7. Widely used in health and morbidity survey program
planning, operation andevaluation in field of epidemiology.
8. Statistics can contribute to good research
LINE GRAPH
9. Statistics help the dentist to think quantitatively and to be
able to assess probabilities.
10. Estimating future needs of the community.
SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal or Classificatory scale
2. Ordinal or Ranking scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
SOURCES OF STATISTICAL DATA
1. Experiments
2. Survey MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
3. Records /observation 1) Mean – average / means which is obtained by summing
TYPES OF DATA up all the observation and dividing the total by number of
 Primary Data observations.
 Secondary 2) Median – is the middle observation of an attribute are
 Data arranged in order either ascending or descending.
TABLES AND GRAPHS 3) Mode – Value which occurs with the greatest frequency
— Table and graphs are important means of summarizing
and displaying data, but they are seldom prepared with RATES
sufficient care. — Defined as the number of cases of the disease or defect
over the population at risk of getting that disease /
defect expressed to some convenient
INCIDENCE
— the number of new cases of disease or defects arising
among the population at risk during a given time period,
usually one calendar year.

BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 9

 PREVALENCE
— Is the total number of disease or defect cases seen at the
time of the study in the population at risk.
→ Generally a disease which occurs often but does not last
long shows a higher incidence prevalence rate.
→ A disease which is long lasting shows a higher prevalence
rate.

RANDOM SAMPLES
— the process of selecting a sample from a population is
essential to statistical interference.

TYPES:
1. Simple
2. Stratified
3. Cluster
4. Systemic

STANDARD DEVIATION
— Is the most frequently used measure of deviation.

STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN

— The standard deviation for this long list of sample means,
a measure of how similar these sample means are to each
other.

HYPOTHESIS
— An idea that can be tested

BURLA, L.J. • DDM 4- B 10