NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1. Thermal noise or Johnson noise: This is the noise that is generated by random thermal motion of electrons in a
conductor or resistor. It is also called white noise or Gaussian noise because it has a uniform power spectrum
across all frequencies.

2. Shot noise or Poisson noise: This is the noise that is generated by the random arrival of electrons at a
semiconductor junction. It is proportional to the square root of the current and is more pronounced at low
current levels.

3. Flicker noise or 1/f noise: This is the noise that has a power spectrum that decreases with increasing frequency.
It is often caused by defects or impurities in the materials used in electronic components.

4. Impulse noise or spike noise: This is the noise that consists of short-duration, high-amplitude pulses. It can be
caused by lightning strikes, switching transients, or other sources of electrical interference.

5. Crosstalk noise: This is the noise that is caused by coupling between adjacent communication channels. It can
result in signal distortion or interference.

6. Intermodulation noise or intermodulation distortion: This is the noise that is generated when two or more
signals interact in a nonlinear device, producing additional unwanted frequencies.

7. Environmental noise: This is the noise that is caused by external sources such as electromagnetic interference
(EMI), radio frequency interference (RFI), or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from nearby electronic devices or
power lines.

SHOT NOISE

Objective:
Define shot noise and its characteristics
Explain the causes of shot noise
Understand how shot noise affects electronic communication systems

Introduction:
Shot noise, also known as Poisson noise, is a type of noise that is generated by the random arrival of electrons at a
semiconductor junction. It is a significant source of noise in many electronic devices, particularly at low current levels. In
this presentation, we will discuss the characteristics and causes of shot noise and its effects on electronic communication
systems.

Definition and Characteristics:

Shot noise is the result of the statistical nature of electron flow in electronic devices. It is proportional to the square root
of the current and is more pronounced at low current levels. Shot noise is random and occurs in discrete bursts, creating
a jagged appearance on the signal waveform. It is also independent of temperature, and its magnitude depends on the
number of electrons passing through the device.

Causes of Shot Noise:

Shot noise is caused by the random arrival of electrons at a semiconductor junction. As electrons move through a device,
they are influenced by external factors such as temperature and impurities in the material, leading to fluctuations in the
current flow. These fluctuations can result in the generation of shot noise.
Effects on Electronic Communication Systems:
Shot noise can have a significant impact on the quality of electronic communication systems, particularly at low current
levels. It can result in errors in signal detection, reducing the signal-to-noise ratio and decreasing the overall performance
of the system. This effect is particularly pronounced in sensitive systems, such as high-speed data communication
systems.

The shot noise current density, i_n, can be calculated using the following formula:

i_n = √(2 * q * I * Δf)

where:
q = electron charge
I = current flowing through the device
Δf = bandwidth over which the current is measured

For example, let's say we have a diode with a current of 10 mA and a bandwidth of 10 kHz. Using the formula above, we
can calculate the shot noise current density:

i_n = √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.01 * 10000) = 0.00254 A/m²

This tells us that at this current and bandwidth, the shot noise in the diode is equivalent to a current density of 0.00254
A/m². By comparing this value to the signal level, we can determine the impact of shot noise on the overall performance
of the system.

Note: These sample problems assume a temperature of 300 K and a perfect device with no other sources of noise. In
reality, there may be additional sources of noise that contribute to the overall noise level of a system.

1. A photodiode has a current of 1 μA and a bandwidth of 10 MHz. What is the shot noise current density?
i_n = √(2 * q * I * Δf)
= √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.000001 * 10000000)
= 0.00036 A/m²

Answer: The shot noise current density is 0.00036 A/m².

2. A transistor has a current of 100 μA and a bandwidth of 1 kHz. What is the shot noise current density?
i_n = √(2 * q * I * Δf)
= √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.0001 * 1000)
= 1.01 × 10^-6 A/m²

Answer: The shot noise current density is 1.01 × 10^-6 A/m².

3. A laser diode has a current of 20 mA and a bandwidth of 100 MHz. What is the shot noise current density?
i_n = √(2 * q * I * Δf)
= √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.02 * 100000000)
= 0.00398 A/m²

Answer: The shot noise current density is 0.00398 A/m².

4. An amplifier has a current of 2 mA and a bandwidth of 10 kHz. What is the shot noise current density?
i_n = √(2 * q * I * Δf)
= √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.002 * 10000)
= 0.000632 A/m²
Answer: The shot noise current density is 0.000632 A/m².

5. A photodiode has a dark current of 1 nA and a signal current of 10 μA. The photodiode is operating at a
temperature of 290 K and has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. What is the shot noise current density?

First, we need to calculate the total current flowing through the photodiode:

I_total = I_dark + I_signal

= 1 × 10^-9 + 10 × 10^-6
= 10.001 × 10^-6 A

Next, we can use the shot noise formula to calculate the shot noise current density:

i_n = √(2 * q * I_total * Δf * R)

where R is the responsivity of the photodiode, which is given by:

R = (signal current / incident optical power)

Assuming the incident optical power is 1 mW, we have:

R = (10 × 10^-6 A / 1 × 10^-3 W)

= 10 A/W

Now we can plug in the values and calculate the shot noise current density:

i_n = √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 10.001 × 10^-6 * 1 × 10^6 * 10)

= 5.67 × 10^-11 A/m²

Answer: The shot noise current density is 5.67 × 10^-11 A/m².

6. A semiconductor laser is operating at a temperature of 273 K and has an output power of 10 mW. The laser has a
linewidth of 1 MHz and a beam diameter of 1 mm. What is the shot noise current density at the detector,
assuming a responsivity of 0.8 A/W?

First, we need to convert the output power to an optical power density:

P_density = P_output / A_beam

= 10 × 10^-3 W / (π * (0.5 × 10^-3 m)^2)
= 25.5 × 10^3 W/m²

Next, we can calculate the photocurrent generated by the laser using the formula:

I_photo = P_density * R * A_detector

Assuming the detector has an area of 1 mm^2, we have:

I_photo = 25.5 × 10^3 W/m² * 0.8 A/W * (1 × 10^-3 m)^2

= 0.0204 × 10^-3 A

Now we can use the shot noise formula to calculate the shot noise current density:

i_n = √(2 * q * I_photo * Δf)

= √(2 * 1.6 × 10^-19 * 0.0204 × 10^-3 * 1 × 10^6)
= 2.55 × 10^-10 A/m²

Answer: The shot noise current density is 2.55 × 10^-10 A/m².

Note: These problems involve more complex calculations and may require additional assumptions and simplifications. In
practice, it's important to carefully consider all sources of noise in a system and their impact on performance.

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is shot noise?

a. Noise generated by the thermal motion of electrons in a conductor
b. Noise generated by the random arrival of electrons at a semiconductor junction
c. Noise generated by defects or impurities in electronic components
d. Noise caused by coupling between adjacent communication channels
Answer: b. Noise generated by the random arrival of electrons at a semiconductor junction.

2. What is the characteristic of shot noise?

a. It is proportional to the current.
b. It has a uniform power spectrum across all frequencies.
c. It decreases with increasing frequency.
d. It consists of short-duration, high-amplitude pulses.
Answer: d. It consists of short-duration, high-amplitude pulses.

3. What is the effect of shot noise on electronic communication systems?

a. It improves signal detection.
b. It increases the signal-to-noise ratio.
c. It results in errors in signal detection and decreases the signal-to-noise ratio.
d. It has no effect on the performance of the system.
Answer: c. It results in errors in signal detection and decreases the signal-to-noise ratio.

4. Which of the following sources of noise is proportional to the square root of the current?
a) Thermal noise
b) Shot noise
c) Flicker noise
d) Impulse noise
Answer: b) Shot noise

5. What is the formula for shot noise current density?

a) i_n = √(2 * q * I_total * Δf * R)
b) i_n = √(2 * q * I_photo * Δf)
c) i_n = √(2 * q * Δf)
d) i_n = √(2 * q * I_total * R)
Answer: b) i_n = √(2 * q * I_photo * Δf)

6. What is the approximate value of the elementary charge (q)?

a) 1.6 × 10^-19 C
b) 3.0 × 10^8 m/s
c) 9.81 m/s^2
d) 6.02 × 10^23 mol^-1
Answer: a) 1.6 × 10^-19 C
7. A photodiode has a dark current of 1 nA and a signal current of 10 μA. The photodiode is operating at a temperature
of 300 K and has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. What is the shot noise current density?
a) 4.24 × 10^-11 A/m²
b) 2.88 × 10^-11 A/m²
c) 5.67 × 10^-11 A/m²
d) 1.23 × 10^-10 A/m²
Answer: c) 5.67 × 10^-11 A/m²

We can use the formula for shot noise current density:

i_shot = √(2qI*B)

where q is the charge of an electron (1.602 x 10^-19 C), I is the total current (dark current + signal current), and B is the
bandwidth.

First, we need to calculate the total current:

I = I_dark + I_signal = 1 nA + 10 μA = 10.001 μA = 1.0001 x 10^-5 A

Then, we can substitute the values into the formula:

i_shot = √(2*(1.602 x 10^-19)*(1.0001 x 10^-5)*1x10^6)
i_shot = 5.67 x 10^-11 A/m²

Therefore, the answer is c) 5.67 × 10^-11 A/m².

8. What is the main source of shot noise in a semiconductor device?

a) Thermal motion of electrons
b) Random arrival of electrons
c) Impurities in the material
d) External electromagnetic interference
Answer: b) Random arrival of electrons

9. What is the responsivity of a photodiode?

a) The ratio of signal current to incident optical power
b) The ratio of dark current to signal current
c) The ratio of output voltage to input power
d) The ratio of signal power to total power
Answer: a) The ratio of signal current to incident optical power

10. A semiconductor laser is operating at a temperature of 273 K and has an output power of 10 mW. The laser has a
linewidth of 1 MHz and a beam diameter of 1 mm. What is the shot noise current density at the detector, assuming a
responsivity of 0.8 A/W?
a) 1.85 × 10^-10 A/m²
b) 2.55 × 10^-10 A/m²
c) 4.12 × 10^-10 A/m²
d) 5.67 × 10^-10 A/m²
Answer: b) 2.55 × 10^-10 A/m²

We can use the formula for shot noise current density:

i_shot = √(2qI*B) / A

where q is the charge of an electron (1.602 x 10^-19 C), I is the total current, B is the bandwidth, and A is the area of the
detector.

First, we need to calculate the total current:

P = IV, where P is the output power, and V is the voltage across the laser diode.
Assuming a conversion efficiency of 30%, we have:
10 mW = 0.3 * V * I
I = 33.33 mA = 3.333 x 10^-5 A

Then, we can calculate the area of the detector:

A = π*(d/2)^2 = π*(0.5 mm)^2 = 7.85 x 10^-7 m²

Substitute the values into the formula:

i_shot = √(2*(1.602 x 10^-19)*(3.333 x 10^-5)*1x10^6) / 0.8 / 7.85 x 10^-7
i_shot = 2.55 x 10^-10 A/m²

Therefore, the answer is b) 2.55 × 10^-10 A/m².

11. Which of the following is an example of a device that can generate shot noise?
a) A resistor
b) A capacitor
c) A diode
d) A transformer
Answer: c) A diode

12. A semiconductor has a current of 10 mA flowing through it. What is the shot noise power in dBm assuming the
bandwidth of the measurement is 1 MHz?
a) -131 dBm
b) -129 dBm
c) -127 dBm
d) -125 dBm
Answer: b) -129 dBm

The shot noise power in dBm can be calculated using the formula:
Pshot,dBm = 10log10(2qIdB)

where q is the electronic charge, I is the current, and B is the bandwidth.

Substituting the given values, we get:

Pshot,dBm = 10log10(2 x 1.602 x 10^-19 x 10 x 10^-3 x 10^-6) = -129 dBm

Therefore, the answer is b) -129 dBm.

13. A photodiode is used to detect a signal with a power of -30 dBm. If the bandwidth of the measurement is 10 kHz and
the responsivity of the photodiode is 0.5 A/W, what is the shot noise current in pA?
a) 0.1 pA
b) 0.5 pA
c) 1 pA
d) 2 pA
Answer: d) 2 pA

The shot noise current can be calculated using the formula:

Inoise = sqrt(2qIdB)

where q is the electronic charge, I is the power converted to current, and B is the bandwidth.
Substituting the given values, we get:

Inoise = sqrt(2 x 1.602 x 10^-19 x 10^-3 x 10^(-30/10) x 10^3) = 2 pA

Therefore, the answer is d) 2 pA.

14. What is the shot noise current in an LED with a current of 20 mA and a bandwidth of 100 kHz, assuming a
temperature of 25°C and an ideality factor of 2?
a) 0.2 nA
b) 0.4 nA
c) 0.8 nA
d) 1.6 nA
Answer: d) 1.6 nA

The shot noise current can be calculated using the formula:

Inoise = sqrt(2qIdB)

where q is the electronic charge, I is the current, and B is the bandwidth.

To calculate I, we need to know the voltage drop across the LED. Assuming a forward voltage drop of 2 V, we get:

I = 20 x 10^-3 / 2 = 10 mA

Substituting the given values, we get:

Inoise = sqrt(2 x 1.602 x 10^-19 x 10 x 10^-3 x 100 x 10^3 x exp(qV/kT))

where V is the voltage drop across the LED, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature in Kelvin.

Substituting the given values, we get:

Inoise = sqrt(2 x 1.602 x 10^-19 x 10 x 10^-3 x 100 x 10^3 x exp(2 x 1.602 x 10^-19 / (1.38 x 10^-23 x 298))) = 1.6 nA

Therefore, the answer is d) 1.6 nA.

15. An amplifier has a gain of 1000 and a noise figure of 3 dB. If the bandwidth of the measurement is 1 MHz and the
source resistance is 50 ohms, what is the shot noise power in dBm at the input of the amplifier?
a) -173 dBm
b) -171 dBm
c) -169 dBm
d) -167 dBm
Answer: b) -171 dBm

The shot noise power at the input of the amplifier can be calculated using the following formula:

Pshot = 2qIdBRsource

where:
Pshot = shot noise power in watts
q = electron charge = 1.602 x 10^-19 C
Id = current through the source in amperes
B = bandwidth in Hz
Rsource = source resistance in ohms
Converting the given noise figure of 3 dB to a noise factor:

F = 10^(3/10) = 1.995

The total noise power at the output of the amplifier can be calculated as:

Pnoise_out = FkT0*B

where:
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10^-23 J/K
T0 = temperature in Kelvin
B = bandwidth in Hz

Converting the output noise power to input noise power using the gain of the amplifier:

Pnoise_in = Pnoise_out / G^2

where:
G = amplifier gain

The shot noise power can be calculated as the difference between the input noise power and the thermal noise power:

Pshot = Pnoise_in - Pthermal

where:
Pthermal = 4kT0RsourceB

Substituting the given values:

Pthermal = 4 * 1.38e-23 * 298 * 50 * 10^6 = 4.12e-17 W

Pnoise_out = 1.995 * 1.38e-23 * 298 * 10^6 = 1.09e-15 W

Pnoise_in = Pnoise_out / 1000^2 = 1.09e-21 W

Pshot = Pnoise_in - Pthermal = 1.08e-21 W

Converting the shot noise power to dBm:

Pshot_dBm = 10*log10(Pshot/10^-3) = -171 dBm

Therefore, the shot noise power in dBm at the input of the amplifier is -171 dBm.

16. A semiconductor has a current of 1 mA flowing through it. What is the shot noise power in dBm assuming a
bandwidth of 100 kHz and a temperature of 0°C?
a) -142 dBm
b) -140 dBm
c) -138 dBm
d) -136 dBm
Answer: c) -138 dBm
Pshot = 2qId*B

Converting the given current of 1 mA to amperes:

Id = 1e-3 A

Substituting the given values:

Pshot = 2 * 1.602e-19 * 1e-3 * 100e3 = 3.2e-14 W

Converting the shot noise power to dBm:

Pshot_dBm = 10*log10(Pshot/10^-3) = -138 dBm

Therefore, the shot noise power in dBm assuming a bandwidth of 100 kHz and a temperature of 0°C is -138 dBm.

17. A photodiode is used to detect a signal with a power of -20 dBm. If the bandwidth of the measurement is 1 MHz and
the responsivity of the photodiode is 0.8 A/W, what is the shot noise current in pA assuming a temperature of 25°C?
a) 0.2 pA
b) 0.4 pA
c) 0.8 pA
d) 1.6 pA
Answer: d) 1.6 pA

The shot noise current in a photodiode can be calculated using the formula:

i_shot = sqrt(2qi_dc*B)

where i_dc is the DC current, B is the bandwidth, and q is the charge of an electron.

First, we need to convert the power to the equivalent current. We can use the formula:

P = i^2 * R

where P is the power, i is the current, and R is the load resistance.

Converting -20 dBm to Watts, we get:

P = 10^(-20/10) mW = 0.01 mW = 10^-5 W

Converting this to current using the load resistance of the photodiode:

i = sqrt(P/R) = sqrt(10^-5 / (0.8 A/W)) = 3.54 * 10^-4 A = 354 μA

Next, we can calculate the shot noise current:

i_shot = sqrt(2qi_dc*B)

where q = 1.6 * 10^-19 C is the charge of an electron.

i_dc = 354 μA

B = 1 MHz
i_shot = sqrt(2 * 1.6 * 10^-19 * 354 * 10^-6 * 1 * 10^6) = 1.6 pA

Therefore, the shot noise current in pA is 1.6 pA, and the correct answer is (d) 1.6 pA.

18. What is the shot noise current in a resistor with a resistance of 10 ohms and a current of 1 mA, assuming a
bandwidth of 10 kHz and a temperature of 25°C?
a) 7.1 nA
b) 7.8 nA
c) 8.6 nA
d) 9.4 nA
Answer: c) 8.6 nA

The shot noise current in a resistor can be calculated using the formula:
I_shot = sqrt(2 * q * I * B * R)

where:
q = charge of an electron = 1.602 x 10^-19 C
I = current flowing through the resistor = 1 mA = 1 x 10^-3 A
B = bandwidth of the measurement = 10 kHz = 10 x 10^3 Hz
R = resistance of the resistor = 10 ohms

Substituting the values in the formula, we get:

I_shot = sqrt(2 * 1.602 x 10^-19 * 1 x 10^-3 * 10 x 10^3 * 10)

= 8.6 x 10^-9 A = 8.6 nA

Therefore, the shot noise current in the resistor is 8.6 nA.

19. An amplifier has a gain of 100 and a noise figure of 6 dB. If the bandwidth of the measurement is 10 kHz and the
source resistance is 50 ohms, what is the shot noise power in dBm at the input of the amplifier?
a) -168 dBm
b) -166 dBm
c) -164 dBm
d) -162 dBm
Answer: c) -164 dBm

The shot noise power in dBm at the input of the amplifier can be calculated using the formula:
P_shot = 10 * log10(2 * q * G * B * R * 10^(NF/10))

where:
q = charge of an electron = 1.602 x 10^-19 C
G = gain of the amplifier = 100
B = bandwidth of the measurement = 10 kHz = 10 x 10^3 Hz
R = source resistance = 50 ohms
NF = noise figure of the amplifier = 6 dB

Substituting the values in the formula, we get:

P_shot = 10 * log10(2 * 1.602 x 10^-19 * 100 * 10 x 10^3 * 50 * 10^(6/10))

= -164 dBm

Therefore, the shot noise power in dBm at the input of the amplifier is -164 dBm.
20. What is the shot noise in a resistor with a resistance of 50 Ω and a current of 1 mA? The charge of an electron is
1.602 x 10^-19 C and the bandwidth is 10 kHz.
A. 1.58 x 10^-16 A
B. 2.25 x 10^-10 A
C. 3.17 x 10^-15 A
D. 4.21 x 10^-13 A
Answer: A. 1.58 x 10^-16 A

he shot noise in a resistor can be calculated using the formula:

I_shot = sqrt(2 * q * I * B * R)

where:
q = charge of an electron = 1.602 x 10^-19 C
I = current flowing through the resistor = 1 mA = 1 x 10^-3 A
B = bandwidth of the measurement = 10 kHz = 10 x 10^3 Hz
R = resistance of the resistor = 50 ohms

Substituting the values in the formula, we get:

I_shot = sqrt(2 * 1.602 x 10^-19 * 1 x 10^-3 * 10 x 10^3 * 50)

= 1.58 x 10^-16 A

Therefore, the shot noise in the resistor is 1.58 x 10^-16 A.