ACTIVITY

Who said what?

Lev Vygotsky 1. “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s
development in the child but on
tomorrow’s.”
Erik Erikson 2. “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity
enough not to fear death.
Lawrence Kohlberg 3. “Right action tends to defined in terms of general
individual rights and standards
that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.
Jean Piaget 4. “The principal goal of education in the schools should be
creating men and women who
are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations
have
done.”
Sigmund Freud 5. “ The mind is like a iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its
bulk above water.”
Urie Bronfenbrenner 6. “ We as nation need to be reeducated about the
necessary and sufficient
conditions for making human beings human. We need to be reeducated not
as parents- but as workers,
neighbors, and friends; and as members of the organizations, committees,
boards- and, especially, the
informal networks that control our social institutions and thereby determine the
conditions of life for our families and children

ANALYSIS
Challenge your stock knowledge! After answering the short exercise above,
write what you remember most about the ideas of the following theorist. Focus
on what you think are their most important ideas about the development of
learners.

Sigmund Freud
I remember the id, ego, and superego. He simplifies the way we decide on
things
which is based on our id, ego, and superego. Our id is sought out in the
infant/newborn stages of life, the
ego emerges from the id and guarantees that the desires of the id are
expressed, and lastly the superego
that is part of our personality that is made up of values and beliefs that we
have learned from our
parents and environment. Also, the Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development
that has five psycho-sexual
stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the
erogenous zone associated with
each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson's theory that I remembered the most is the psychosocial
development. According to the
theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic
virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to
resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to
complete further stages and
therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.

Jean Piaget
I remember the 4 stages of development, firstly, the sensorimotor stage where
the child begins to
interact with the environment. Secondly, preoperational stage where the child
begins to represent the
world symbolically. Thirdly, the concrete operational stage where the child
learns rules such as
conversation. And lastly, the formal operational stage where the adolescent
can transcend the concrete
situation and think about the future.

Lawrence Kohlberg
I remember Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development that has 3
levels, the preconventional,
conventional, and postconventional that contains 6 stages. I learned that this
moral development theory
refers to the process by which children develop appropriate attitudes and
behaviors toward other
individuals in society, as determined by social and cultural values, laws, and
rules.

Lev Vygotsky
His theory or idea that I remember the most is the socio-cultural theory, it is
about the Zone of Proximal
Development, The More Knowledgeable Other, and scaffolding. He stated
that social interaction plays an
important role in children's learning. Through such social interactions, children
go through a continuous
process of learning.

Urie Bronfenbrenner
Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is a framework for
understanding human development that emphasizes the importance of the
social and environmental contexts in which individuals grow and develop. The
theory posits that individuals are nested within a series of interrelated
environmental systems, ranging from the individual's immediate family and
community, to broader cultural and societal influences.
Freud’s Components of the Personality
Review the three components and write important concepts about them in the
space provided.
ID Ego
The id, the most In contrast to the
primitive of the three instinctual id and the
structures, is concerned
moral superego, the ego
with instant gratification
is the rational,
of basic physical needspragmatic part of our
and urges. It personality. It is less
operates entirely primitive than the id and
Unconsciously (outside is partly conscious and
of conscious thought). partly
For example, if your idunconscious. It’s what
walked past a stranger Freud considered to be
eating ice the “self,”and its job is to
cream, it would most balance the
likely take the ice cream
demands of the id
for itself. andsuperego in the
It doesn’t know, or care,
practical context of
that it is rude to takereality. So, if you
something belonging to walked past the stranger
someone else; it would with ice cream one more
care only that you time,your ego would
wanted the mediate the conflict
ice cream. between your id (“I want
that ice cream right
now”) and superego
(“It’s wrong to take
someone else ice
cream”) and decide to
go buy your own ice
cream.While this may
mean you have to wait
10 more minutes, which
would frustrate your id,
your ego decides to
make that sacrifice as
part of the compromise–
satisfying your desire for
ice cream while also
avoiding an unpleasant
social situation and
potential feelings of
Shame.
Freud’s Psycho-sexual Stages of Development
Superego
The superego is
concerned with social
rules and
morals—similar to what
many people call their ”
conscience ” or their
“moral compass.” It
develops as a
child learns what their
culture considers right
and
wrong. If your superego
walked past the same
stranger, it would not
take their ice cream
because it would know
that that would
be rude. However, if
both your id and your
superego were involved,
and your id
was strong enough to
override your
superego’s concern, you
would still take
the ice cream, but
afterward you would
most likely feel guilt and
shame over your
actions.
Write the descriptions, erogenous zone and fixation of each of the stages
below.

ORAL STAGE According to Freud's psycho-sexual theory, the oral stage is

the first stage of human development that lasts from birth to
around 18 months of age. During this stage, an infant's primary
source of pleasure and satisfaction is through the mouth, as
they explore the world and satisfy their basic needs of hunger,
thirst, and comfort.

The oral stage is characterized by the erogenous zone, which

is the area of the body that provides the most pleasure. In this
stage, the mouth is the primary erogenous zone, as infants
derive pleasure from sucking, biting, and mouthing objects.

If a child is overindulged or underindulged during this stage, it

can result in fixation, or a persistent focus on this stage's
activities, leading to personality traits and behavior patterns
later in life. An overindulgence in oral activities can lead to a
fixation that manifests as an oral personality, who may exhibit
traits such as smoking, overeating, or alcoholism. An
underindulgence can lead to fixation that manifests as an oral-
aggressive personality, who may exhibit traits such as
sarcastic or biting remarks, aggression, or a need for control.

In summary, the oral stage is the first stage of Freud's psycho-

sexual theory, characterized by the erogenous zone being the
mouth, and fixation during this stage can result in personality
traits and behavior patterns later in life
ANAL STAGE According to Freud's psycho-sexual theory of development, the
anal stage is the second stage, which occurs between the ages
of 18 months and 3 years. During this stage, the child's focus
of pleasure shifts from the mouth (oral stage) to the anus, as
they become aware of their bowel and bladder movements.

The primary erogenous zone during the anal stage is the anus,
and the child gains pleasure from holding in or releasing feces.
Freud believed that during this stage, the child's primary
conflict is the ability to control their bowel and bladder
movements, which is related to their desire for independence
and autonomy.

Fixation at the anal stage can lead to a preoccupation with

issues of control, orderliness, and cleanliness, as well as
difficulty with authority figures and perfectionism in adulthood.
However, if the child successfully resolves the conflicts of this
stage, they move on to the next stage of development with a
healthy sense of independence and self-control.
PHALLIC According to Freud's psycho-sexual theory of development, the
STAGE phallic stage is the third stage in a child's development,
occurring between the ages of 3 to 6 years old. In this stage,
the child's focus of pleasure and interest shifts from the anal
zone to the genital zone.

The erogenous zone during the phallic stage is the child's

genitals. This is when children become more aware of their
own bodies and begin to explore their own genitals. Children at
this stage may also show interest in the genitals of other
people, which can cause confusion and conflict for the child
and the parents.

Freud believed that the successful resolution of these

complexes leads to healthy gender identity and the ability to
form successful adult relationships. However, if the child
becomes fixated at this stage, they may develop inappropriate
sexual behaviors or an inability to form healthy relationships in
adulthood.

Fixation at the phallic stage can occur if the child's needs are
not met, such as if they experience too much or too little
stimulation during this stage. For example, if a child is
overstimulated during this stage, they may become overly
focused on their genitals and struggle to form healthy
relationships with others. Alternatively, if a child is under-
stimulated, they may become sexually repressed and struggle
to develop a healthy sexuality in adulthood.
LATENCY According to Sigmund Freud's psycho-sexual theory of
STAGE development, the latency stage is the fourth stage in a child's
psycho-sexual development, occurring between the ages of six
and twelve years old. During this stage, the child's sexual
urges are repressed and they become dormant.

At this stage, the focus of the child's development shifts from

the erogenous zones of the previous stage to social and
intellectual development. Children at this stage may develop
interests in schoolwork, hobbies, sports, and other activities
that allow them to engage with peers and develop a sense of
competence and industry.

The erogenous zone during the latency stage is not defined by

a specific physical area, but rather by the child's suppressed
sexual energy. This energy is believed to be redirected towards
other areas of development, such as academic pursuits or
social relationships.

Fixation at the latency stage can occur if the child does not
successfully resolve conflicts during this stage, leading to an
excessive focus on intellectual and social development at the
 expense of later psycho-sexual development. For example, an
individual who is fixated at this stage may struggle to form
intimate relationships in adulthood or may have difficulty
expressing their sexuality in a healthy and appropriate manner.
GENITAL According to Sigmund Freud's psycho-sexual theory of
STAGE development, the genital stage is the fifth and final stage of
development, occurring during adolescence and continuing
into adulthood. This stage is characterized by a focus on
sexual pleasure and the development of mature sexual
relationships.

During the genital stage, the erogenous zone is the genitals.

The individual experiences sexual impulses and desires, which
are directed towards other people in a mature, romantic and
sexual context. At this stage, the individual seeks to establish
intimate relationships with others and desires to experience
sexual pleasure through these relationships.

If an individual experiences fixation in the genital stage, they

may have difficulty forming intimate relationships and may
have a fear of sexual intimacy. This fixation can occur when
there is unresolved conflict or trauma related to sexual
experiences or relationships from earlier stages of
development.

Overall, the genital stage represents the culmination of psycho-

sexual development and the emergence of mature sexual and
romantic relationships.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Review the psychosocial stages and fill out the matrix below.
STAGE CRISIS SIGNIFI MALADAPTATION MALIGNACY VIRTUE
CANT (INCLUDES (INCLUDES (INCLUDES
PERSON DESCRIPTIONS ) DESCRIPTIONS) DESCRIPTION
S)
1. Trust This stage Family/ If the care the If these needs are Success in
vs. begins at birth parents infant receives is not consistently this stage will
Mistrust continues to consistent, met, mistrust, lead to the
approximately predictable and suspicion, and virtue of hope.
18 months of reliable, they will anxiety may By
age. During develop a sense of develop. In this developing a
this stage, the trust which will carry situation the infant sense of trust,
infant is with them to other will not have the
uncertain relationships, and confidence in the infant can
about the they will be able to world around them have hope
world in which feel secure even or in their abilities that as new
 they live, and when threatened. to influence events crises arise,
looks towards there is a real
their primary possibility
caregiver for that other
stability and people will
consistency of be there as a
Care. source of
support.
Failing to
acquire the
virtue of hope
will lead to the
development
of fear. This
infant will
carry the
basic sense
of mistrust
with them to
other
relationships.
It may result
in anxiety,
heightened
insecurities,
and an over
feeling of
mistrust in
the world
around them.

2. This stage Parents The child is Erikson states Success in

Autonom occurs developing it is critical that this stage will
y between the physically and parents allow their lead to the
vs. ages of 18 becoming more children to explore virtue of will.
Shame months to mobile, and the limits of their If children in
and approximately discovering that he abilities within this stage are
Doubt 3 years. or she has many an encouraging encouraged
According to skills and abilities, Environment And supported
Erikson, such as putting on which is tolerant of in their
children at this clothes and shoes, failure. increased
stage are playing with toys, independence,
focused on etc.Such skills they become
developing a illustrate the child's More
sense of growing sense confident and
Personal of independence secure in their
control and autonomy. own ability to
over physical survive in the
skills and a World.
sense of
 Independence
3.Initiativ Initiative Parents During this period Conversely, if Success in
e versus guilt is the primary feature this tendency this stage will
vs. Guilt the third stage involves the child is squelched, lead to the
of Erik regularly interacting either through virtue of
Erikson's with other children Criticism or purpose. The
theory at school. Central to control, children courage to
Of this stage is play, develop a sense of pursue goals
psychosocial as it provides guilt.The child will without
development. children with the often overstep fearing
During the opportunity to the mark in His punishment
Initiative explore their forcefulness,and or guilt. This
versus guilt Interpersonal skills the danger is that develops
stage, through initiating the parents will through play
children activities. Children tend to punish the which is now
assert begin to plan child and restrict the child's
themselves activities, make up his initiatives too major activity
more games, and initiate much. It is a at his and
frequently activities with stage that the child important to
through others. If given this will begin to ask development
directing play opportunity, children many questions as
and other develop a sense of his thirst for
social initiative and feel knowledge grows.
interaction. secure in their ability If the parents treat
These are to lead others the child’
particularly and make decisions. questions as
lively, trivial, a nuisance
rapid- or embarrassing
developin or other aspects of
g years in a their behavior
child’s life. as threatening
According to then the child
Bee (1992), it may have feelings
is of guilt for “being a
a “time of nuisance”. Too
vigor much guilt can
of action and make the child
of slow to interact
behaviors that with others and
the parents may inhibit
may their creativity.
see as Some guilt is, of
aggressive. course, necessary;
otherwise the
child would not
know how to
exercise self-
control or have a
conscience
4. Children are Friends If children are If this Success in
Industry at encouraged initiative is not this stage will
vs. the stage and reinforced encouraged, if lead to the
Inferiority where they for their initiative, it is restricted virtue of
will be they begin to feel by parents or competence.
learning to industrious teacher, then the Some failure
read and (competent) and child begins to feel may be
write, to do feel confident in inferiour, doubting necessary so
sums, to do their ability to his own abilities that the child
things on their achieve goals. and therefore can develop
own.Teachers may not reach his some
begin to take or her potential. If modesty.
an important the child cannot Again, a
role in the develop the balance
child’s life as specific skill between
they teach the they feel competence
child specific society is and modesty
skills. The demanding is necessary.
child now (e.g., being
feels the need athletic) then
to win they may
approval by develop a
demonstrating sense of
specific Inferiority.
competencies
that are
valued
by society and
begin to
develop a
sense of pride
in their
accomplishme
nt
5. Identity During this Himself/ In response to Pressuring Success in
vs. stage, Herself role confusion someone into this stage will
Role adolescents or identity an identity can lead to the
Confusio search for a crisis, an result in virtue of
n sense of self adolescent rebellion in fidelity. Fidelity
and may begin to the form of involves being
personal experiment establishing a able to commit
identity, with different negative one's self to
through lifestyles (e.g., identity, and others on the
an intense work, in addition to basis of
exploration of education or this feeling of accepting
personal political unhappiness others, even
values, activities). when there
beliefs, and may be
goals. ideological
 differences.
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development

Sensory Motor Stage:

During this stage the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the
world stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object permanence. Towards
the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in
their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear because
they realize that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.
Age Range:
Birth to 2 years old
Characteristics:
● The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving
around and exploring its environment).
● During the sensorimotor stage a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object
permanence; self-recognition; deferred imitation; and representational play.
● They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to
represent the world mentally
● At about 8 months the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will
still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they
disappear.
Key Teaching Strategies:
The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still
exists,
even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the
object. If it cannot see something then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an
infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

Preoperational Stage:
By 2 years, children have made some progress towards detaching their thought from physical
world. However have not yet developed logical (or 'operational') thought characteristic of later
stages.
Age Range:
2-7 years old
Characteristics:
•Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
•During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make
one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
•A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
•Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that
non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.
Key Teaching Strategies:
Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgements about situations) and egocentric
(centred on the child's own view of the world).

Concrete Operational Stage:

The stage is called concrete because
children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete)
materials or pictures of them. Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the
child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try
things out in the real world).
Age Range:
7-11 years old
Characteristics:
•During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
•Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things
may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
•During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine returning
to its original shape).
•During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel.
Key Teaching Strategies:
Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its
appearance changes. But operational thought only effective here if child asked to reason about
materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or to be
overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

Formal Operational Stage:

From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its
content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and
logically
test hypotheses.
Age Range:
12 years old and over
Characteristics:
•Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on
ideas.
Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
•During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think
about
slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
•They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
•Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked
‘What
would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many
possible consequences.
Key Teaching Strategies:
This stage sees emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypothesis
when
faced with a problem.
Kohlberg’s Moral Stages of Development

Review the moral stages and identify and describe each using the graphic
organizer below.

STAGE 1
Obedience and Punishment Orientation
In order to prevent being disciplined, the child/individual acts good. When
anyone is punished,
that is because they have done something wrong.

STAGE 2
Individualism and Exchange
At this phase, children understand that the authorities do not have a single
clear perspective. Different people have different points of view.

STAGE 3
Good Interpersonal Relationships
To be seen as a good person by others, the child/individual must be good. As
a result, reactions are linked to other people's acceptance.

STAGE 4
Maintaining the Social Order
As the child/individual becomes knowledgeable of society's wider rules,
judgments focus on
following rules in order to uphold the law and avoid guilt.

STAGE 5
Social Contract and Individual Rights
The child/individual recognizes that rules/laws are intended to benefit the
largest number of
people, they might also act against the interests of specific individuals.

STAGE 6
Universal Principles
This states that moral reasoning is based on personal values. People also
created their own set of moral guidelines at this stage, which may or may not
correspond to the rule.

Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory

Define or describe the words below.

More Knowledge Zone of Proximal Scaffolding
Other (MKO) Development ( ZPD )
It refers to someone This is an important This gives support or
who has a better concept that relates to assistance to the child
understanding or a the difference between to accomplish a
higher ability level than what a child can achieve particular task that
the learner, with respect independently and what he/she cannot
to a particular task, a child can achieve with accomplish
process, or concept. guidance and independently. It is a
Although the implication encouragement from a way of guiding the
is that the MKO is a skilled partner. For students while they
teacher or an older example, the child could learn the material being
adult, this is not not solve the jigsaw taught. It consists of the
necessarily the case. puzzle (in the example activities provided by
Many times, a child's above) by itself and the educator, or more
peers or an adult's would have taken a long competent peer, to
children may be the time to do so (if at all), support the student as
individuals with more but was able to solve it he or she is led through
knowledge or following interaction with the zone of proximal
experience. For the father, and has development. Support is
example, who is more developed competence tapered off (i.e.
likely to know more at this skill that will be withdrawn) as it
about the newest applied to future becomes unnecessary,
teenage music groups, jigsaws. Vygotsky(1978) much as a scaffold is
how to win at the most sees the Zone of removed from a building
recent PlayStation Proximal Development during construction.
game, or how to as the area where the The student will then be
correctly perform the most sensitive able to complete the
newest dance craze - a instruction or guidance task again on his own.
child or their parents? In should be given allowing Wood et al. (1976,define
fact, the MKO need not the child to develop scaffolding as a process
be a person at all. Some skills they will then use "that enables a child or
companies, to support on their own -developing novice to solve a task or
employees in their higher mental functions. achieve a goal that
learning process, are Vygotsky also views would be beyond his
now using electronic interaction with peers as unassisted efforts." As
performance support an effective way of they note, scaffolds
systems. Electronic developing skills and require the adult's
tutors have also been strategies. He suggests "controlling those
used in educational that teachers use elements of the task that
settings to facilitate and cooperative learning are initially beyond the
guide students through exercises where less learner's capability, thus
the learning process. competent children permitting him to
The key to MKOs is that develop with help from concentrate upon and
they must have (or be more skillful peers - complete only those
programmed with) more within the zone of elements that are within
knowledge about the proximal development. his range of
topic being learned than competence" (p. 90). It
the learner does. is important to note that
the terms cooperative
learning, scaffolding and
guided learning all have
the same meaning
within the literature.
Interpret Vygotsky’s views about the teaching and learning process by drawing a diagram
showing the relationships of MKO, ZPD and scaffolding.

MORE
KNOWLEDGE
OTHER ( MKO )

SCAFFOLDING

ZONE OF
PROXIMAL
DEVELOPMENT
( ZPD )

In this diagram, the MKO is positioned above the learner, indicating that they possess
more knowledge and expertise. The ZPD is depicted as a range of tasks or activities
that the learner can perform with the guidance and support of the MKO. The
scaffolding is shown as the support provided by the MKO to the learner to help them
accomplish tasks within the ZPD. As the learner becomes more proficient, the MKO
gradually withdraws support, allowing the learner to perform the task independently.

Overall, Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction and the
role of a More Knowledgeable Other in guiding and supporting learners to reach their
full potential.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

Describe each of the systems in the theory.

The Five Ecological Systems

Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is a
nested arrangement of structures, each contained within the next. He
organized them in order of how much of an impact they have on a child. He
named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and the chronosystem.

The Microsystem
The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the
things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment,
such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers. Relationships in a
microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other
people in their environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and
actions of other people too. Furthermore, the reactions of the child to
individuals in their microsystem can influence how they treat
them in return. The interactions within microsystems are often very personal
and are crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development. If a child
has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a
positive effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will
have a negative effect on the child.

The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and
teachers, or between school peers and siblings. The mesosystem is where a
person's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are
interconnected and assert inflfluence upon one another. For instance, if a
child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of
microsystems. According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s
parents and teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should
have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects
on development if the teachers and parents do not
get along.

The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal
social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly
influence them as they affect one of the microsystems. Examples of
exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces, parent’s friends
and the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not
involved, and are external to their experience, but nonetheless
affects them anyway. An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s
development could be if one of the parents had a dispute with their boss at
work. The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a
result of something which happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative
effect on development.

The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems
theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture
that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and
perceptions about events that transpire in life. The macrosystem differs from
the previous ecosystems as is does not .

The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is
known as the chronosystem.
This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence
development, including major life transitions, and historical events. These can
include normal life
transitions such as starting school but can also include non-normative life
transitions such as parents
getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.

refer to the specific environments of one developing child, but the already
established society and
culture which the child is developing in. This can also include the
socioeconomic status, ethnicity,
geographic location and ideologies of the culture. For example, a child living
in a third world country
would experience a different development than a child living in a wealthier
country.

Describe what parents and teachers should do to help children develop into
the persons that they are
meant to be from the point of view of:
1. Sigmund Freud
A parent should be supportive in their child’s growth and development and
what better way to do so then by having knowledge surrounding their child’s
behavior from birth to adolescences. Parents must provide their own ideas
how to discipline and give values to her/his child. Kids seek out their parents
for closeness, a sense of achievement, and life maturity. Parents should make
every effort to educate themselves about what is considered normal and
healthy for their children and then balance the advice of child development.
Parents will be able to judge the progress that their children are making along
the way.
2. Jean Piaget
Children have the differences on thinking pattern at various ages and how
they used intelligence to answer questions and solve problems. Teachers and
parents should continually construct knowledge through hands-on learning to
support their children in developing their leanings. They would also give
the child some suitable and relevant materials for the child to interact and
construct.
3. Lawrence Kohlberg
Parents must discipline their children; teach them good moral and right
conduct. Impose set of rules.
Teachers and parents should help their children to decide for what is wrong
and what is right. Because children are tended more on reasoning, that’s why
teachers and parents will provide and teach the good moral and attitudes unto
children to unbroken the rules and to avoid punishment.

4. Lev Vygotsky
Teachers and parents must support their children in progressing to the upper
level of their zone of proximal growth. Parent or teacher should guide and
prompt what the child already knows, helping the child to learn more about the
world around himself/herself and what a child can potentially accomplish and
what a child can do with the assistance of others.
5. Urie Bronfenbrener
Parents and teachers should interact and build a strong relationship with
children because absence or lack of children constant mutual interaction with
adults has negative effects on their development.