Methods of Philosophizing

Group 1
Methods of Philosophizing

- different processes of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from statement using various
philosophical methods.

- philosophy utilizes pure reasoning in order to investigate reality on phenomenon to arrive at a

certain truth.

- Reason is the road to wisdom.

Methods of Philosophizing

 Socratic Questioning
- Interogative statement that clarify points to understand the deeper meaning of claim known
by the Greek term “Elenchus” means to inquire on or to cross examine.
- Developed by Socrates, a Greek philosopher and teacher Who laid the ground work for
western systems of philosophy and logic.
- Systematic process where by random and ambiguous ideas are eliminated to reach a sound
conclusion Therefore reaching an end point would only mean that the truth has been
realized and new knowledge has been aquired.

 Dialectic Method
- dialectic comes from the Greek word “dialecticae” means the act of conversation.
Disagreeing with one another and coming up with a conclusion from exchange of
contradicting arguments.
- this method can easily be seen in the different day to day interactions of people, it is much
like a debate that poses two clashing but valid arguments to determine an endpoint that is
correct and true.

 Scientific method of philosophizing.

- Knowing whether a mixture is heterogeneous or homogeneous can easily be done by
performing a simple test this involves the process of experimentation and observation
referred to as the scientific method of philosophizing.
- The term science is derived from the Latin word SCIENTIA which means to produce
knowledge, the process begins with an idea about any given topic hypothesis, testing is done
to prove the validity of this idea this method leads to wisdom and truth because it’s uses an
evidence-based approach to come up with its conclusion. In this method all truths are
supported by facts that can be easily tested or proven again through experiments logical
reasoning or observation. The knowledge and truth gained from the scientific method to
come directly from valid conclusions.

1
  The Historical Method or Historical Pieces of Evidence
 are derived from records of the past the term history is from the Greek word iotopia which
means to investigate or to find out the historical method.
 is the process of gathering evidence examining them and formulating ideas about the past to
come up with truth.

 Phenomenology
 Phenomenon comes directly from the Greek word Phainomenon meaning appearance
 Founded by the Father of Phenomenology, Edmund Husserl.
 Is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of
view.

The central structure of an experience is its intentionality, its being directed toward something, as it
is an experience of or about some object.

An experience is directed toward an object by virtue of its content or meaning (which represents the
object) together with appropriate enabling conditions.

Husserl’s Phenomenological Standpoint

 The first and best known is the epoche or “suspension” that “brackets” all questions of truth
or reality and simply describes the contents of consciousness.
 The second reduction eliminates the merely empirical contents of consciousness and focuses
instead on the essential features, the meanings of consciousness.

According to Husserl, reality can be grasp by and through structures of consciousness by applying
“Intentionality” to the object of the study

 Intentionality: Intentionally directing one’s focus

 Bracketing: Quarantining personal judgement so that it won’t interfere with
phenomenological inquiry

 Existentialism
- Soren Kierkegaard: First ever Existentialist
- Insisted that the authentic self was the personally chosen self as opposed to the public or
“Herd” identity
- Is the philosophical belief we are each responsible for creating purpose or meaning in our
own lives. Our individual purpose and meaning are not given to us by gods, governments,
teachers or other authorities
- A philosophy concerned with finding self and the meaning of life through free will, choice,
and personal responsibility.
- Is a form of philosophical inquiry that explores the problem of human existence and centers
on the subjective experience of thinking, feeling, and acting. Existentialist thinkers
frequently explore issues related to the meaning, purpose, and value of human existence.

Two Basic Types of Reasoning

2
 1. Inductive -based from observations to make generalizations; often applied in prediction,
forecasting, or behavior.

2. Deductive -draws conclusion from usually one broad judgement or definition and one more
specific assertion

Evaluating Truth from Opinions Using the Methods of Philosophizing

 Critical Thinking
- Critical is a Greek word kritikos (to separate) and Analysis, Ana (throughout) lusis (to
loosen)
- This is a method that philosophers use to address philosophical question.
- It is the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking.
- Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to questions of
very general interest.

The attributes of critical thinker include:

- looks for evidence to support assumption and belief

- adjust opinion
- looks for proof
- examines the problem
- reject irrelevant
- innocent information.

Arguments

- This is a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful.
- However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning.
- These kinds of arguments are called fallacies.
- Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the claim is desperate to
convince you to accept his or her argument.

Fallacies

- A philosophical fallacy can be described as a faulty argument, one that is not based on sound
reasoning or logic. These can be made on purpose or by mistake.
- If you use a fallacy in your argument, you're more likely to come to an incorrect conclusion,
mislead your audience, and be called out for your error.
- Simply put fallacies or not, just false beliefs are logical errors in argumentation, reasoning,
explanation, rhetoric, or debate.
- Identifying fallacies is an important aspect of our lives. Without being able to identify false
reasoning humans can resort to all kinds of harmful beliefs with dreadful consequences.

Types of Fallacies

1. Argumentum ad hominem for attacking the person

- hominem came from the Latin word homo which means man.

3
- at this fallacy, it literally means hitting the person below the belt instead of focusing in the
issue at hand example how can we believe that the food in the canteen is good, their
eyebrows are like two lines drawed.

2. Argumentum ad baculum or appeal to force.

- Baculum is a Latin word means scepter or stick. Scepter is a symbol of authority ex. Pope in
the Catholic religion. This is committed when a person uses threats or force to advance an
argument.

3. Ad misericordiam appeal to pity

- came from the latin word Misericordia which means pity or compassion. Don’t use this as
an excuse to take advantage.
- In which someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting one's
opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal to emotion

4. Argumentum ad populum or appeal to people or bandwagon.

- Populum “people” most tv commercials to present this argument which exploit peoples
vanity desires etc. Example everyone is getting a new iphone 12 when it comes out this
weekend why aren’t you? Ofcourse everyone will have their own preferences but we must
always remember to think critically before doing acting and deciding on things.
- is a fallacious argument which is based on claiming a truth or affirming something is good
because the majority thinks so.

5. Argumentum ad tradition or appeal to tradition.

- Traditio means tradition advancing an idea since it has been practiced for a long time.
Examples filipinos believe that if a spoon or fork falls on the floor an unexpected female or
male guest will come, some may be true but some may not. Keep in mind that traditions are
part of our rich culture. We must always respect other people’s beliefs.
- also known as argumentum ad antiquitatem or argumentum ad antiquitam, appeal to
antiquity, or appeal to common practice is a claim in which a thesis is deemed correct on
the basis of correlation with past or present tradition.
- The argument supports a position by appealing to long-standing or traditional opinion, as if
the past itself were a kind of authority

6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam or appeal to ignorance.

- Ignorantiam which means ignorance. Has not been proven false must be true and vice
versa. Example. Covid-19 is airborne because nobody appeals that it is not, but then again
let us always be mindful that ignorance can have an unintentional consequences making
incorrect decisions could lead to worse outcomes in the future.
- Ignorance- The lack of knowledge, awareness, or education
- is a fallacy in informal logic. It asserts that a proposition is true because it has not yet been
proven false or a proposition is false because it has not yet been proven true.

4
 7. Petitio principii or begging the question.
- According to Miriam’s Webster dictionary it is a fallacy that a conclusion is taken for granted
based on a premise. Which is also called a circular argument for example, no one is
permitted to use the school gymnasium during weekends students are permitted to use the
gymnasium only on weekdays remember circular reasoning get you nowhere and those are
the different fallacies we are guilty of.
- is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the
conclusion, instead of supporting it.
- Petitio principii can occur as a formal fallacy even though it is usually classified as an informal
fallacy.
- The argument is defined as fallacious since the conclusion does not logically follow from a
premise whose truth has been previously established. Thus, the argument does not prove
anything that was already not already known.
- Petitio principii is sometimes defined as a simple or immediate argument, whereas Circular
Reasoning is said to involve two or more arguments and so is a mediate argument.

Simply put fallacies or not just false beliefs they are logical errors in argumentation reasoning
explanation rhetoric or debate identifying fallacies is an important aspect of our lives without being
able to identify false reasoning humans can resort to all kinds of harmful beliefs with dreadful
consequences this time we will enumerate the different types of fallacies we will elaborate them
further and apply in real life scenarios.

BIAS

 These are the personal views of the person presenting it.

 is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is
closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair.
 Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a
group, or a belief.

Types of Bias

 Correspondence Bias
- Tendency to judge a person's personality by his or her actions, without regard for
external factors or influences. Ex. "These soldiers who fought in the war are all
bloodthirsty murderers!"
 Confirmation Bias
- The tendency to look for and accept information in a way that confirms one's own
beliefs and reject ideas that go against it. Ex. "How can I accept his view that there is
no God? I am a Christian!"
 Conflict of Interest
- A person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue being
discussed. Ex. "As the daughter of the accused, I believe I have the right to express
my opinion on the issue of his alleged corrupt practices."
 Cultural Bias

5
 - Analyzing an event or issue based on one's cultural standards. Ex. "I do not agree
with his Western practice of placing aged parents in retirement homes. We Filipinos
take care of our family members."
 Framing
- Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects. Ex.
"Preliminary evidence has still not pointed out the actual cause of the plane crash,
but investigators are currently focusing on the possibility of pilot error.'

Some people intentionally employ some faulty reasoning to convince others that is when will
become victims of the so-called misinformation and disinformation, for example fake news this days,
we can easily access information online but most of it comes from unreliable sources it enables
everyone spread information they want to using internet everyone needs to understand the internet
is an open source of ideas that are potentially bound for biases political cultural etc the result is a is
world wide web of row and unverified information it is important to validate information from
multiple sources this is where information literacy comes in.

II. Analyze situations that show the difference between opinions and truth

- Tractatus: Identifies the relationship between language and reality to define the limits of science

- Wittgenstein: describes spoken and written language, that is, propositions as one of these pictures
and define its meaning in terms of its capacity for being true or false; argues that the world consists
of states of affairs, not of things

- Cognitive meaning: connected with thinking or conscious mental processes

- Emotive Meaning: if they do the job of expressing the speaker’s emotions or attitudes, or exciting
emotions or attitudes in others