Introduction to NFPA 1700

NFPA 1700 - Modern Structural Firefighting

The hazards and challenges of structural firefighting continue to change, so it’s critical for the
fire service to evolve the way it responds to incidents. With modern homes often being
constructed on smaller lots, of more flammable, faster burning materials, and with more open
floor plans, newer technologies, and evolving fuel loads, the tactics you have relied on for
decades need to change. NFPA 1700, Guide for Structural Fire Fighting Online Training, is a
valuable resource for helping you increase your knowledge of state-of-the-art best practices and
methodologies. Developed in partnership with Underwriters Laboratories (UL), this all-new
instructional course is based on extensive scientific research and testing on contemporary
structures in addition to the latest NFPA 1700, 2021 edition, criteria.

Guide for Structural Fire Fighting Training

Your working environment has changed thanks to new construction methods, building materials,
fuel loads, and power generation and storage technologies. Understanding these changes could
be the difference between successfully extinguishing a fire and a complete loss. It’s critical to
understand current best practices and research that will affect future change.

What you can bring to your team to best assess a fire's growth and spread, and utilize control
methods to keep you, your team, and others safe?

Why is change important to understand?

Why is change important to understand? You might think, "Fire is fire. How much difference
could 50 years make?"

Changes in technology, and construction materials and methods have altered the model of fire
behavior taught to the fire service for decades. Explore the changes.

TECHNOLOGY
Technology is constantly changing how we work and live. Research that inspires change comes
from a wide range of disciplines: engineering, textile science, the military, and many others.

For example, the development of thermal imagers by the military enabled the use of thermal
imagers for the fire service.

THE FIRE ENVIRONMENT

Changes in construction materials, construction methods, insulation, and furnishings have
changed the speed of fire growth and how it moves through the structure. These changes may
result in the following:
  Faster fire propagation
 Shorter time to flashover
 Rapid changes in fire dynamics
 Shorter escape times
 Shorter time to collapse
 New exposure problems
 New and unknown hazards

SUMMARY OF STRUCTURAL FIRE DYNAMIC RESEARCH

During the past decades, research has been conducted with the fire service that applied fire
dynamics principles to structural firefighting. Fire departments, such as FDNY and LACoFD,
have taken the research results and implemented them in training and practice. Their
experience in the field has shown:

 Changes in fuel loads and construction methods have had an impact on the fire
environment
 The value of a proper size-up 
 The importance of having tactical options such as:
o Door control
o Coordinated ventilation and suppression
o Exterior fire control prior to entry

Fire departments have taken these results and translated them into tactical considerations.
That research and evidence-based body of knowledge is the NFPA 1700. The reason for this is
to recognize that the safety of the public and first responder is the highest incident priority.

Think About It...

How often do you make decisions on the fireground based on your knowledge of fire science or
fire dynamics?  When was the last time you updated your understanding of how it impacts
modern firefighting operations? 

THE PACE OF CHANGE

The Take-Away: The only constant is change, and change isn't going to slow down. The current
trend is that more homes will have solar panels on the roof and battery powered vehicles in the
garage. New technologies in building design and construction methods are always evolving.

Think About It...

How will these changes impact the fire? How will these changes influence your choice of
strategy and tactics?
Modern Challenges
New materials and new technologies have created new challenges for fire fighters.

SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
The Situation

Today’s home contents contain large quantities of petroleum-based products and synthetics that
burn faster and hotter versus traditional, natural materials such as wood and cotton.

The Science

Flame temperatures haven't increased with synthetic materials, but the amount of heat released
into the environment is increased with synthetic fuel sources. The flame temperature is limited
by the amount of oxygen available for combustion. In other words, the size and hazard from the
fire is greater with synthetic materials.

The Change for You

The combined factors of a well-insulated house and the higher energy potential of synthetic
fuels in homes can easily generate a ventilation limited fire condition.  As a result, the need to
tightly coordinate suppression and ventilation tactics is now more important than ever.

Watch the "Cotton vs Synthetic Sofa" video to see how quickly modern materials contribute to
flashover.

LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
The Situation

The use of lithium-ion batteries continues to increase in our homes today.  From battery
operated tools to laptops and other portable electronics they are now common place.  Also
consider that homes can have much larger lithium-ion battery systems in electrified vehicles
stored in the garage or energy storage for photovoltaic systems.

The Science

Thermal Runaway can be defined as “the inability of a battery to dissipate heat.” As a result, a
battery that has experienced a failure mode begins to heat. If that heat cannot be dissipated
quickly enough, the heat growth continues and can propagate beyond the initial cell to adjoining
cells.  This can also be caused by the battery being heated by an external source 
Signs of thermal runaway can include:

• A pressure increase resulting in a bulging or gross mechanical deformation of the battery.

• Temperature increase
• Visible white smoke or gases being expelled from the battery
• Heat and flame propagation
• Audible signs such as clicking, hissing or popping noises
• An explosive release

GREATER CANCER RISK

Fires always contain contaminants, but the ones produced by synthetic materials increase
cancer risks for firefighters.

 Cancer is one of the leading causes of line-of-duty deaths among firefighters today.
 Cancer rates for firefighters have risen dramatically in correlation with increased toxicity
of smoke.
 Contaminants from smoke are harmful to health when they enter the body via mouth,
respiratory tract, mucous tissue, or skin. 
 More of this topic will be explored in the Contamination Reduction module of this course.

Think About It...

Have your PPE cleaning protocols and initial contamination reduction practices kept up with
changes caused by more synthetic materials? 
Void spaces are more inherent in modern structures. What problems may they
pose?

Void spaces help prevent the fire from spreading.

Correct.
Void spaces allow fire to spread quickly.

Correct.
Void spaces provide opportunities for fire to go unnoticed.
Modern structures using open trusses and engineered joists allow for larger spans between
structural walls and have more opportunities for void spaces between floors than solid wood
joist construction. These spaces ease the spread of fire and may prevent people from noticing a
fire. 

What are some characteristics of lightweight building materials?

They are stronger and will prevent quick structural collapses.

Correct.
Lightweight construction materials can be used to increase the span between structural walls or
supports.
Lightweight engineered lumber construction materials are more flame resistant than wood.
Correct.
Less mass yields potential for quicker collapse when exposed to fire.
When exposed to fire, lightweight construction materials may enhance fire growth and lead to
shorter times to collapse due to the increased air between supports and higher flammability.

Today's Fire Environment

Explore a typical modern home to learn how new home construction changes the fire
environment. 

Larger Homes
Over the last 25 years, there has been an increase in the construction of larger two-story
homes. This means more open home geometries such as taller ceilings, open floor plans, two-
story foyers, great rooms, etc. 

Changing Building Materials

With the majority of new homes constructed using lightweight materials, there is a greater risk
for catastrophic structural collapse within operational time frames. Additionally, modern design
choices, like open spaces between rooms and floors, allow fire to spread faster throughout a
structure.

Void Spaces
Void spaces due to open trusses, channels, or penetrations allow fire to spread quickly
throughout a structure and can easily remain hidden. 

Evolving Fuel Loads

Today’s home contents are largely synthetic materials and have a higher rate of heat release
than natural materials. This creates an environment where fire grows quickly and reaches
flashover faster than in the past.

Smaller Lots
Larger homes being constructed on smaller lots has decreased the distance between residential
structures and may put neighboring houses at a higher risk of fire exposure.

Summary of Structural Fire Dynamics Shorter Time to

Flashover
The Science: 

 Research has shown rooms with synthetic (foam plastics) furnishings had flashover
occur in less than five minutes. The shortest time-frame for a room with natural
furnishings to transition to flashover was 29 minutes.
  These experiments demonstrated that if the fire has adequate ventilation, the fire fueled
with synthetic furnishing transitioned to flashover prior to the likely arrival of the fire
department.  As such crews may encounter ventilation-controlled fires more frequently.

Watch the video on the right to see these concepts in action.

Structural Collapse
The Science: 

 Modern home construction techniques use lightweight and engineered structural

components.  These components, when under load and exposed to open flame, could
collapse in 10 minutes or less.

 Given that it may take 4 to 8 minutes to arrive on scene, the structural integrity of a
lightweight floor or roof system may be compromised prior to or soon after your arrival.

Think About It...

Synthetic materials and lightweight construction have reduced safe operating time-frames. How
will your strategy and tactics need to change because of this?

Wind-Driven Fires
The Science: 

 Because wind-driven fires had led to Line of Duty Deaths (LODDs) across the country,
research was conducted to determine the impact of the wind on a structure fire and how
to fight a wind impacted fire.

 In 2007, experiments were conducted that demonstrated how introducing wind into a
simple "room and contents" fire with synthetic furnishings resulted in heat release rate
increases of more than 10 MW within 30 to 60 seconds. 
 The study showed that wind speeds as low as 9 miles per hour (4 m/s) could create fire
gas exhaust flows that extend from floor to the ceiling and create untenable thermal
conditions, even for a firefighter in full protective gear (1112ºF/600ºC with heat flux of
greater than 70 kW/m2).

 Research with FDNY showed how controlling stairwell doors, blocking vented windows
with wind-control curtains, or the use of an exterior water stream could be used to
remove the impact of the wind on the fire environment in a structure. 

 If possible, keep the wind at your back when fighting the fire.

Watch the video on the right to see these concepts in action.

Fire-fighting Ventilation Studies
Firefighting Ventilation Studies

The Science: 

The UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute team conducted several research studies in
structures built to resemble a 1,200 ft2 (112m2) single-story home and a 3,200 ft2 (297m2) two-
story home.

The results demonstrated that an upholstered furniture fire resulted in fuel rich (ventilation-
controlled) fire conditions prior to fire department arrival.   After venting, either vertical or
horizontal, fuel rich conditions continued until suppression actions reduced the heat release of
the fire within the structure.

As the buildings were vented, additional oxygen entered the hot, fuel-rich (ventilation-controlled)
fire environment within the structure, which resulted in rapid increases in heat, smoke, and gas
velocities between the location of the fire and the exhaust vent.  Without fire suppression, the
fire will continue to grow and outpace any ventilation operations being conducted, thereby
keeping it vent-controlled.

These studies clarified the need for the tight coordination of suppression and ventilation tactics
when fighting a ventilation-controlled fire.

Fire-fighting Suppression Studies

The Science: Several fire-fighting suppression studies were conducted at Governors Island, NY
(2012), Spartanburg, SC (2013 and 2014), and by UL FSRI (2015 and 2017). Both interior and
exterior fire control methods were examined with different types of nozzles, water flow-rates,
and nozzle movements to measure water spray distribution, air entrainment, and fire control
effectiveness.

 Effective water application into the fire compartment, either from the interior or the
exterior, reduced the thermal hazard throughout the structure.

 Effective water application, either from the interior or the exterior, did not increase
potential burn injuries to building occupants.

 Nozzle techniques to use window or door frames for breaking up a solid or straight
stream and directing water into the fire room were shown to be effective.

Cardiovascular and Carcinogenic Exposures

The Science: 

These studies examined the effects of current fire environments on cardiovascular and
carcinogenic risks for firefighters.   Heat stress is one of the most common challenges that
firefighters routinely encounter and can create strain on the heart.  Because firefighters perform
strenuous work while wearing heavy, insulating personal protective equipment (PPE), a rise in
body temperature almost always accompanies firefighting activity. High heat loads from the fire
can also add to the heat stress experienced by firefighters.

 Higher body core temperatures were measured during outside vent and overhaul
firefighting activities.

 Higher skin temperatures were measured during interior fire control firefighting activities.

 On-scene contamination reduction measures should be taken on the fire ground before
entering your apparatus and returning to the fire station to reduce carcinogenic
exposures.

 Carcinogenic exposures can occur if you are outside but, in the smoke, downwind of the
fire or if you are operating near the diesel exhaust of the apparatus. Wear appropriate
PPE at all times.
FUEL
Fuel is any substance that sustains combustion under specific environmental
conditions.

 Fuel can be natural (ex: wood, wool, cotton) or synthetic.

 Fuel load describes the amount of fuel within a defined space, such as a room

Why does it matter?

Synthetic fuel, which is more common in modern furnishings, has a higher heat of combustion
(energy per pound) and heat release rate than natural materials.

OXYGEN
A fire needs sufficient fuel and oxygen to sustain itself.

 Most fires get oxygen from the air around them, which is approximately 21% oxygen and
78% nitrogen
 Every fuel-air mixture has an optimum ratio when combustion will be most efficient, but
firefighters rarely respond to this fire

Why does it matter?

Visible smoke is an indication of inefficient combustion. Typically a result of too much fuel and
not enough oxygen for efficient combustion, hence "smoke is fuel".  
HEAT
Heat is the flow of energy between objects by means of kinetic energy.

 Heat in the fire tetrahedron represents thermal energy above the minimum level
necessary to release fuel vapors and cause ignition.
 Heat release rate (measured in kilowatts or kW) is a way of describing the size of the
fire. 

Why does it matter?

In a fire, heat promotes fire growth and flame spread by maintaining a continuous cycle of fuel
production and ignition.

CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION

A chemical chain reaction provides the ability to sustain flames.

 A fire triangle (heat, fuel, and oxygen) will only support a flash of flame or combustion in
a condensed (solid) phase, such as glowing embers or hot charcoal.
 Self-sustaining combustion occurs when sufficient excess heat from the exothermic
reaction (releases heat) feeds back to the fuel to produces fuel gases and ignition in the
absence of the original ignition source.

Why does it matter?

When uninhibited, this chemical chain reaction causes flames to grow and spread.
PLUME
A flame consists of three regions.

1. The area closest to the source of fuel, is the continuous flame.

2. Above that is an intermittent region where the flame isn’t as consistent and flickers.
3. Above that is the buoyant region, where the flame tapers off but the plume is filled with
hot gas and heat.

The heat and hot gases can pyrolyze or combust other objects in the area around a flame.

What will it look like?

Without interference, a fire plume and its smoke will remain vertical. In reality, the flow of the
plumes are often redirected by walls, ceilings or wind.

CEILING JET
Factors like ventilation or the compartment’s contents will affect a plume’s shape and growth.

Think about this...

The smoke and hot gas will expand across the ceiling space from the point of origin of the fire
until it finds an escape point, like at an open doorway, where it will expand into other rooms or
the exterior of a structure. This is why smoke detectors, heat detectors, and sprinklers are
located on or near the ceiling.

What will it look like?

As the smoke hits the ceiling and has nowhere for vertical escape, it flows along the ceiling.
This is because the buoyancy of the smoke and hot gases means it can float on the cooler air
below it. 

HOT GAS LAYER

Think about this...

In situations where there is no exhaust vent for the smoke to flow out of the compartment. The
hot gas layer will likely fill up the compartment as the fire continues to grow.  Even with an open
window or door, a fuel rich fire may generate a hot gas layer that will fill up most of the
compartment.

Why does it matter?

Smoke and heat can quickly build up throughout the room and lead to a dangerous fire
environment. In addition, vision will be obscured.

Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the movement of thermal energy from one object to another. Because of the
second law of thermodynamics, heat will always transfer from a hotter object to a cooler one.
Explore the different types of heat transfer to understand how this process affects the scene of a
fire.

CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of heat within a solid object or between objects that are in
direct, physical contact.

If you left a metal spoon resting on the edge of a pot of boiling water, it will absorb heat and
become hot.

What about the scene of a fire?

Objects will absorb heat differently based on their thermal conductivity. For instance, copper will
absorb heat at a rate 400 times faster than glass.

Why does it matter?

A firefighter in direct contact with hot surfaces, like a floor, wall, or door, will absorb heat from
that object into their protective gear, which is made of materials that slow the transfer of heat
through the gear. But, once the inner lining of protective gear is hotter than the firefighter, the
heat will be transferred to the firefighter. The air trapped in the layers of the gear slow the
transfer of heat through the gear. If the gear is compressed the heat will conduct through the
gear at a faster rate.
CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat between a solid and the liquid or gas passing over it.

When a pot of boiling water is heated by the burner below it, the water inside the pot is warmed
by convection. Steam rising above the water and the boiling water are signs of convection
taking place in and above the water.

What about the scene of a fire?

At the scene of a fire, the visible fire might not be touching objects around it, but the fire will
transfer heat into the air via the thermal plume, ceiling jet and hot gas layer.

Why does it matter?

Because hot gas is less dense (more buoyant) than the surrounding cooler air, hot gas will rise
above the fire. In practice, this means that a firefighter would crawl under the hot layer of gas
where cool air remains, thus avoiding the hot convective flow.

RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves that carry energy
from one object to another.

The most common source of radiation we experience is from the sun’s heat to Earth.

What about at the scene of a fire?

A fire radiates, or transfers heat via light waves to surrounding objects. While most of the heat
from a fire is transferred due to convection, most of the remaining heat is transferred by
radiation. As the radiating area of the fire and the hot gas layer increases, radiant heat transfer
will affect more of the fire room and can trigger flashover. The speed of light is much faster than
the ceiling jet, so radiant heat passes through air and gases to heat objects. Materials absorb
heat from radiation differently. A flat black piece of iron, for example, is a great source of
absorbing and re-emitting radiation, while polished steel reflects radiation without absorbing
much of it.

Why does it matter?

Like standing around a campfire and feeling its heat, firefighters at the scene of a fire will not
need to be in contact with a fire or the hot gas layer in order to experience heat from a fire.

Heat Release Rates

Heat Release Rate or HRR is the measure of energy released from a burning object over
a unit of time. 

Objects burn differently because of:

  The chemical or physical properties of the fuel source
 The geometry of the fuel source
 The oxygen available for consumption
 Other nearby fuel sources

Why does it matter?

Furnishings in homes today are commonly made from synthetic materials. Synthetic materials
burn with a higher heat release rate (HRR) than natural materials.

Every fuel has a point where the energy absorbed by it is enough to cause ignition or initiating
self-sustained combustion. The combustion zone, or the physical region where flames can exist
may include other fuels that could ignite as the HRR increases.

Observations, Fuel-Controlled vs Vent-Controlled

Explore these tabs to learn more about the characteristics of these fire categories and how
they'll affect your actions on the scene.

FUEL-CONTROLLED
Fuel-controlled fires are ones in which the heat release rate and growth rate are controlled by
the characteristics of the fuel, such as quantity and geometry, and in which adequate oxygen for
combustion is available.

Why does it matter?

Application of water to the seat of the fire will have the most immediate impact in extinguishing
this fire type.

VENTILATION CONTROLLED
Ventilation-controlled fires are ones in which the heat release rate or growth is controlled by the
amount of oxygen available to the fire.

Why does it matter?

Sudden changes to the available oxygen, like opening an exterior door, can rapidly increase fire
growth which can lead to flashover.

EVOLUTION
A fire doesn't stay stagnant. As a fire grows, spreads, or decays, it will transition between fuel-
controlled and ventilation-controlled.

Why does it matter?

You could arrive at a fuel-controlled fire that becomes ventilation-controlled and then returns to
fuel-controlled. Understanding this will impact decisions on how and when to attack a fire.

As the fire grows, the oxygen is depleted. Without an oxygen source, the fire will decay. But, if
ventilation is provided, the fire can rapidly grow again. This is why door control and awareness
of ventilation points is critical.

Flow Path
It’s important to understand how air and smoke interact at the scene of a fire so you can make
correct decisions based on observations.
The route followed by smoke, air, heat, or flame toward or away from an opening; typically, a
window, door, or other leakage points, due to differences in pressure.

Flow Path Control

Flow path control is the tactic of controlling or closing ventilation points to limit additional oxygen
into the space and, consequently, limiting fire development, heat release rate, and smoke
production. Flow path control also involves controlling the movement of the heat and smoke
conditions out of the fire area to the exterior and to other areas of the building.

As a fire develops, pressure differentials are created by the expansion of gases heated by the
fire versus the lower-pressure spaces. This allows convective flows to develop as higher-
pressure gases move towards areas of lower pressure.

How to Control Flow Path

Coordinated ventilation, such as door control, is a key step to controlling the flow path of smoke
and air. Adding air to a ventilation-controlled fire will increase the heat release rate and the
resulting hazards. 

Understanding when and where to open doors or windows is a vital part of flow path.
More Observations, Fuel-Controlled vs. Vent-
Controlled
Let’s review and identify fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled fires.

Fuel-controlled fires are ones in which the heat release rate and growth rate are controlled by
the characteristics of the fuel, such as quantity and geometry, and in which adequate air for
combustion is available.

Ventilation-controlled fires are ones in which the heat release rate or growth is controlled by the
amount of air available to the fire.

Neutral Plane
How fire and smoke behave at open windows and doors can tell you a lot about a fire before
you approach or enter the building.

FLOW PATH
The route followed by smoke, air, heat, or flame toward or away from an opening; typically, a
window, door, or other leakage points, due to differences in pressure.

EXHAUST VENT
The outlet of a flow path that allows the gases to move out of the structure.

INTAKE VENT
The inlet of a flow path that allows fresh air to move into the structure.
UNIDIRECTIONAL VENT
A building opening that serves as either an intake and exhaust vent of a flow path at a given
time.

BIDIRECTIONAL VENT
A building opening that serves as both an intake and exhaust vent of a flow path at the same
time.

NEUTRAL PLANE
Marks the level at a bi-directional vent, such as a doorway or window opening, between the hot
gas (smoke) flowing out of a fire compartment and the cool air flowing into the compartment.

Wind-Driven Fires
Fire isn’t the only force of nature you’ll have to consider; flow behaviour can change dramatically
based on the speed and direction of the wind.

Wind speeds as low as 9 mph can have a significant impact on the flow behaviour of the fire
gases and increase the risk of fire extension and threat to human life.

Read each scenario and make a decision about how your approach to fighting the fire might
change based on wind.

13 Initial Arrival Factors

NFPA 1700 details 13 initial factors firefighters should consider. These are meant to be
instantaneous observations that become second-nature.

By observing these details, firefighters should have an overall evaluation of conditions

immediately upon arrival that will impact fire control strategy.

You ran through many of these in the pre-assessment, but let’s break down each of these 13
initial arrival factors as outlined in NFPA 1700.
Initial Arrival Factors
1. Bystander/witness statements
2. Access concerns on the property
3. Building height, size, and stability
4. Occupancy type
5. Construction type
6. Wind direction relative to the building location and configuration
7. Fire location, size, extent
8. Civilian and firefighter life safety
9. Suspected direction of fire and smoke travel within the structure (flow path)
10. Smoke and fire exposures exterior to the structure
11. Presence and status of fixed fire protection systems
 12. Firefighter safety building marking systems
13. Resources available

360 Assessment
The 360 Assessment or 360 Survey is a visual assessment of all four sides of the structure
looking at smoke conditions, fire conditions, openings, and personnel hazards. It is essential,
and information obtained during the 360-degree survey should challenge and verify the
assessment based on the initial arrival factors.

You practiced this in the pre-assessment, but explore this list to review the considerations that
should be made in a 360-degree assessment:

360 Observations

1. Number of stories on A and C sides

2. Verify basement type (finished or unfinished) and consider the following:

          a. Type of windows
          b. Likelihood of occupancy
3. Presence of occupant escape systems
4. Utilities, including the following:
          a.       Electrical service/overhead lines
           b.     Propane/fuel oil tanks
           c.       Natural gas service (location)
           d.       Photovoltaic panels (solar panels)
5. Pre-existing structural hazards
6. Hazardous grade changes
7. Roof type and construction
8. Presence of fire protection features (hydrants, FDC, fire pump, etc.)

Risk Management
Risk management might seem like an ironic term for a profession that involves operating
in burning buildings...
...but just because firefighters assume risk doesn’t mean there aren't limits to the risk that
should be taken.  The incident action plan should be based on the extent of the fire, structural
integrity, thermal limits of PPE and available staffing.

Risk management means making sure the things you can control aren’t left to chance. This
training is an example of risk management, because you’re proactively learning your
responsibilities at the scene of a fire.

Every fire department should have a risk management plan specific to their teams, equipment,
and responsibilities. Do you know your department’s plan? Make a goal to review or learn it
after completing this module.
Strategy
The best decisions about how to attack a fire will be made based on data and observations.
With those in mind, you'll need to make a decision whether to act offensively or defensively to
attack a fire.

Offensive
Offensive strategy is the united action of all fire personnel to control and extinguish the fire,
search for occupants, and rescue those in need.

What's changed?

Traditional definitions of strategy defaulted to where the firefighter was standing, and Offensive
positions were those with firefighters inside the structure. But, that definition does not reflect the
reality of firefighters’ actions at scenes of the fire. Instead, Offensive strategies are those with
intent to go inside the structure.

What does it look like?

If there is any intention to go inside the building, even if it’s not immediately, your strategy would
be offensive. For instance, applying exterior water to the structure in order to help a crew gain
safe entry is an offensive strategy, even if everyone is currently standing outside of the
structure.

Defensive

Defensive strategy is the united actions of fire personnel to protect exposures and contain the
main body of fire to the already affected areas.

What's changed?

Traditional definitions of strategy defaulted to where the firefighter was standing, and defensive
positions were those with firefighters outside the structure. 

What does it look like?

Defensive strategies are those without intent to go inside the structure. Usually this is decided
because the structure is compromised, the situation is too volatile, and human life is not in
immediate danger.

Observations are critical to understanding the scene of a fire and the strategy needed to
extinguish it. How you approach one fire will be different than how you approach a similar fire in
a different structure. So, taking the time to process the scene will help with the determination of
offensive or defensive strategy based on your observations.

Tactics Coordination
The fireground is not black and white, and there's no single tactic that is ideal for all fires.

The primary mission on the fireground is life safety. Ongoing size-up, both interior and exterior,
will help determine how and where firefighters will coordinate tactics. Coordinating firefighting
tactics will lead to more effective fireground operations.

Explore the topics below to learn more about how you can support coordination on the
fireground.

General Tactics
Let's first review some general information you'll use to make tactical decisions.

Choosing Tactics to Support Your Strategy

A strategy is the general plan or direction selected to accomplish incident objectives.  Tactics
are the deployment and direction of resources on an incident to accomplish the objectives
designated by the strategy.

General Approach to Tactics

The tactics that will be focused on are Suppression (water) and Ventilation (air).  These are
highlights of the tactics identified in NFPA 1700.  These tactics are options that can be chosen
and implemented on the fire ground as needed.  Departments should train on performing and
coordinating these tactics for use on the fire ground.  

The intent isn't to restrict innovation but provide a template. As new discoveries are made and
tactics evolve having a template will make it easier to disseminate changes in tactics across
departments.

Determining Priorities
How do you prioritize?
When multiple high priority tasks must be accomplished sequentially, fire control should be the
first priority.

Why?
More people are saved by a well-placed and advanced hose line than any other tactic. When
high priority tasks can be accomplished simultaneously, it is critical to support and protect the
rescue or search operations using hose lines and flow path management.

Goal
If fires are extinguished early enough, there will be less smoke, heat, flame, and potential for
rapid fire development and associated dangers.

Putting Tactics into Action

Conditions, staffing, and resources should drive fireground tactics and tasks. Some tactics might
require more resources and staffing than what is available. Think smart when putting tactics into
action.

What does it look like?

Coordination means that timing is precise, movements are well choreographed, and
communications are clear and concise. Specifically, fire control, search and rescue, and
ventilation crews should all operate as one. Coordinated fireground operations enhance life
safety, incident stabilization, and property conservation.

Search and Rescue

Objective: Removing any potential victims from the hazardous atmosphere as soon as possible
after arrival is essential to minimizing their exposure, thereby increasing their chance of survival.

Hazards
Evaluating Hazards

Exposure dose is a function of the time an individual is exposed to a hazard (such as thermal
exposure and/or toxic gases), and the earlier into an incident the occupant is removed from the
atmosphere, the lower dose they are likely to have been exposed to and the greater the
chances for survival.

At residential fires, size-up of the exterior and interior will determine how tactics of fire control
and ventilation can be used to support the primary search for occupants.

Search and Rescue Tactics

Research

The tactics sections focus on fire control and ventilation, as coordination of these tactics are
essential to support effective search and rescue operations. A primary search needs to be
conducted in all involved and exposed buildings that can be entered.

As more research is conducted and more data available to the fire service, these topics will
continue to evolve to improve efficiency and effectiveness on the fireground.

Helping Victims
Search and rescue is, and always will be, a high priority to the fire service and unprotected
occupants. The fire service does have data points on occupant survivability. We know that three
things impact the survivability of a space in a structure:

1. Proximity to the fire

2. Elevation of the space
3. Isolation from fire
What does it look like?

An occupant located in a room with a closed door between them and the fire has a higher
likelihood of survival than an occupant with an open bedroom door. An open door can lead to a
closer proximity to the fire compartment and more exposure to toxic gases and thermal injuries.
Locations further from the compartment of origin and low in the space also increase the
occupants' chances of survival compared to places closer to the fire and higher in elevation.
Remember these principles when prioritizing your tasks during search and rescue.

Coordination
Objective: Working together on the fireground using sequential or simultaneous tactics in order
to accomplish tactical objectives that control the fire, lead to extinguishment, and prioritize life-
saving efforts.

Communication
Within and between crews on the scene

Coordination of ventilation and suppression operations are critical and require clear, direct
communication between command and companies or crews assigned to fire control, ventilation,
and other tactical functions that are or will be taking place inside a structure.

Working Together

Fire control, search and rescue, and ventilation/non-ventilation crews should all operate as one.
This means that the tactical plan should be understood and followed by everyone so incident
risks are minimized and available resources are managed.

Remember

Because conditions on the fireground vary, there is no single tactic that is ideal for all fires.  This
is why the strategic goal and tactical plan needs to be communicated to all members operating
at the incident.

Coordinating Tactical Objectives

Sequential Tasks

Some tactics involve an order of tasks, in which case fire control should be the first priority. For
instance, controlling fire from an exterior position using water might be necessary before
firefighters can advance into a structure. This is an offensive strategy that requires crews to
coordinate steps. For example, if one company is initiating an exterior application of water while
another company assumed immediate entry was the best tactic, the result could be an
uncoordinated and dangerous scene.

Simultaneous Tasks

When high-priority tasks can be accomplished simultaneously, it is important to support and

protect the rescue or search operations using hose line(s) and flow path management. Ignoring
the fire during search and/or rescue operations is a recipe for disaster. If the fire is extinguished
early enough, there will be less smoke, heat, flame, and potential for rapid fire development and
its associated dangers.
Regardless of the assigned priorities of on-scene crews, a fire control crew should not overlook
the needs of a trapped occupant, and a rescue or search crew should not disregard the risks
presented by active fire.
Why Does it Matter?

Coordination therefore becomes a tactical decision as to whether the need is to apply tactical
actions sequentially due to insufficient resources or to undertake tactical actions simultaneously
because resources are sufficient for that level of incident action plan. Specifically, fireground
tactics are formed when equipment, techniques, and positioning are combined and deployed to
complete a strategic objective.

Suppression Tactics
Water is the most widely-used fire extinguishment agent due to its effectiveness. In this this
module, we'll discuss ways to use hose streams to optimize the water's effectiveness.

Understanding how individual tactics work and when to use them will help you think critically
before attacking a fire.

Fire Control
The coordinated task of delivering an extinguishing agent (e.g., water) to fire and hot gases
while managing the flow of air, smoke, heat and fuel(s).

Exposure Fire Control (Exterior Operation)

Tactical Objective: Limiting the spread of the fire beyond the building of origin by
controlling/preventing fire extension to surrounding structures and combustibles.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

How
Direct application of water limits the impact of radiant heat and direct flame on surrounding
structures and combustibles.

Keep in mind

Water curtains are not as effective in preventing radiant heat transfer. Class A Foam or CAF
application to the exposure(s), as well as direct/indirect application to source fire, are alternative
methods to achieve this objective. Extinguishing the source fire will prevent fire spread and
extension.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Success

Exposures are protected from igniting, and the spread of fire is prevented.

Safety Considerations
Be alert

Keep all personnel out of structural collapse zones. If personnel on exterior operations will be
exposed to smoke, appropriate respiratory protection should be worn. Also, be aware of the
effects of radiant heat on personnel, equipment, and combustible materials in proximity to the
fire.

Exterior Fire Control

Tactical Objective: To improve conditions in the interior of the structure to increase the potential
for occupant survivability and make it more tenable for interior firefighting operations.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Where

Performed from an exterior position and must be coordinated to support fire control/rescue
operations.

How

From an exterior position, introduce a stationary straight or solid stream handline through an
opening into the fire room, at a steep angle, deflected off the ceiling or off of the window frame,
with care taken to not block the exhaust vent capability of the window.  The goal is to generate a
broken stream inside of the fire room.

 - Match the flow rate to the heat release rate and area of involvement to minimize water
damage.
 - Can also be accomplished using master streams and water application to eaves for an attic
fire.

Rapid interior fire attack following/concurrent with exterior control is crucial to limit regrowth and
maintain tenability.  Must be coordinated to support fire control/rescue operations.

Keep in mind

Limited on-scene resources, large fire volume, and delayed entry time/access for direct fire
attack may require multiple or longer applications; more time equals more water.  

Achieving the Tactical Objective

The interior of the structure is cooled, halting flaming combustion and resulting in a reduced
heat release rate.

Reduction of surface temperatures halts pyrolysis of unburned fuels.

Flames are extinguished and steam production absorbs energy from the environment to cool
smoke (fuel).

Safety Considerations
Flow path is key

- Improper nozzle applications may disrupt the flow path and can injure or kill occupants
and/or interior firefighters. Change of flow path may also result in rapid-fire growth to
other involved areas.

- Firefighters should avoid advancing under a superheated thermal layer without cooling
as they move.  PPE can quickly be compromised during interior advancement due to
radiant heat transfer or within a convective flow.

Interior Advancement (Interior to Seat of Fire)

Tactical Objective: To cool and control smoke temperature, flammability, and radiated heat to
increase safety during interior progression to the seat of the fire.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

When advancing to the seat of the fire, the need for continuous water application is determined
by the fire intensity, smoke temperatures, room size and configuration, location, ventilation
profile, and distance to the seat of the fire. The “flow and move” technique is effective for interior
advancement.

Water application techniques

Utilizing the reach of a straight stream, sweep the ceiling areas forward of the crew position
during advancement to seat of the fire. 

Effectiveness of the water application technique and reapplication should be constantly

assessed while advancing, preferably with a thermal camera.  Optimal position, nozzle pattern,
and technique should be evaluated to maximize or minimize air entrainment/movement based
on ventilation conditions and flow path. Water must be applied to the source fire as safely a
possible with consideration given to safe positioning.

Ventilation

When attempting to move smoke ahead of the advancing crew, a sufficient vent hole opposite
their location is required, and the hose stream is then moved rapidly and consistently in an O, T,
Z or Ç pattern to maximize air movement.  Wet all surfaces forward of the operating position.
Ventilation should be coordinated until water is applied to the main body of the fire. Limiting
ventilation with door control will increase the effectiveness of smoke cooling techniques.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

When the temperatures along the route to the seat of the fire are reduced, conditions are more
tenable and safer for firefighting personnel.

 Straight Stream/Smooth Bore Application:  Water application cools the hot

compartment surfaces, allowing them to absorb more thermal energy from the hot
smoke layer. When deflected off the ceiling, water cools the hot gases as droplets travel
through the hot smoke layer. The steam created from cooling both the ceiling area and
hot gases further absorbs thermal energy.

 Fog Stream Application:  Water droplets applied to smoke volume converts to steam
and cools it. The temperature reduction causes contraction and dilution of the smoke,
resulting in reduced flammability and radiation of heat.  Fog streams can be useful in
redirecting the smoke flow direction due to increased air entrainment and pressure
ahead of the stream.

 Hose stream air entrainment should be limited when no vent is available opposite the
fire.  Wind speed and direction in relation to intended flow path should be checked prior
to and during operations.

Safety Considerations
Firefighters should avoid advancing under a superheated thermal layer without cooling as they
move and consider that PPE can quickly be compromised during interior advancement within a
convective flow.
Hose stream air entrainment should be limited when no vent is available opposite the fire, and
wind speed and direction in relation to intended flow path should be checked prior to and during
cooling operations.

Interior Fire Control

Tactical Objective: The control and extinguishment of the fire.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Fire Control

Advancement to the seat of the fire should be matched to interior fire conditions and smoke or
surface cooling prior to the direct attack may be appropriate. Once the seat of the fire is located
and is within reach of the fire stream, direct fire control should be conducted either from an
interior or exterior position to the fire room. This is most safely done from the air intake portion
of the flow path. Optimal position, nozzle pattern and technique should be evaluated to
maximize or minimize air entrainment /movement based on ventilation conditions and flow path.
Water application techniques:
  Preferred, Direct attack:  If the room is unvented opposite the attack line, use a straight
or solid stream applied directly to the burning fuels.  If there is a vent in place, use an O,
T, Z or Ç pattern applied from the furthest distance possible.

 Alternate, Indirect attack:  Use of a fog pattern may improve coverage and reduce

water damage.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

When water is applied to the seat of the fire, there are several outcomes associated with fire
extinguishment.

 Water cools the fuel surfaces, interfering with pyrolysis and halting flaming combustion.
This in turn reduces the heat release rate.
 The flame is displaced from the surface of the fuel.
 Reduction of surface temperatures of unignited fuels, stopping pyrolysis.
 Secondary steam production absorbs energy from the environments, cooling the smoke.

Safety Considerations
 Avoid positioning yourself between the seat of the fire and the exhaust outlet.
 Use the reach and penetration of the stream to provide a standoff distance from the
effects of the fire.
 Wind speed and direction should be considered in relation to the intended flow path.

Interior Indirect Control

Tactical Objective: The suppression of fire to improve tenability for additional fire control and
overhaul operations.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

This tactic is not intended for use in occupied spaces. Advancement to the fire room should be
matched to interior fire conditions, and smoke or surface cooling prior to the direct attack may
be appropriate.
Water application
Water is applied from outside the under-ventilated fire room. The flow rate should be
appropriate for the heat release rate and area of involvement and balanced to avoid excessive
water damage.

Water application techniques

 Preferred:  Water is applied to compartment linings, burning fuel, and the smoke layer
from outside of the room using a narrow fog pattern.  The room remains isolated to
ensure maximum effectiveness of steam production.

 Alternate:  Other options to conduct an indirect attack include a broken or straight

stream, rotary nozzle, fog or mist producing piercing nozzle, or a fire extinguisher.
Achieving the Tactical Objective
 The application of water to compartment linings, burning fuel, and the smoke layer to
quickly create the maximum amount of steam, reduces temperatures, dilutes smoke, and
displaces oxygen.

Safety Considerations
 Fog application from a position exposed to the outflow of heated smoke and steam can
be dangerous. The production of steam may reduce tenability in adjoining spaces.

Ventilation Tactics Library

The decision about when, where, and how to ventilate is guided by an understanding that, in the
absence of effective water application, air increases the heat release rate and potential for rapid
fire development.  With this understanding of the impact of air on fire growth and the
requirement for coordinated water, the tactical options are for either non-ventilation or
ventilation.

Ventilation Types
Once a decision has been made to ventilate or not ventilate, there are a number of tactics to choose
from. 

Non-Ventilation
Tactical Objective: To limit the introduction of combustion air to the fire to hold fire growth in
preparation for interior operations.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Ventilation operations must be coordinated with suppression operations. Conduct life-fire-layout
sweep to assess survivability profile in the fire room and control ventilation to create survivable
areas in other parts of the structure. If possible, utilize a thermal imager to locate the source of
the fire and monitor changing conditions.

Close or restrict building openings and manage the flow path by controlling air inlets and/or
smoke outlets using doors or coordinating ventilation, when possible. Alternative methods
include ventilation control devices or portable doors or smoke curtains.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Fire growth is dependent on oxygen. By limiting the oxygen supplied to the fire, growth and heat
release rate are reduced. 
Safety Considerations
 Anticipate rapid fire growth if planned or unplanned ventilation occurs prior to the
application of water
 The height of the interface layer lowers and reduces tenability
 Wind speed and direction is in relation to position and potential flow path

Horizontal Ventilation
Tactical Objective: Improve interior tenability by releasing smoke and heat during fire control
and to support search, extinguishment, overhaul and post-fire ventilation.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Ventilation operations must be coordinated with suppression operations. If possible, utilize a
thermal imager to locate the source of the fire and monitor changing conditions.

Establish a ventilation outlet in the fire room while opening the entry door as an additional inlet,
considering flow path impacts. Inlets and outlets should be on opposite sides of the structure or
compartment. The location of vent openings must be chosen taking into account wind speed
and direction and potential fire flow path.

Door control and limited ventilation may be used until effective water is on the fire.
Considerations

- Assess the survivability profile in the fire room.

- Vertical ventilation is an alternative technique that can be used.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Buoyant smoke is replaced by denser fresh air due to the gravity currents and/or air pressure
differentials resulting in a more tenable environment for firefighters and victims.

Safety Considerations
 Failure to coordinate ventilation with effective water application will increase heat release
rate.
 Anticipate rapid fire growth if planned or unplanned ventilation occurs prior to the
application of water.
 Consider opposing wind, wind speed, and impact on the direction of the flow path.

Vertical Ventilation
Tactical Objective: To improve interior tenability by releasing smoke and heat during fire control
and to support search, extinguishment, overhaul, and post-fire ventilation.

Implementing the tactical objective

Ventilation operations must be coordinated with suppression operations. If staffing and available
equipment allows, consider vertical ventilation when you cannot vent horizontally. Utilize door
control and limited inlet ventilation until vertical outlet is established.
Combined with water application

Establish outlet openings, followed by inlet openings coordinated and in conjunction with the
effective application of water.

 Consider wind direction and speed to manage potential flow paths.

 Create the Inlet opening on the windward side and outlet above or close to the source
fire.  
 A 4’x4’ hole is rarely sufficient for effective ventilation

Continuously assess the situation. Consider using thermal imaging to locate the fire and monitor
changing conditions.  

 Raising of interface layer height and visibility will be temporary if the fire is not controlled
with water application
 It may be necessary to plan for exposure control, as well

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Buoyant smoke is exhausted from an opening located above the level of fire utilizing the stack
effect. Then, denser fresh air entrained via a horizontal inlet(s) due to the gravity current and/or
air pressure differentials creating a more tenable environment.

Safety Considerations
 Failure to coordinate ventilation with effective water application will increase the heat
release rate.
 Anticipate rapid-fire development if ventilation, both planned and unplanned, is
increased without the application of water to the fire.
 Consider wind speed and direction.
 The increased risk associated with falling off or through the roof. Always ensure two
means of egress from the roof are available and continuously assess the structural
integrity of the roof.

Hydraulic Ventilation
Tactical Objective: To improve interior tenability conditions during primary/secondary search,
overhaul, and property conservation through directing the flow path post-fire control.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

A hose stream is employed at an opening, creating a pressure differential, entraining smoke,
and discharging it from the compartment/room. The combination nozzle should be opened in a
straight stream and move to fog selection within the opening to prevent turbulence. Nozzle
placement should create a water pattern that fills the window opening.
Alternative technique
An alternative technique is to position as far from the vent opening as possible and use a solid
stream in a rapid O pattern through the window.
Considerations

 Check if ventilation can be done safely post fire.

 Observe the movement of smoke and adjust position, nozzle pattern, and technique to
maximize air entrainment/smoke movement.
 Check surroundings for rekindling or adverse effects and potential exterior impacts from
the water flow.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

A net negative pressure in the compartment/room is created, drawing in replacement air from
other openings and discharging smoke.

Safety Considerations
Personnel should stay low on approach to the intended vent location and ensure hose stream
operation does not create other hazards downstream. The operation should be monitored for
fire rekindle, and consideration should be given to wind speed and direction.

Positive Pressure Ventilation

Tactical Objective: Remove smoke from the non-fire area to improve tenability, secure egress
path to assist search and rescue or the approach to fire area, remove smoke from fire room
post-fire control and purposefully managing the flow path.

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Ventilation
Establish outlet ventilation/exhaust prior to mechanical ventilation at the inlet. Area of exhaust
should be equal to or greater than the area of the inlet.  Too large an exhaust area, such as the
removal of several windows, will minimize the effectiveness of the PPV fan.
Considerations
 Hoseline should be in place to address potential growth or extension of fire.
 Communicate fan activation. Continue to monitor the structure for negative effect.
 Start the fan immediately after the fire is extinguished for greater efficiency. Be sure to
assess for fire extension.
 Monitor interior CO readings if using a gas powered PPV fan.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

The fan creates a pressure differential, influencing the flow of air and smoke from the inlet to the
exhaust, making the area more tenable for firefighters and occupants as the smoke and heated
gasses are moved out the exhaust.

Safety Considerations
The attack team coordinates and communicates with the IC and fan and exhaust control
personnel. Anticipate rapid fire growth if ventilation is increased absent the application of water
for both planned or unplanned ventilation. The fan should be monitored by a radio equipped
firefighter ready to turn it on or shut it down, depending on conditions.  Safety consideration
should be given to wind speed and direction. 

Negative Pressure Ventilation

Tactical Objective: Create a negative pressure at an established ventilation opening to exhaust
smoke post-fire control

Implementing the Tactical Objective

Positioning

Place the fan (smoke ejector) on the leeward side of the structure with the perimeter of the fan
sealed to the ventilation opening with a tarp or commercial adapter while ensuring the ejector
inlet and outlet are not obstructed. Work with the direction of natural air flow and not against a
prevailing wind.

Considerations

 A power supply and electrical cords will be needed

 Not effective for areas with high ceilings
 Ventilation efficiency is greatly reduced if air is allowed to recirculate around the ejector
or by opening windows or doors near the ejector
 Positive pressure ventilation might be considered as an alternative technique

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Smoke is pulled from the structure, clearing the interior atmosphere.

Safety Considerations
Make sure the fan is intrinsically safe and that electrical cords are protected from environmental
conditions. Do not move operating fans.

 Attack and Isolation Tactics

 Let's dive into how positive pressure attack and isolation can be used to ventilate and
support extinguishment.

Positive Pressure Isolation

Tactical Objective: To create a positive pressure environment in the non-fire area greater than
the pressure in the fire area to limit fire and smoke propagation.
Implementing the Tactical Objective
Mechanical fans or systems are used to increase the pressure in an adjoining room or
compartment to contain smoke to the fire room. Inlet and exhaust openings should be controlled
to maintain the desired pressure differential and isolate the fire.

Considerations

 Fan activation should be communicated, and the structure continuously monitored for
fire/smoke propagation. 
 Pressurize areas of the structure that are isolated from the fire compartment. If a flow
path through the seat of the fire is not created, there is no fire growth.
 Do not use PPI in compartments impacted by fire extension from area of origin
 Non-ventilation may be an appropriate alternative

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Smoke and fire are prevented from extending into the protected area.

Safety Considerations
Progress reports should be given to the IC and should be coordinated with fan control
personnel.  Consideration should be given to wind speed and direction. Rapid fire development
is possible if the fire has extended to concealed spaces.
Non-ventilation may viable alternative.

Positive Pressure Attack (PPA)

Tactical Objective: Improve interior tenability conditions for advancing crews and trapped
occupants and include purposeful direction of the flow of smoke, air, heat and flame from the
inlet to the exhaust prior to fire control. 

Implementing the Tactical Objective

An exhaust ventilation hole/area larger than the inlet area should be established prior to the
start of mechanical ventilation. The inlet is the opening to the fire compartment, and not
necessarily the exterior door.  Interior advancement techniques can be used as appropriate,
followed by timely fire control.

Transitional attack may be utilized, if possible, prior to fan activation. Fire growth due to
ventilation must be reduced by applying water on the fire during fan operation. Also, consider
deploying a line to the exhaust locations.

Operating the fan

Members operating the fan and controlling the exhaust must coordinate via radio. When starting
the operation, communicate any change or negative effects. 

Considerations
  PPA is most effective in domestic floor plans with many rooms and closed doors. It will
not be effective on fires in an open floor plan or one with high ceilings.
 Source fire must be near or adjacent to an exterior outlet.
 Ongoing assessment of inlet and exhaust flow is imperative to determining if a fan flow
path has been established and if conditions are improving.
 Creation of additional openings not in the fire room will create additional flow paths
making PPA ineffective, with the potential to draw the fire into all flow paths.
 PPA does not negatively affect the survivability of occupants behind a closed door.
 Extension into void spaces as result of PPA is directly related to the exhaust capabilities
of the void space.
 The setback of the fan or development of a cone of air is not as important as the exhaust
size.
 The application of water, as quickly as possible, whether from the interior or exterior prior
to initiating PPA, will increase the likelihood of a successful outcome. PPA is not a
replacement for using the reach of your hose stream.

Achieving the Tactical Objective

Tenability for firefighters and victims would improve as smoke, air, heat, and flames were
directed from the inlet to the exhaust through the use of fans to create a pressure differential.

Safety Considerations
 It is critical that the fire control team coordinate and communicate with the IC and fan
and ventilation/exhaust control personnel. The fan should be monitored by a radio
equipped firefighter ready to turn it on or shut it down, depending on conditions. The
assessment of inlet and exhaust locations must be continuous.

 Anticipate rapid fire growth if planned or unplanned ventilation occurs prior to the
application of water.

Contamination Reduction
Guide for minimizing exposure to products of combustion
 After a fire is extinguished, you need to maintain focus on controlling a different kind of
danger through contamination reduction.
 Every fire contains harmful contaminants, but today’s firefighters are exposed to smoke
from a wider variety of burning materials. This likely results in more varied and unknown
risks from smoke exposure.
 Explore the topics below to learn more about best practices for on-scene and firehouse
contamination reduction techniques.

 Fireground Contamination Reduction

 Explore the steps your department can take to reduce firefighter exposure to the harmful
products of combustion on the fireground and back at the station.

Contamination Reduction Terminology

After an incident where firefighters and their gear are exposed to contaminants, it’s necessary to
take steps to ensure that gear is removed in a way that reduces cross or additional
contamination.  All gear must be appropriately cleaned prior to being used again. 
Contamination reduction is the systematic removal of the byproducts of the fire ground from
tools, equipment and PPE.

Preliminary Exposure Reduction

The initial phase of contamination reduction process during which the amount of surface
contaminant is significantly reduced by removing bulk contaminants and substances from the
surface of PPE, equipment, or tools using some form of brushing, wetting agents, and/or
detergents.

Dry Method

Utilizing physical brushing off of personnel, PPE, apparatus, tools, and equipment to reduce
contaminants.

Water-based Method

Utilizing a water and soap solution to reduce contaminants on personnel, PPE, apparatus, tools,
and equipment is more effective than dry methods or using only water.

Doffing off Contaminated Gear

The process of properly removing a member’s PPE and respiratory protection to limit additional
contamination and exposure.

Reducing exposure to contaminants on the

Fireground
Cancer is one of the leading causes of firefighter deaths. The risk of exposure to potentially
cancer-causing toxic chemicals is still high even after a fire has been extinguished.

Appropriate levels of PPE should be required in the designated zones.  During and after
extinguishing the fire, respiratory protection should be worn when contaminants are present.
Lack of visible contaminants does not mean that the environment is free from contaminants;
therefore, strict compliance with respiratory protection must be enforced. 

Firefighters want to think about the fireground in terms similar to that of a HAZMAT scene: using
hot, warm, and cold zones.
Hot Zone
 The primary incident hazard area deemed immediately dangerous to life and health
(IDLH) and where personnel wear suitable PPE for the hazards encountered.
 Firefighters should wear their SCBA while in the hot zone, from initial entry through
overhaul.  
 The incident commander should take into account the travel of the smoke plume when
designating the perimeter of the hot zone.
 Whenever possible, apparatus should be positioned outside hot zone to limit spread of
contaminants via the apparatus itself.  At a minimum, the doors and windows of the
apparatus should be kept closed.
Warm Zone
 A limited-access area for personnel directly aiding or in support of operations in the hot
zone where personnel wear PPE suitable for the hazard present.
 Zone where preliminary exposure reduction (PER) i.e. gross decontamination takes
place, decontaminated PPE is doffed, and contaminated equipment is stored.
 Whenever possible apparatus should be positioned in the warm zone to limit exposure to
contaminants and the doors and windows of the apparatus should be kept closed
 Diesel exhaust is a known carcinogen. When operating around the apparatus minimize
your exposure to the exhaust.
Cold Zone
 A fire hazard free area where PPE is not required and that is suitable for locating
command, rehabilitation, medical functions, debriefings and public access.

Overhaul Operations Exposure Reduction

Overhaul is one of the last stages of firefighting involving the final extinguishment of all fires
after the main body has been knocked down. Overhaul is often thought of as a task with
reduced risk, but that's not always true, especially in terms chemical exposures.  PPE should be
worn and used, as the scene may still have harmful gases, particulates, and other
contaminants, most of which may not be detected with your eyes or even with fire service gas
meters.  
Heat stress is a concern and should not be ignored or dismissed. Incident commanders must
ensure enough personnel are on scene to relieve those who are overheated. But removing gear
while still in the hot zone could expose firefighters to more severe risks, such as CO,
particulates in the air, or other substances that are undetected and not visible to the eye, such
as harmful gases or asbestos. Gas-powered fans can introduce additional CO to the fire scene.
Any fan can stir up dust, soot, ash, and other particulates.  
Typical four gas meters cannot detect all hazardous gases, for example benzene or
formaldehyde. The meters cannot measure for particulates, asbestos or glass fibers. Keep in
mind that some particulates that are too small to see can travel deep into your lungs and cause
permanent injury. It’s important to remember the reason that hot zones are established is
because the area could still be full of harmful contaminants. The smoke has cleared and your
four-gas meter indicates there is sufficient oxygen and no carbon monoxide is it okay to remove
your SCBA?
Visual observations aren't enough to determine that the air is safe to breath, and typical fire
service meters do not have the ability to detect the wide range of contaminants that may be in
the air, including particulates.   For these reasons, you and your crew must remain in full PPE
and SCBA until out of the hot zone and you have been properly decontaminated.

Preliminary Exposure Reduction (PER)

Preliminary Exposure Reduction is the systematic removal of the contaminants that remain on
tools, equipment, and PPE from the fireground. Firefighters should make efforts to remove all
products of combustion and other contaminants from their equipment in order to promote a
healthier environment, including reducing exposure to potential carcinogens and keeping tools
and equipment serviceable.
Explore the methods below to understand more about the components of preliminary exposure
reduction:
DRY METHOD
Techniques that do not wet the PPE may be employed depending on the level of contamination,
environmental conditions (particularly cold weather), and materials available on the scene. Dry
brushing can be used to remove large debris from PPE, tools and equipment.  
- Dry decontamination should be performed prior to the firefighter doffing PPE unless
there is a medical condition needing immediate attention or an emergency such as
running out of air.
- Consider the impact of environmental conditions as well as the potential for breathing in
airborne contaminants or exposing skin to them.

Research has shown that dry methods are not likely to remove as much contamination as wet
methods.  Dry methods removed less than 25% compared to wet soap and brush methods
which removed approximately 85% of surface polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
contamination contained in the "sticky" deposits on PPE according to a study reported by Fent
et al (2017).

WATER-BASED METHOD
Water should be used with soap and physical brushing to remove contaminants that have been
deposited onto the firefighters’ PPE, tools, and equipment while still on the scene.
- Depending on the scene, PER is most often performed prior to firefighters doffing PPE
but may be done after it has been removed. Considerations must include environmental
conditions and potential for exposure through splash or dermal layers.

- Members should brush large debris from turnouts and equipment to remove large and
loose contamination prior to wet PER with soap and water.

- Some products of combustion result in “sticky” deposit that requires detergents and
other surfactants to remove.

- When handling contaminated equipment, nitrile or latex gloves should be used.

Think about it...
How diligent are you at these steps? How could you train to be better? 

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATION FOR PER

Other methods of PER include:

 When feasible, personnel should allow PPE to off-gas prior to bagging their gear for
return to the station.
 All firefighters engaged in suppression activities, overhaul, or smoke exposure should
exchange their contaminated hoods and gloves after exiting the hot zone.
 When removing contaminated equipment, nitrile or latex gloves should be worn.

Think about it...

Now that you have all these steps, how can your department improve in their decontamination
practice? 

Health and Safety

Explore how rehabilitation at the fire scene and the contamination reduction at the fire station
can improve firefighter health.

Operation Hygiene at the Fire Station

Science-based research has established that high levels of contaminants may be present at the
scene of a fire. Preliminary exposure reduction (PER) occurs at the scene.  However, that does
not eliminate all contaminates and some contamination will be brought back to the station via
equipment, apparatus and your body.
Explore this section to understand what can be done at the fire station after an incident to
reduce contamination.
Cleaning Gear
PPE should be laundered in an industrial extractor after exposures to smoke and contaminants.
Boots (including the soles) should also be cleaned, and dirt and soot must be washed off using
an appropriate cleaning solution.   Gloves, typically one of the dirtiest pieces of your PPE,
should be hand washed.  Wear nitrile gloves when handling PPE, cleaning gloves, helmets,
SCBA components, tools, etc.  Use appropriate cleaning wipes on radios, flashlights, thermal
imagers.

Showers
After the fire, firefighters who operated in the hot zone should immediately remove soot from the
head and neck using skin cleansing wipes or soap and water washing if available and then
should shower immediately upon returning to the station. Many contaminants can enter the
body by way of absorption through the skin. All clothing that was worn during fire operations
should be washed at the station and not mixed with personal laundry.
Personnel should not leave the fire station in work clothing that was contaminated with smoke.
Apparatus
The apparatus should be thoroughly cleaned – inside and out - after every incident to ensure it
does not become a source of contaminant spread within the fire station.

Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is an intervention to mitigate against the physical, physiological, and emotional
stress of firefighting in order to sustain a member’s energy, improve performance, and decrease
likelihood of on-scene injury or death.
Explore these topics to learn more about how rehabilitation works.

OBJECTIVES
Objectives for rehabilitation are:
- To provide a refuge area where personnel who have been engaged in emergency
incident activities can be properly rested, -cooled, re-hydrated
- To evaluate personnel medically and psychologically to help prevent incident-related
illness and/or injury
- To prepare them physically and mentally to be able to continue to perform operational
tasks as an incident dictates
- To provide a controlled means for on-scene personal hygiene activities to be conducted,
monitored, and verified
When have you needed time to rest after an incident? How could your department do more
to help?
HOW IT WORKS?
Rehabilitation setup should be located in the cold zone and the following should be considered
when determining the location:
  Provides protection from dangerous environmental elements like…
o Smoke, particulate, and radiant heat from the fire
o Exhaust fumes
o Environmental heat, cold, wind, precipitation, and noise
 Far enough away from the scene that members may safely remove PPE
 Located near emergency medical services (EMS)

Services provided by rehabilitation should include the following:

 Relief from incident and environmental conditions

 Personal hygiene
 Rest and recovery
 Rehydration
 Nourishment
 Medical monitoring
APPLICATION
Rehabilitation should provide relief from environmental conditions by providing shade in
elevated temperatures and providing passive or active cooling, as necessary. In low
temperatures, areas protected from spray and precipitation should be arranged, and warm, dry
clothing and hot beverages may need to be provided.

 Hygiene should be implemented by ensuring skin is decontaminated before eating and

after touching still-contaminated surfaces and other team members. Fluids lost through
sweat should also be replenished preferably after lips are cleaned and the mouth rinsed
to avoid ingesting contaminants.

 Rehabilitation staffers should continually monitor personnel for signs of exhaustion,

stress, and/or physical injury as part of the medical assessment.
Recent studies have shown a significant reduction in typical firefighters’ physical capabilities
while working through a second 30-minute SCBA air cylinder or the second half of a 60-minute
bottle. The same study found one-third of the firefighters were unable to complete a second
bout of activity, which was more common in firefighters who were less fit and had a larger body
size.
CONCLUSION
You can’t extinguish a fire or protect civilians if your own safety and health is not appropriately
considered. While it might not seem like it, taking actions to reduce exposure to  fireground
contamination and ensure rehabilitation are vital components of a firefighter fulfilling their
responsibility to serve their community. Responding to emergency incidents can involve a level
of risk , but the risks don’t need to be unnecessary ones, and reducing contamination will help
you and your crew reduce your risk of developing cancer.
You can’t help extinguish a fire or protect civilians if your own safety and health is not
appropriately considered. While it might not seem like it, taking actions to reduce exposure to
fireground contamination and ensure rehabilitation are vital components of a firefighter fulfilling
their responsibility to serve their community. Firefighters are risk-takers, but the risks don’t need
to be unnecessary ones, and reducing contamination will help you and your crew safely fight the
next fire, too.