EDUC 211:

SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF

TEACHING

!. SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION
1. What is Instructional Supervision
2. Clinical Supervision
3. The Instructional Supervisor
4. Instructional Supervision Situation
5. Supervisory Processes
6. The Supervisory Plan
7. Techniques of Instructional Supervision
8. Supervision of Instructional Practices
9. Analyzing The Instructional Processes
10. Analysis of the teaching Methods and Principles
11. The Learners and Learning Outcomes
 1. INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION
it is a type of school-based (in-school) supervision carried out by the school staff (principals,
department heads, senior teachers, and assigned supervisors) aimed at providing guidance, support,
and continuous assessment to teachers for their professional practices and performance

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2. CLINICAL SUPERVISION
Clinical supervision is a method of supervision where the supervisor is involved with the teacher in a
close, "helping. relationship. Ideas are shared and help.

10 Steps in Giving Effective Feedback

Feedback is an effective tool to use in different context, highly useful in training activities, team buildings but al
so organizational teams and business. The whole purpose of offering feedback is to help people change by rei
nforcing positive behaviors or improving negative ones.
The list below will help you structure your feedback for any situation that requires it.

1. Identify the problem clearly Invest your time in assessing the situation and identifying the problem. 

Is this an isolated event or does this problem affect more areas and in a repetitive style? 
How does this need influence his/her performance? How does this need affect the rest of the team?
 
2. Select a time and a place
Selecting an appropriate environment to give feedback is highly important. Feedback should be given in perso
n and in private, without any disruptions or interference from  the outside. 
You should first explain your reasons for offering feedback and that it is in her/his best interest.

3. Setting the stage

Explain that feedback focuses on a specific behavior and not on the person as a whole, and should not be tak
en as an attack, insult or negative criticism. Ask him/her to keep an open mind and not become defensive, eve
n though you know it is difficult to listen.

4. Describe the behavior

Focus on the observations you have regarding a specific behavior. Feedback is not a judgment but rather a de
scription of events where you have seen that specific behavior.

5. Make your case These observations are not interpretations or conclusions, just facts that affect you/

your team/organization. Explain how this behavior is influencing his/her peers.
 
6. Hold your ground
By this point, he/she will react to your speech and either tries to end this discussion by making excuses about t
he behavior or will accept your arguments, and will commit to changing.
If the second scenario occurs you may skip to number 10, if not continue with the following points.

7. Explore the situation Before you can move further you need to understand the exact

context in which this behavior appears, what is the true nature of this demeanor. He/she will try to
find explanations and interpretations of how they see the situation.

8. Outline the positive consequences People usually react to positive reinforcements that detail how they are

beneficial to him/her. This is the moment when you should describe how adjusting this specific behavior will no
t only bring benefits to  him/her, but also to  the ones around  him/her.

9. Outline the negative consequences

If the positive reactions are not enough to convince him/her, you have to have to resort to explaining the negati
ve reinforcements and punishments that are going to affect him/her.  Do not sound threatening; just
state the usual consequences this type of behavior usually has!

10. Plan for change

The final step should describe a clear commitment to change or improvement and a clear plan on how to achie
ve this goal. Set deadlines to check  if he/she is following  the plan and commit  yourself to helping 
him/her attain his/her  objective.

GOALS OF CLINICAL SUPERVISION

Clinical supervision is a formative evaluation method of working with teachers for the purpose of
improving instruction. This teacher‐centered, collegial, and collaborative model requires the
establishment of rapport and trust and a proper climate. Personal observation and a review of current
related literature emphasize that clinical supervision enables teachers and supervisors to grow while
promoting excellence in teaching and learning. In this period of school reform, clinical supervision is a
successful means of approaching teacher learning, professional growth, and instructional
improvement.

PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC SUPERVISION

Clinical supervision is a formative evaluation method of working with teachers for the purpose of
improving instruction. This teacher‐centered, collegial, and collaborative model requires the
establishment of rapport and trust and a proper climate. Personal observation and a review of current
related literature emphasize that clinical supervision enables teachers and supervisors to grow while
promoting excellence in teaching and learning. In this period of school reform, clinical supervision is a
successful means of approaching teacher learning, professional growth, and instructional
improvement.

Academic Supervision

In large part, the theoretical framework is undergirded by Glickman’s (1981) and Watkins’ (1995)
theories of how the interpersonal behavior and communication approaches used by a supervisor can
be selected and/or altered to meet the developmental level of the teacher (candidate). According to
these theories, in the early stages of development, the supervisor provides “a safe, secure, and
structured environment … and provides direction, guidance, and advise” (Watkins, 1995, p. 650). As
the individual progresses through the middle stages, the supervisors become less direct, providing
the individual with more freedom and flexibility to try more approaches. When the individual reaches
the advanced stages, the supervisor functions in a collaborative/facilitative role by encouraging the
candidate to become self-directed in his or her own learning. Throughout the entire developmental
process, the university supervisor guides the course of the conversation by asking questions that
engage the individual’s thinking, while concurrently guiding the metacognitive development and the
ability to think independently and critically (Glickman et al., 2014).

Developmental supervision

Supervision is generally viewed as an oversight function, where one is responsible for evaluating the
performance of a subordinate. Developmental Supervision is a specific approach to supervising
practicing teachers in schools wherein the supervisor adjusts his or her communication and style of
interaction based on the adult and professional needs of the teacher (Glickman et al., 2014). Inherent
in Developmental Supervision is the assumption that because teachers operate at varying levels of
conceptual understanding, ability, and effectiveness, they need to be supervised in ways consistent
with their needs. As the teachers become self-regulated and self-directed learners, Developmental
Supervisors naturally shift from an expert to a facilitator role, which is more collegial, cooperative, and
nondirective. Research on the effectiveness of Developmental Supervision (Zellermayer &
Margolin, 2005) indicated that supervisors who use this approach are flexible because they are able
to shift their approaches based on the needs of teachers and groups.

Developmental supervisors use the nondirective approach (Glickman et al., 2014) to provide a safety
net for teachers to engage in a series of interdependent activities: teachers establish professional
goals, create self-improvement plans, conduct progress monitoring, and think critically about teaching
and learning. With this recursive nature of the components of the non-directive approach,
developmental supervisors are more reflective in their practice than supervisors in control groups
(Siens & Ebmeier, 1996).

Classroom coaching

Classroom coaching is different from supervision in that it is a form of professional development that
is nonevaluative (Tschannen-Moran & Tschannen-Moran, 2011). While coaching is most commonly
employed in public schools to improve the performance of practicing teachers, and ultimately, their P-
12 students, it also implies a desire for growth on the part of the teacher. It is not some sort of
disciplinary action. Classroom coaching is a generic term for a number of practices that include
instructional coaching (Knight, 2007), differentiated coaching (Kise, 2006), literacy coaching (Stover,
Kissel, Haag, & Shoniker, 2011), and content coaching (Tschannen-Moran & Tschannen-
Moran, 2011). Knight and van Nieuwerburgh (2012) reported instructional coaching has
demonstrated a positive impact on student achievement.

According to Bearwald (2011), effective coaches guide the conversation by asking critical questions,
rather than offering solutions or making recommendations. Coaches encourage teachers to use high-
leverage, evidence-based practices (Knight, 2013) in one or more of the following areas: (a) planning
lessons based on high standards; (b) using formative assessment to monitor student performance;
(c) employing high-leverage instructional practices; and/or (d) relationship and community building
(Knight & van Nieuwerburgh, 2012). In doing so, the coach facilitates a dialog where teacher
candidates and collaborating teachers have the opportunity to theorize the lesson and seek to
understand the theory-to-practice (or practice-to-theory) implications as they co-generate ideas for
improving teaching and learning (Roth, Tobin, Camambo, & Dalland, 2004).

Five Steps of Supervision

It seemed to me that a more helpful system of management would focus on making the employment
relationship work well. It would take into account what employees need in order to do their job well. It
would also consider what responsibilities the managers have toward their employees, what the limits
of those responsibilities are and what responsibilities employees have toward their managers. The
system of management that I developed is based on five steps of supervision.
Provide employees with the tools they need to do their jobs. From computers and fax machines to
pencils, ring binders and patient education brochures —the tools can be anything tangible that is
needed for the job.
Provide employees with the training they need to do their jobs. The key thing to remember is that the
learning process is often more difficult than we realize. While some people are quick studies, others
need a lot more time to absorb training. For tasks that are complex—handling an irate patient, for
instance—try repeating the training every few days or weeks. One common error is to take an
approach to training that is too informal. Suppose, for instance, that you hire a new receptionist and
she sits with the departing receptionist during his last week on the job. She is learning from someone
who may have no natural aptitude for training, who may already have his mind on his next job and
who has no incentive to train her well. And if she struggles for the next few months, is that because
she’s not up to the job or because the former receptionist forgot to go over some key tasks?
Help employees set goals to improve their performance. What should employees’ priorities be, and
what level of performance should you expect from them? It is management’s responsibility to provide
each member of your staff with some direction on these issues. I have found that the best way to do
this is by helping them set goals for improvement. Although I prefer them to set their own goals, I will
ask a staff member to change a goal if it doesn’t seem appropriate. Similarly, I will sometimes direct a
staff member to add an extra goal. Suppose, for instance, there is a problem with an employee’s
performance that none of his goals address—perhaps he frequently arrives at work late. In that
instance, I would help him set an appropriate goal.
Become a resource. Providing people with tools, training and goals is a good start, but what happens
when they reach an impasse? Will they ask you for your help? You can encourage staff to look to you
for help if you show that you are available, approachable and willing to listen with an open mind.
However, you also must be careful to let employees retain responsibility for accomplishing their
goals. You should be a resource, but you must not take on staff members’ responsibilities.
Hold staff accountable. Make sure people have opportunities to account for the progress that they
have made on their goals. How often should you ask staff to report on this? That depends on the
nature of the goal. If an employee’s goal is to get to work on time, I would tell him to report weekly.
He would use a written form, and each day he would write both the time that he was supposed to
arrive and the time that he actually arrived, then at the end of the week he would hand it to me. In an
extreme case, I would ask him to report in writing every day. In another example, suppose a
refractive surgery coordinator aims to increase surgeries by 10 percent. To help her meet that goal,
she may have set a number of subgoals, such as organizing one seminar each month. I might ask
her to report on that main goal quarterly, but the seminar subgoal monthly. I like employees to
provide these progress reports in writing. This becomes an excellent record of achievement when it
comes time for salary review. And if you need to terminate an employee, you will have good
documentation to support your decision.

The Employment Relationship

Reciprocal responsibilities. When you employ people, there is an implied
agreement between you and your staff. At the bare minimum, the agreement
would be: They get their jobs done; you pay them. But that won’t challenge them
to improve their job performance. My management system expands that
agreement by introducing five reciprocal responsibilities. This is done in a
transparent way, so everybody has the same information; employees and
management know their own and each other’s responsibilities.

3. INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISOR
What Does a Supervisor Do?

A supervisor’s role varies by industry, organization and management level. Most

supervisors have primary responsibilities of leading and motivating the task performance of
subordinates. A supervisor receives directives from top management and communicates tasks
and expectations for a department or work team to individual employees.

What Is the Difference Between a Supervisor and a Manager?

The difference between a supervisor and a manager is that a supervisor oversees the
subordinate employees’ work, while a manager is focused externally on making decisions for
their unit. Supervisors focus more internally, where they ensure that the objectives and strategy
created by the manager is implemented in the work space.
The Five Basic Types of Supervisors

First, I will go into the five basic types of supervisors you will come across. You will want to watch to see what
type your manager or supervisor falls under so you know what you need to address. Keep in mind some of
these types may actually fit your organization.

 The Micromanager—Basically, this one will snoop into the tasks that each and every employee are
doing, big or small, and interfere in some way. This is something I used to be. This can be deadly to
the office. Staff will constantly be paranoid and feel that they won't have any freedom to do their jobs.
Mistakes will rise, and morale will fall.
 The Non-Working Manager—This supervisor feels it is their job to oversee the operations of the office
but chooses not to do any of the work. While they won't micromanage, they won't chip in, either. A
supervisor needs to get their hands dirty to understand the job.
 The Working Manager—It's great to have a manager who is willing to do the job of their subordinates.
However, taking all of the tasks themselves can stunt the growth of your employees. This person has
to be willing to give up some control from time to time.
 The Troublemaker—With this type, the work isn't the issue; it's the drama that they cause. It's either
gossip, not following directives, etc. This one can be the most dangerous type of them all.
 The Leader—This is probably your near-perfect manager that you won't have to worry about. It doesn't
mean they can do their job without some guidance, but you will have a rock-solid organization with
leaders like this. This is the rarest of the five types.

Tips on Managing Your Supervisors

Below are some tips on how to supervisor your supervisors:

1. Ensure you show them the ropes of the job. The only way to be an effective supervisor is if they
know the job duties of those under them. Don't expect them to teach others or to enforce rules if they
can't perform the same job duties on their own.

2. Don't always take them at their word. They are still employees and employees have been known to
lie or skirt the truth. Investigate any issues involving them fully. There are more legal issues involved
when it comes to supervisor/employee relationships. You don't want your organization involved in a
lawsuit.
3. Give them a higher level of trust. However, if you trust them to oversee the work of other employees
and more complex job tasks, you will have to trust them to get the job done. If they feel you don't trust
them, then they may second guess any major decision that has to be made. It's up to you to find the
right balance.
4. State your goals. Give them clear and concise goals that they need to accomplish, then let them take
the reigns in how to get that done. Don't give vague instructions, though. If they don't receive some
guidelines on how to accomplish their tasks, they could be done incorrectly or not at all.
5. Share your experiences. The best way to learn is to tell them stories of when you were first in their
shoes. Talk about the mistakes you made, the triumphs, and the pitfalls. New supervisors will look to
you on how to react to a situation. Be prepared to offer them that guidance.
6. Cut the cord. Eventually, you will have to let them find their own style of supervising. It may not be the
same as your own, which is fine. You want it to match their personality the most so that they will be the
best supervisor that they can be.
7. Communicate. Your supervisors are the lifeline between you and your line staff. Pass on information
to them so that they can pass it on. If you need to talk to them about a private matter, ensure that you
state it is confidential. If you don't, they could assume it is appropriate to tell their staff.
8. Promote from within. If you can, promote your experienced staff members. There is a risk of making it
hard for them as they will have to supervise their former co-workers, but their experience on the job,
 knowing everyone's personalities, etc., will be a great benefit to you. Plus, this will cut your training time
down significantly.
9. Ignore your phone. That's right, if they are calling you to help solve an issue, sometimes you should
ignore that phone call. That will allow them to figure out how to solve the problem on their own.
Afterwards, you can review what they did and correct them if needed or congratulate them if they did it
right. You can't always be expected to be available, so you might as well show them that when it's in a
more controlled situation.
10. Let them vent. From your own experience, you should know how hard it is to supervise. Have an open
door policy for them to come in and vent their frustrations. If they feel they can't express it, then they
will start to take it out on their staff.
11. Ask their subordinates about the supervisor's progress. The best way to receive open and honest
feedback about your supervisors is to ask those below them how they are doing. Do not avoid the
employees who may constantly be in trouble. Even though they may exaggerate some points, they
could bring up a legitimate problem that others have overlooked.
12. Give them complex tasks. You should immediately start grooming your supervisors to take over your
job. You never know if you will be receiving a promotion, and one of them will have to take over. You
also want to prove that your supervisors can handle some of your job duties if you are ever out of the
office.
13. Include them in decisions. Have an important decision that could affect the entire office? Bring your
supervisors in to hear their thoughts on it. They may see something that you may have missed when
making your decision.
14. Sh*t rolls downhill. And this isn't just trouble - it's everything. If you walk into the office in a bad mood,
it will spread to them and then spread to their staff. The same goes with walking in with a positive
attitude - your supervisors will see the same and mimic that action.
15. Reward them. Just like you would with your line staff, reward your supervisors as well. Only do this if
they deserve it. But your supervisors deserve recognition just as much as any of your other employees.

Effects of Properly Supervising Your Supervisors

If you guide and manage your supervisors properly, then they will treat their own staff just as fairly as
you treat them. However, if you fail to manage those below you the right way, they will pass that
same attitude on to their subordinates, creating a ripple effect.

Teaching a manager or supervisor how to supervise is crucial for a successful organization.

By pashminu, Public Domian, via Pixabay

Employee Performance Reviews for Supervisors

Evaluations for those who are supervising should obviously focus more on their performance as a
supervisor than just someone doing the job. If at all possible, solicit the input of those working under
them. Obtain both good and bad points. This will help you see if you are moving in the right direction
and if they need to improve in any areas. While some workplaces may not allow that kind of input, all
supervisors should welcome any comments that come from their staff members.

The process of the evaluation should be the same as any other employee. You don't want to catch
yourself in a bit of a mess by handling things casually or inappropriately. They are still a working staff
member, so you have to keep that in mind. Focus on their growth and especially their weaknesses as
a supervisor. A supervisor always has a weakness that needs to be improved and focused on. While
they may think they are the perfect supervisor—they aren't. I'm not. Supervisors have areas to
improve on, just like their own staff members.

The five steps in teaching an employee new skills are preparation, explanation, showing,
observation, and supervision.— Bruce Barton

Below are some of my experiences in supervising other supervisors.

 At one point, I was receiving complaints that one of my supervisors basically didn't know the
job. Instead, she just oversaw what was going on, much like a non-working manager. This was
a concern since this position was primarily a working manager position. At first, I dismissed the
complaints since they were coming from just one employee, but eventually, multiple staff
members made complaints. Once I looked into it, I found this supervisor did not know the
basic job tasks. This required me to train this supervisor and even resort to disciplinary action
to rectify the issue. I shouldn't have dismissed the initial employee's complaint just because
the person was complaining about a supervisor.
 One supervisor I had I considered to be the leader in not just her unit but in other units as well.
She knew the job inside and out; her staff respected her, etc. However, I asked her to type our
procedures on everything her unit did. Despite constant reminders, she would not meet
deadlines for these procedures. By the time her evaluation came, I had to downgrade her for
failing to complete those procedures. She was upset and didn't even speak to me unless she
had to. But in time, she got over it and gave me those procedures I wanted.
 This last situation was the hardest one I have had to deal with when it came to supervising
supervisors. This employee, while a great working manager, was making the wrong decisions
when it came to her supervisory duties. We consistently talked about it in an effort to get her to
improve. Separately, we were having issues with another area of the unit and made plans to
address those issues, which were meant to stay confidential. This supervisor broke that
confidentiality. Through talks and meetings, this supervisor admitted to breaking confidentiality
to get back at me for some unknown reason. This supervisor went from a working manager to
a troublemaker.

Remember, your managers and supervisors are part of the team.

You Should All Be a Team

There is no right or wrong way to supervise your supervisors. It all depends on the workplace,
workload, and the job that needs to be accomplished. Just like with your general staff members, your
supervisors have their own unique personalities. Learn that personality and adjust accordingly. That
supervisor is a member of your team, so ensure you make them feel part of the team.

I also recommend picking up the book It's Your Ship. It's a quick read that provides real-world stories
about how to be a leader in the workplace. It just doesn't tell you how to be a good boss, it tells
stories about being a good boss.

4. Instructional Supervision Situation

The instructional Supervision techniques discussed include classroom observation, teacher
visitation, teacher demonstration, workshops, micro-teaching, listening to recordings on effective
teaching, watching videos, you tube on how to teach well, guided practice, and research.
Supervision is based on various theoretical viewpoints, and therefore, its definition is still
somewhat changing (Milne, 2007). It has influences from experiential learning (Milne & James,
2002), constructivism (Ibrahim, 2013), team learning (Gillespie, 2012), and the principle of life-
long learning. Likewise, the practices of supervision are manifold, especially in the field of
education and teaching (cf., Falender, Burnes, & Ellis, 2012). The supervision has some similar
features with its close concepts such as guidance offered for novices teachers in their
professional growth (Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009; Sundli, 2007); coaching
(McLean & Hudson, 2012) referring to a supervision relationship where the coach attempts to
support the client’s work-related choices; process consultation and consulting (Lambrechts,
Grieten, Bouwen, & Corthouts, 2009); and mentoring (e.g., Alila, 2014). The most central methods
of supervision are reflection and dialogue (Löfmark, Morberg, Öhlund, & Ilicki, 2009). The
supervisee’s reflection and progress are supported by leaning of experiences of success and
goal-setting (McCurdy, 2006; Stark, Frels, & Garza, 2011). Supervision can also include drama-
based methods (Denver & Shiflett, 2011; Edwards, 2010). In an efficient supervision, tasks and
goals are clearly defined and the supervisor pays attention to interaction and relationships
between supervisees (Ladany, Mori, & Mehr, 2013). A functional group supervision necessitates
that the supervisor and supervisees are committed to communal learning (Henderson, 2009) and
change (Hanna, 2011). Supervision in teaching also leans on collaboration, reflection, and
dialogue (Pattison, 2010) as it aims at a more profound understanding of a teacher’s
multidimensional role and teacher identity (Paliokosta & Blandford, 2010). In the supervision of
teachers, reflection means learning about the practical work, developing one’s professional skills
and teaching practices through a collaborative discussion (Carroll, 2010; Clouder & Sellars, 2004;
Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009; see also Sundli, 2007). This is especially important
to the development of inclusive teacherhood, because the approach requires profound
understanding about the nature of inclusion and teachers’ ability to reflect on their personal
teaching styles, practices, and teacherhood. While teachers’ work has fundamentally changed
during the shift toward inclusion (Potmesilova, Potmesil, & Roubalova, 2013), supervision has not
yet gained an established position in the field of teaching and education. The purpose of this
study is to show that supervision is an efficient support method that aims at developing teachers’
expertise and abilities to embrace the inclusive teacherhood in their everyday work practices and
in teacher identities in general (cf., Goodman, Brady, Duffy, Scott, & Pollard, 2008; Luke, Ellis, &
Bernard, 2011). Supervision is needed to help teachers to cope with the increasing challenges in
teachers’ work.
Why Is Supervision Important?

According to infed, supervision is important because it allows the novice to gain knowledge,
skill and commitment. Supervision is also used to motivate staff members and develop
effectiveness in particular job roles.

Research has shown that effective supervision has a positive effect on workers. On the contrary, a
lack of supervision can have a negative effect on workforce stability, capacity, confidence,
competence and morale. It is the job of the supervisor to ensure strict control over the activities of
subordinates, check on workers who may waste resources and give feedback regarding complaints,
grievances and problems of subordinates to superiors. Supervisors are also important because they
play a key role in maintaining group unity among workers and making sure all instructions are
communicated and understood by each employee.

According to Community Care, the primary functions of supervision are administrative case
management, reflecting on and learning from practice, personal support, professional development
and mediation, in which the supervisor acts as a bridge between the individual staff member and the
organization for which they wok. Supervision also helps make sure a company creates workers who
are skillful, knowledgeable, clear about their roles and who are assisted in their practice by sound
advice and emotional support.

5. SUPERVISORY PROCESS
The Five Steps of Supervision, Part One: Establish Responsibilities
By Derek A. Preece, MBA

As a manager, there are times when you have to fly by the seat of your pants—yet if you make a
habit of that, you run the risk of making a costly mistake. After a few of those errors, your practice’s
financial health, not to mention your mental health, may start to come apart at the seams. But
what’s the alternative to a seat-of-the-pants approach?

Systems—What, Who and Why?

What is a system? The dictionary defines “system” as a “way of accomplishing something using
step-by-step procedures.”
Who uses systems? From signing in a presenting patient, to billing for a service and beyond,
every practice expects its staff to follow step-by-step procedures.
Why use systems? Practices with good, simple, well-established systems provide care more
efficiently than those that waste time reinventing the wheel. In other words, the better your practice
systems, the more money you make on the same level of patient flow. And how would you fare
without those systems? Imagine, for instance, a new billing employee isn’t trained properly—your
practice may soon face a cash flow crisis.

Can a System Help You Manage?

One day, about 25 years ago, I realized that although all of my employees used systems for their
work, I had no system for managing. Would a management system improve the results that I was
getting from my staff? And what would such a system look like?
For inspiration, I considered my career so far. I thought back to a general manager who used a
fairly predictable, four-step system of supervision: 1) He would spot a problem, 2) he would yell at
whoever seemed to be at fault, 3) he would listen to that person explain why he or she had nothing
to do with the problem, and 4) he would apologize and calm down. Clearly, I would need further
inspiration.

Five Steps of Supervision

It seemed to me that a more helpful system of management would focus on making the employment
relationship work well. It would take into account what employees need in order to do their job well. It
would also consider what responsibilities the managers have toward their employees, what the limits of
those responsibilities are and what responsibilities employees have toward their managers. The
system of management that I developed is based on five steps of supervision.
a. Provide employees with the tools they need to do their jobs. From computers and fax
machines to pencils, ring binders and patient education brochures —the tools can be
anything tangible that is needed for the job.
b. Provide employees with the training they need to do their jobs. The key thing to
remember is that the learning process is often more difficult than we realize. While some
people are quick studies, others need a lot more time to absorb training. For tasks that are
complex—handling an irate patient, for instance—try repeating the training every few days
or weeks. One common error is to take an approach to training that is too informal. Suppose,
for instance, that you hire a new receptionist and she sits with the departing receptionist
during his last week on the job. She is learning from someone who may have no natural
aptitude for training, who may already have his mind on his next job and who has no
incentive to train her well. And if she struggles for the next few months, is that because she’s
not up to the job or because the former receptionist forgot to go over some key tasks?

c. Help employees set goals to improve their performance. What should employees’

priorities be, and what level of performance should you expect from them? It is
management’s responsibility to provide each member of your staff with some direction on
these issues. I have found that the best way to do this is by helping them set goals for
improvement. Although I prefer them to set their own goals, I will ask a staff member to
change a goal if it doesn’t seem appropriate. Similarly, I will sometimes direct a staff
member to add an extra goal. Suppose, for instance, there is a problem with an employee’s
performance that none of his goals address—perhaps he frequently arrives at work late. In
that instance, I would help him set an appropriate goal.

d. Become a resource. Providing people with tools, training and goals is a good start, but
what happens when they reach an impasse? Will they ask you for your help? You can
encourage staff to look to you for help if you show that you are available, approachable and
willing to listen with an open mind. However, you also must be careful to let employees
retain responsibility for accomplishing their goals. You should be a resource, but you must
not take on staff members’ responsibilities.

e. Hold staff accountable. Make sure people have opportunities to account for the progress that they
have made on their goals. How often should you ask staff to report on this? That depends on the nature
of the goal. If an employee’s goal is to get to work on time, I would tell him to report weekly. He would
use a written form, and each day he would write both the time that he was supposed to arrive and the
time that he actually arrived, then at the end of the week he would hand it to me. In an extreme case, I
 would ask him to report in writing every day. In another example, suppose a refractive surgery
coordinator aims to increase surgeries by 10 percent. To help her meet that goal, she may have set a
number of subgoals, such as organizing one seminar each month. I might ask her to report on that main
goal quarterly, but the seminar subgoal monthly. I like employees to provide these progress reports in
writing. This becomes an excellent record of achievement when it comes time for salary review. And if
you need to terminate an employee, you will have good documentation to support your decision.

The Employment Relationship

Reciprocal responsibilities. When you employ people, there is an implied agreement
between you and your staff. At the bare minimum, the agreement would be: They get
their jobs done; you pay them. But that won’t challenge them to improve their job
performance. My management system expands that agreement by introducing five
reciprocal responsibilities. This is done in a transparent way, so everybody has the
same information; employees and management know their own and each other’s
responsibilities.

Employees have five corresponding responsibilities. While the five steps of supervision

encompass the manager’s responsibilities to employees, the flip side of this is that employees
have five corresponding responsibilities. Employees are expected to: 1) use the tools that are
provided, 2) make the most of the training, 3) set goals and then pursue them, 4) ask for help or
guidance if they reach an impasse and 5) account for their progress.
These five steps of supervision provide a management system that helps you to nurture high
flyers. This system also helps you to diagnose poor performers and challenge them to do better.
_____________________________________
Mr. Preece is president of Enhancement Dynamics Inc., a practice management consultancy
based in Orem, Utah. For his contact information, visit the AAOE Consultant Directory
at www.aao.org/aaoe.

6. INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISORY PLAN

What Are the Three Types of Planning?

a. operational planning
b. tactical planning
c. strategic planning. 

These types of planning occur subsequently. Operational planning facilitates tactical planning, which
in turn facilitates strategic planning.

Strategic planning is carried out by top-level management. Long-term plans are drawn in this
process, spanning a number of years. Additionally, an organization’s mission statement is included in
the strategic plan.

Tactical planning covers specific areas of an organization. Short-term plans are made for up to a year
in some cases. Middle-level management in an organization executes tactical planning. Tactical
plans build up towards a strategic plan.
Specific procedures and processes make up operational planning. It involves outlining routine
activities carried out often in an organization. Plans made could either be single-use or continuing
plans. Low-level management executes tactical planning.

rogram Improvement Areas Targets

for Program
Improvement
Means of Verification Strategies for
School
Improvement
Time Frame Persons Involved
a. Monthly Pop-in
visits
d. Monthly Post-
Observation
Conference with
the classroom
teachers
e. Use of the Teacher
Observation Guide
developed by the
Schools Division
Office of Quezon
City
Dissemination of this plan
to the teachers through
the conduct of faculty
meetings, department
meetings and school-
Monthly submission of
classroom observation
reports by the Division
Coordinator, School
Principal and Head
Teacher.
Semestral and yearend
review of the
implementation of this
plan through submission
of reports and evaluation
of the activities against
this plan if it was
successful or not and what
made it great or what
went wrong with it and
through the conduct of a
tracer study to track down
what happened with the
students who graduated
from the school.
Regular monitoring of
teachers’ attendance
daily.
Check the teachers’
learning plans every
Tuesday.
Observe the teachers in
their classes monthly.
Conduct Pre- Observation
and Post-Observation
Conferences with the
teachers monthly.
Request for inputs from
the teachers about their
work-related concerns
that need to be addressed
for incorporation into the
department’s work plan,
instructional supervisory
plan and for the school’s
Enhanced School
Improvement Plan and for
implementation and
evaluation.
Dissemination of the
August 2020- October
2020
Supervisors:
Division
Coordinator
School Principal
Head Teacher
Department of
Education officials
To be supervised
rogram Improvement Areas Targets
for Program
Improvement
Means of Verification Strategies for
School
Improvement
Time Frame Persons Involved
a. Monthly Pop-in
visits
d. Monthly Post-
Observation
Conference with
the classroom
teachers
e. Use of the Teacher
Observation Guide
developed by the
Schools Division
Office of Quezon
City
Dissemination of this plan
to the teachers through
the conduct of faculty
meetings, department
meetings and school-
Monthly submission of
classroom observation
reports by the Division
Coordinator, School
Principal and Head
Teacher.
Semestral and yearend
review of the
implementation of this
plan through submission
of reports and evaluation
of the activities against
this plan if it was
successful or not and what
made it great or what
went wrong with it and
through the conduct of a
tracer study to track down
what happened with the
students who graduated
from the school.
Regular monitoring of
teachers’ attendance
daily.
Check the teachers’
learning plans every
Tuesday.
Observe the teachers in
their classes monthly.
Conduct Pre- Observation
and Post-Observation
Conferences with the
teachers monthly.
Request for inputs from
the teachers about their
work-related concerns
that need to be addressed
for incorporation into the
department’s work plan,
instructional supervisory
plan and for the school’s
Enhanced School
Improvement Plan and for
implementation and
evaluation.
Dissemination of the
August 2020- October
2020
Supervisors:
Division
Coordinator
School Principal
Head Teacher
Department of
Education officials
To be supervised
PARTS OF SUPERVISORY PLAN

1. Program / Improvement Areas

2. Targets
3. Objectives
4. Means of verification
5. Strategies for School Improvement
6. Time Frame
7. Budget
8. Source of Fund
9. Person Involved
10. Expected Outcomes
11.

7. TECHNIQUES IN INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION

“Instructional supervision is the function in educational systems that draws together the discrete elements of
instructional effectiveness into a whole educational action” (Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 1995, p. 15).
Supervision, teaching, and learning are major components of this educational system (Montgomery, 1999).
Without these components the educational system may not be effective. 13 Journal of Leadership Education
Volume 2, Issue 2 - Winter 2003 Each student who applies constructive, cumulative, self-organized, goal
oriented, situated, and individually different (Montgomery, 1999) knowledge achieves effective learning,
which should be the teacher’s primary focus in education. Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon (2001)
suggest that blame for lack of student learning could be placed on teachers and their teaching techniques.
Because the teacher cannot learn for the student, learning essentially becomes the responsibility of the
learner (student). Therefore, the teacher’s role is to facilitate and promote learning. Montgomery (1999)
noted, “Effective teaching is occurring where the majority, preferably all the pupils, learn most of what the
teacher intended. The pupils want to learn and do not have to be made to” (p. 126). This goal is very difficult
to accomplish, and for some teachers it may take several years, if it happens at all. In previous research,
Cogan’s (1973) argument was “the difficulties teachers face in learning how to teach and in improving their
teaching on the job is at the root of the major problems in the preservice and inservice education of teachers”
(p. 15). Current research by Montgomery (1999) has also publicized that most teachers lack grounding in
relevant teaching theory and become susceptible to fashions and fads in teaching. Therefore, many teachers
are unable to develop an effective system for teaching. Effective leadership by the instructional leader,
however, may provide a platform for improving the teaching process. Situational leadership, developed by
Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson (2001), has been a platform used for leadership development in several
educational organizations. Hersey et al.’s (2001) Situational Leadership Model has three major components:
1) the relationship behavior of the leader, 2) the task behavior of the leader, and 3) the readiness level of the
follower(s). Task behavior is defined by Hersey et al. (2001) as “the extent to which a leader engages in
spelling out the duties and responsibilities for the group” (p. 173); relationship behavior defined as “the extent
to which the leader engages in two-way or multiway communication” (p. 173); and readiness is defined as
“the extent to which a follower demonstrates the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task” (p.
175). In the Situational Leadership Model, the task and relationship leadership behaviors are matched with
the readiness of the follower to form four main categories. Those categories are 1) telling, 2) selling, 3)
participating, and 4) delegating. During the telling phase of the model, the leader must give specific
instructions and closely supervise followers.
 The followers at this level do not display the necessary knowledge or skill to perform a particular task and
therefore are not confident in their abilities. As the model progresses into the selling phase, followers still do
not display complete knowledge or skill for a particular task, but they have become more confident or
committed toward the work environment. The leader must still provide guidance but must also include the
opportunity for dialogue with followers. The participation phase for the leader shifts from a directive role to an
encouraging and communicating role. The followers at this 14 Journal of Leadership Education Volume 2,
Issue 2 - Winter 2003 level understand the tasks to be achieved but now may lack motivation and/or
commitment. The final phase, delegating, allows the leader to observe/monitor followers. In addition, the
leader provides opportunities for followers to take responsibility and to implement tasks. The followers in this
phase have the required knowledge and skill to perform a particular task. Additionally, they are confident and
motivated. Leadership, in addition to being situational, should be a developmental process. Human
development, accredited to the cognitive scientist Piaget, changes as individuals encounter new and different
situations (Wlodkowski, 1985). This developmental process progresses through four stages: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations (Ginsburg & Opper, 1979). The latter two stages
are more applicable to adults. Adults at the concrete operations stage can perform logical functions
(Glickman et al., 2001). Adults at the formal operations stage can rationalize and formulae abstract concepts
(Glickman et al., 2001). In addition to the formal operations stage, a fifth stage, postformal operations, has
been added (Kitchener, Lynch, Fischer, & Woord, 1993). The postformal operations stage describes adults
that are engaged in scholarly thought. Instructional leaders that understand this type of developmental
process may establish a better professional relationship with teachers (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).
Encouraging teacher development can be challenging; however, the school system hinges on the
effectiveness, knowledge, and openness of an instructional leader (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998). As
noted by Glickman et al. (2001), effective supervision is the glue that holds together individual teachers’
needs and school goals. Glickman et al. (2001) also noted, “Glue, if functioning properly, cannot be seen” (p.
9). Likewise, when supervision functions properly, it also goes unnoticed; but when glue quits sticking, as in
the case of inadequate supervision, the object (the school system) will collapse. Supervision provides an
opportunity to promote teacher efficiency, abstract thought, and a reflection on the teacher’s own instructional
methods (Glickman et al., 1995). If the instructional leader lacks adequate knowledge of supervision and
does not know how to meet the needs of the teacher, then an unproductive working relationship may be
established (Acheson & Gall, 1980). The teacher could spend time being upset with the instructional leader
and might not devote sufficient effort toward teaching students. More importantly, students’ desire, ability,
and levels of learning may be affected (Beach & Reinhartz, 2000). When the instructional leader cannot meet
the teacher’s needs, the entire teaching experience may not be as effective as it could have been
(Sergiovanni & Starratt.

Supervision means instructing, guiding, monitoring, and observing the first-line employees or workers while
they are performing jobs in the organization. It refers to the activities at the workplace in which a manager
oversees the activities and responsibilities of employees he manages. It is an important job function for
managers at all levels throughout your company. Coaching, training, and employee development are among
the common responsibilities assumed by a supervisor. Hence, a supervisor has to make sure that all the
instructions are communicated to each and every employee. The top-level and middle level, plan out all the
instructions but the instructions are issued only by the supervisory level. Whenever the workers are under
constant supervision then step by step check is kept and if they are deviating from the plan then immediate
instructions are issued by the supervisor.

By this constant monitoring, the supervision function ensures strict control over the activities of subordinates.
When the workers are constantly monitored they always use the resources in the best possible manner
which leads to minimum wastage. The strict supervision and guidance of the supervisor encourage the
employees and workers to be more disciplined in their activities. Under the guidance of the supervisor, the
workers follow a fixed or strict time-table and execute the plans in the right direction. Supervisors give the
report regarding the working of every worker which becomes the base for the performance appraisal for the
employees. The relationship with the supervisor is a very good incentive to improve the motivation level of
the employees. While guiding the employees the supervisors encourage the subordinates to perform to their
best capacity.
 For the goals and objectives of any educational system to be achieved, personnel management becomes
imminent. Secondary schools are managed by both academic and non-academic personnel and students are
very important of the community. The principal as the head of the school has numerous duties to perform in
order to attract the co-operation of other personnel toward attainment of goals. Thus, the principal
administers rules and regulations towards the attainments of goals while teachers are expected to conform to
the set rules. Kalagbor, Adeley and koko (2017), contend that although the principal has the formal authority
to assign task to teachers to which they comply, it is not enough to encourage them to exert extra effort and
enthusiasm in effective performance. At any level of education globally, teachers are acknowledged vital
constituents in the achievement of its goals and objectives, thus, secondary schools are likely to succeed in
achieving its set goals if the teachers perform their jobs creditably. Teachers are therefore expected to
expend enough energy towards commitment in the performance of their duties without, any fear or favor.

Yet experience shows that most often teachers are found loitering during working hours leaving their students
un-attending to student, success to some extent becomes dependent on the teachers devotion to duty and
exhibited handwork. Teacher’s job performance according to Ekpob and Eze (2015), can be measured by
extent to which the teacher participates in the overall running of the school in order to achieve the expected
objective and goals of the school, unfortunately, researchers observe professional Laxity on the part of the
teachers, (Affianmagbon, 2007). Teachers try to pass time during school hours and show irregularity,
unpunctuality, nonchalant attitude and indiscipline. Thus, the outlined bring to the fore the importance of
supervision of a teacher’s work in order to motivate him/her to better performance. Instructional supervision
according to Nkwankwo et al cited in Asuru (2012), involves activities which are carried out with the aim of
making teaching and learning process better for both the learners and the teachers. It is a process of
assisting the teacher to improve his /her classroom instructional ability and management of student in order
to achieve the goals and objectives of the school. Kalagbor, Adeley andkoko (2017), are of the view that for
school goals and objectives to be achieved, the principal as head of school has to be involved in instructional
supervision and as he/she does this he/she interacts with the teachers who are members of the school. The
principals’ effectiveness in school management is therefore measured by the ability to influence positive
teacher commitment and success in classroom management. thus the need for effective instructional
supervision in secondary schools cannot be over emphasized. Osakwe (2010), contends that supervision is
concerned with the provision of professional assistance and guidance to teachers toward the achievement of
effective teaching and learning. According to him the principal in carrying out the instructional supervision
assist the teachers to creditably perform the duties of preparation of lesson plan and notes, lesson delivery,
effective use of diverse methods of teaching in the classroom, use of instructional materials, keeping and
maintenance of school records, effective/ efficient classroom management etc. through effective supervision,
the principal can provide meaningful feedback and direction that can assist the classroom teacher perform
his/her own duties. Obi (2004) cited in Ekpoh and Eze (2015), outlined some strategies available for
instructional supervisors that will help teachers improve on their jobs and also facilitate effective teaching and
learning in school. These strategies include amongst others, self- appraisal method, classroom visitation,
micro-teaching, workshop, demonstration method etc. According to Usman, Bushra and Talat (2018), also
include checking attendance, develop and design curriculum and work scheme, lesson delivery patterns,
lesson preparatory drills, etc. When principals adopt the outlined methods in supervising the teacher’s
classroom activities in line with recognized supervision procedures, it is expected that the goals of quality
students learning will be assured.

8. Supervision of Instructional Practices

 Techniques of Supervision:

Stage 1 Preparation for supervision

Stage 2 Supervision1
Stage 3 Follow Up of Supervision

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUPERVISION:

1. It encourage self-expression
2. It provides an opportunity to do work in cooperation
3. It develops team spirit
4. It improves good interpersonal relationship
5. It gives autonomy to the workers to raise productivity
6. It interpret policies and give creative instruction.

FOLLOW-UP OF SUPERVISION:

1. Reorganization of time- Table/work plan/duty roster

2. Organizing in-service training programmes / continuous education programmes for nursing
personnel
3. Initiating changes in logistic support or supply system
4. Initiating actions for organizing staff welfare activities
5. Counseling and Guidance for career development

8. Supervision of Instruction and Practices

EXPECTATIONS AND GOALS IN CLINICAL SUPERVISION

What are your expectations about what will happen in your clinical supervision, and what you will get from it?
Are you able to identify your greatest needs to meet in the process? How do you name the short-, medium-,
and long-range goals that you will attempt to achieve in supervision? These questions are important to
answer, and fortunately you do not have to consider them alone.

The importance of a robust working alliance

Many mental health helpers are aware of the burgeoning research showing that, regardless of therapy
modality used, the counsellor-client relationship is one of the most important factors in achieving successful
outcomes for the client. The same is true of the working alliance between the counsellor-supervisee and the
supervisor.

Keithia Wilson and Alf Lizzio (2009) cite research (Barnett, Doll, and Younggren, 2007, and Milne and
Westerman, 2001, both in Wilson & Lizzio, 2009) to assert that the collective evidence from a range of studies
shows that the quality of the supervisory relationship in the formative stages of a supervisee’s professional
development has a longstanding effect on them; that effect can stunt as well as enhance supervisees’ growth.
Moreover, we can view the quality of the supervisory relationship as both a foundational intervention in its own
right and also a tool for enabling more specific supervisory methods and interventions (Kilminister & Jolly,
2000, in Wilson & Lizzio 2009).

As a supervisee, you are likely to be aware that a trusting, collaborative relationship will help you to experience
the supervision space as a safe learning environment, one in which you can openly discuss your work, bring
up fears about your competence and limitations, and generally be supported to experiment with new
strategies, techniques, and behaviours (Wulf & Nelson, 2000).
Thus in order to most validly identify expectations, needs, and goals, Wilson and Lizzio urge supervisor and
supervisee to collaboratively answer four pivotal questions, framing them in the context of an effective working
alliance:

What learning goals shall we pursue?

What approach to learning suits our circumstances?

What type of relationship will work the best?

What management processes do we wish to establish? (Wilson & Lizzio, 2009).

What learning goals shall we pursue?

When you take your seat in the supervisor’s office, what happens next? Do you whip out a carefully prepared
list of concerns to bring up, or are you more likely to just “wing it,” figuring that on the day you’ll know what you
should spend your time on? Admittedly, supervisions can be “hijacked” by a therapy session that didn’t go to
plan, or which brought up new counsellor concerns, such as we posed with Jana in the introduction. In terms
of the medium- and longer-term supervisory alliance, however, you are best served by identifying goals in an
overarching way and then creating with your supervisor an initial contract that addresses them, with an eye to
achieving specific outcomes.
Some goals will need to be pursued before others, different goals will be of varying lengths, and some will not
even come into view until you have moved on in your development as a counsellor. Together, you and your
supervisor will need to identify goals as you begin work together and then at intervals throughout the
supervisory relationship.
What are the options for the types of topics/goals you might work on? If we go back to the purposes of
supervision (above) of enhancing your professional knowledge and skills, integrating research and theory with
skills, monitoring the quality of services offered to your clients, and supporting you (generally) and your
capacity to self-reflect, self-evaluate, and self-develop (specifically), several categories emerge:

Process (intervention) skills

These could be defined as what counsellors do in their sessions, from requesting information, reflecting, role
playing, and confronting to supporting. Also called “technical competence”, a goal in this area might be
expressed like, “I learned about subpersonalities during my training, but now I have a client with internal
conflict who would probably benefit from this technique, and I don’t feel confident to use it. Can you help me
get some practice with it so that I can use it with that client?”

Conceptualization skills
These involve your cognitive processes and include sometimes out-of-awareness behaviours, such as
identifying client concerns, discerning predominant client themes, designing interventions, and planning future
sessions. Also referred to as conceptual competence, this category allows you to conceptualise your practice
and explicate underlying principles that inform interventions.

A goal here could be something like, “I’m aware in a general way that many of my senior clients are being
impacted by the new aged care requirements, but I don’t really understand them or how to think about them in
relation to client concerns. I’d like to get a handle on the whole issue”. Skills of systemic competence might fall
into this category, as you manage the context of professional practice, working relationships, and
organisational dynamics, but some authors (e.g., Lizzio & Wilson, 2002) put them into a separate category,
given the huge impact they can have on a counsellor’s practice.

Personalisation skills
These refer to the interplay between your personal qualities and your work with clients, and also your ability to
form an identity as a therapist. This broad-ranging category encompasses a multitude of issues, from aspects
such as separating your reactions from those of your client, through non-defensiveness with clients and
supervisor, to dealing with emotions in clients and in yourself. Included here can be skills of self-regulation: the
capacity to self-reflect on your practice and learn from your experience. A goal in this area could be something
like, “Whenever the husband in my couple client starts talking about how terrible his wife is in bed, I get really
anxious and flustered, and feel like I have no idea how to respond. I’d like to figure out what is happening for
me so that I can respond differently in such situations”.

Professional skills
This last major category can overlap the others, but is comprised of aspects such as knowledge and
adherence to ethical standards and professional standards. In addition, it includes professional behaviours
such as being on time for appointments, completing paperwork in a timely fashion, maintaining confidentiality,
establishing appropriate relationships with clients, and general professionalism. Lizzio and Wilson’s schema
(2002) similarly registers the skill areas of role efficacy, ethical judgment, and personal development.

A supervision goal in this category could be something such as, “I have recently found out that a colleague is
engaging ongoing behaviours that fall outside the codes of conduct for our profession as set out by our peak
body. I have spoken with the colleague about it and she denies that she is doing anything harmful to the client.
She has been helpful to me in getting established and she is an excellent therapist in other ways. I’m not sure
how to proceed”. (Pearson, 2004; Wilson & Lizzio, 2009; Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors,
2018)

Note that, while these skills categories provide a reasonable framework for thinking about goals you might set
up with your supervisor, they don’t include many skills addressing issues that fail to fall neatly into these
domains: for example, issues of transference or parallel process (which we examine in a later chapter),
aspects of policies and procedures within a workplace, or challenges such as the effect social and/or political
conditions are having on clients which cannot be adequately addressed in counselling. In recent research by
the Mental Health Academy (2018), for example, nearly every professional working with Aboriginal people who
informed the research noted that Australia’s history of colonisation and oppression of Aboriginal people was
“present” in the room in any helping endeavour, but most of the professionals declined to identify means by
which that influence could be largely mitigated in session.

Even after deciding which practice challenges you most urgently wish to tackle and setting appropriate goals,
you will want to explore how to meet them in terms of learning approaches.

What approach to learning suits our circumstances?

This second question of Wilson and Lizzio (2009) is that of how you, as supervisee, can best learn in
your supervision, or put another way: what supervisor roles will maximise your experience and
development? While supervisor roles can (should) include those of supporter, challenger, knowledge-
extender, and resource-finder, a more useful way to delineate the supervisor’s roles is to talk about
the supervisor as teacher, counsellor, and consultant. Which role — and hence, which approach to
learning you will be engaging — depends on a number of factors, including how much experience
you have in counselling, your personal style of learning, and the purpose of the supervision session.
Supervisor as teacher
Bring your mind back to your training for a moment. Do you recall any sense of awe (or even
overwhelm) at the sheer magnitude of knowledge and skills necessary to become a successful
therapist? Back then you were undoubtedly happy to have your trainers give you information.
Perhaps if you were observed doing role plays or other scenarios, you were glad to be told in a
directive way what you did well and what did not go so well. This sort of a didactic approach can be
said to be occurring when the supervisor is providing advice on how to address a specific issue. It is
often useful to have this sort of a teacher-controlled transmission of knowledge. It emphasises the
learner’s (read: supervisee’s) need for instruction, guidance, and support (Person, 2004; Wilson &
Lizzio, 2009).
If your supervisor is in this role with respect to you, she or she could be providing answers or
instructing you as to learning techniques, ways of applying interventions, and conceptualisations. The
question for you is: is that approach best for what you are contracting with your supervisor to do?
Perhaps your training was a long time ago, and you are fairly well-seasoned as a therapist. Perhaps
your concern in a given session is not an issue where knowledge or theory can be neatly transferred,
and you just need to be supported following on from an incident. Let’s look at that role.
Supervisor as therapist
In the therapy role, your supervisor is facilitating your personal growth and helping you explore your
reactions to things that have happened in your sessions with clients. For example, in the case of
Jana (in the introduction), the supervisor will be facilitating Jana’s examination of what was
happening for her as she heard about Carol’s husband being violent with her: not only Jana’s feelings
of compassion and concern for Carol — along with a good measure of planning for the ‘what next’ —
but also, Jana’s possible shame, guilt, and/or embarrassment at having missed earlier signs that her
client was being subjected to violence. As an ethical therapist, one with some experience under her
belt, Jana would likely have been questioning her own competence in that she failed to detect the
violence. Thus, those reactions — personal but relevant to session material and thus limited — are
fair game for processing in the context of working with the supervisor as therapist (Pearson, 2004;
Wilson & Lizzie, 2009).
Many supervisees find that they learn best when their supervisor is in the third role: that of
facilitator/consultant.
Supervisor as consultant
If Jana’s supervisor facilitates discussion about the session and provides options and alternatives, he
or she is functioning more in the role of consultant. When they go on to collaboratively discuss case
conceptualisation and further treatment planning for Carol, the supervisor can be said to be utilising a
facilitative, rather than didactic, approach. If you have been practicing for a while as a mental health
helper and/or if you have high needs for autonomy, you may prefer to have this sort of supervision.
If so, you are backed up by research. Wilson & Lizzio (2009) noted that in a study of graduates
getting supervision toward registration as psychologists, the supervisors who used a facilitative
approach had supervisees who were less anxious and resistant, with an increased capacity for
professional self-regulation. Similarly, a study contrasting supervisor approach before and after
counselling sessions found that, when supervision was held after a counselling session, supervisors
tended to be more facilitative and there were high levels of learning transfer by the supervisee into
their practice compared with supervisions held before counselling sessions, which correlated to a
more directive supervisory approach and less learning transfer to supervisees’ practice (Wilson &
Lizzio, 2009).
In truth, all of the supervisor roles are likely to be helpful to you at one stage or another, and the most
useful question to ask may be that of when and how your supervisor might use each. In addition, you
may find it useful to reflect on the balance of theory/practical technique in your supervisions. If the
supervisor hasn’t got that right, you are certainly within your rights to ask that you re-focus, putting
more time and energy toward whichever aspect has seemed to have too little.
What type of relationship will work the best?
Three words characterise a supervisory relationship which may be considered ideal: support, challenge, and
openness.

Support

We can talk about support as the degree to which you as supervisee feel adequate and affirmed as a result of
interactions with your supervisor. Your greatest opportunity for professional growth and development as a
supervisee happens in the context of a healthy relationship in which you experience the core Rogerian
conditions of empathy, congruence, and non-possessive warmth. Assuming that your supervisor is congruent
and transparent, releasing his or her perceptions, insights and reactions to you, you can use the relationship to
explore your counselling issues with a sense of trust. Of course, the converse is true. If you feel judged, you
will be careful to stay on “safe” territory, bringing only your best work and failing to expose areas where you
may have been less effective or downright unhelpful (let alone harmful). When you feel valued, you can risk
exploring the unknown, knowing that your supervisor’s response will offer you respect and honesty, even if you
have to face unhealed or other limiting areas in yourself which may have affected your client work (McEvoy,
1998; Wilson & Lizzio, 2009).

Challenge

Just like the muscle you strengthen at the gym through challenging it to lift ever-greater weights, so, too, your
“counsellor competence muscle” needs challenge in the “workout” of your supervision sessions. We can refer
to challenge as the extent to which you feel stretched — perhaps asked to think about things differently — as a
result of your interactions with your supervisor. Several points are relevant here. First, while the counselling
relationship involves an interaction with two people in which the client’s issues are the focus of attention,
supervision is both similar and different. It is similar in that the focus of the supervision is also the client.
However, it is different — and this is the second point — in that counselling is a dyadic relationship: two
people, with the object of containment, or emotional holding, of the client, whereas supervision is triadic — the
supervisor, the supervisee, and the client — and the containment is primarily the holding of you as supervisee
in the counselling task, plus an additional layer of containment for the client.

Because supervision — even by virtue of its name — suggests an inequality of the roles, there is inherently a
power differential; simply, the person with “oversight” responsibility — that is the supervisor — is more
experienced than the person seeking the oversight: that is, the supervisee. You are focused on the client, and
the supervisor “zooms in” and out, focusing on the client, your experience as supervisee, and also the
supervisor-supervisee relationship (McEvoy, 1998; Wilson & Lizzio, 2009). The balance of support and
challenge comes to be crucial in defining how you want to “run the relationship”.

Openness

The third crucial factor, openness, can be operationalized as the extent to which you believe that your
supervisor is relating to you non-defensively and openly in regard to your background, limitations, and
opinions. Achieving a workable balance of support and challenge is essential for your client’s outcomes, and
also for yours as supervisee. You need sufficient challenge to stimulate development, with enough support to
enable you to adequately respond to learning opportunities without retreating in apprehension or shame. It is
the supervisor’s job to keep the space open for you to develop safely, exposing your weaknesses as well as
your strengths. Your responsibility, on the other hand, is to be proactive in utilising the relationship to voice
your fears, difficulties, and inhibitions, and to make mistakes and take risks. While the responsibility for
effective outcomes from supervision is shared, that responsibility shifts more to your court as supervisee as
you gain experience and grow in confidence (McEvoy, 1998).

In summary, when deciding what kind of a supervisory relationship you wish to set up, the three factors of
support, challenge, and openness give rise to these three questions:What type and level of support will be
helpful — and what sort might be counterproductiveWhat type and level of challenge you both will most value
— and what forms might be counterproductive. What type and level of openness will be most helpful (Wilson &
Lizzio, 2009).What management processes do we wish to establish? The fourth pivotal question to ask in the
initial supervisory session, which sets the tone for subsequent sessions, is that of which processes you wish to
establish in order to manage the relationship. You are advised to think carefully about the following aspects:

Purpose. Are you mainly concerned with your professional development, and/or do you want to monitor your
quality and accountability?

Boundary management. What sorts of boundary issues will you need to discuss with your supervisor? This
could include questions such as confidentiality and dual relationships.
Preparation. What sort and level of preparation is expected? Will you, for instance, be bringing either audio or
videotapes of your sessions? Will you be doing transcripts and analyses? Who will be choosing the topics for
each session.

Feedback. How will you know when the supervision session you have had is a good one? In other words, how
will you evaluate and review the whole supervisory process? (Wilson & Lizzio, 2009).

Critical self-reflection on the part of both you and your supervisor will yield a more precise sense of your
preferred approaches. For you, there are questions such as:

To what extent are you willing to take responsibility for the management of your supervisory process?

How clear can you be around and your needs and preferences across the various domains of intervention,
such as learning goals and relationships

How might you educate yourself — thus empowering yourself — about the contracting process?

What type of working agreement do you wish to have?

In terms of ongoing review, how might you let your supervisor know when you would like to discuss possible
changes to your ways of working?

What ongoing processes might you use to review personal development and goal achievement in individual
sessions and in supervision overall? (Wilson & Lizzio, 2009)

Editor’s note: This article was adapted from the Mental Health Academy course, Supervision: Maximising Your
Sessions.

References:
 Australian Institute of Professional Counsellors (AIPC). (2018). CHCPRP007: Work within a clinical supervision
framework: Study Guide 10, Graduate Diploma of Relationship Counselling. Fortitude Valley, Queensland,
Australia: AIPC.
 McEvoy, C. (1998). The supervisor-counsellor relationship. Inside out. Retrieved on 19 February, 2019,
from: Website.
 Mental Health Academy. (2018). Sitting with Aboriginal clients: Context and strategies. Fortitude Valley: Mental
Health Academy.
 Pearson, Q.M. (2004). Getting the most out of clinical supervision: Strategies for mental health counselling
students. Journal of Mental Health Counselling. 26(4), 361-373.
 Wulf, J., & Nelson, M.L. (2000). Experienced psychologists’ reflections on pre-doctoral internship supervision
and its contributions to their development. Clinical Supervision, 19(2), 123-145.
 Wilson, K., & Lizzio, A. (2009). Processes and interventions to facilitate supervisees’ learning. In Pelling, N.,
Barletta, J., & Armstrong, P., The practice of clinical supervision. Bowen Hills, Queensland, Australia: Australian
Academic Press.

ANALYSIS OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS

In the design of industrial instruction, it is important to maximize learning and transfer to job performance,
while minimizing learning time. Both task analysis and instructional analysis are essential processes for
achieving these goals. Task analysis is a tool for understanding and specifying the desired final performance
or job. The product of task analysis may be a task list, flowchart, and/or other documentation which describes
competent performance. Instructional analysis, as distinct from task analysis, identifies the type(s) of learning
involved in acquiring a new performance capability and the structure of that learning in terms of component
skills and their relationships. The product of the instructional analysis process is a learning map.
Similar to a task analysis is an instructional analysis. Dick and Carey say that "an instructional analysis is a set
of procedures that, when applied to an instructional goal, results in the identification of the relevant steps for
performing a goal and the subordinate skills required for a student to achieve the goal" (p. 38). That is, in an
instructional analysis, you take the skill(s) described in your goal statement and break them down into steps,
and, then, identify additional relevant skills that might be necessary. Dick, Carey, and Carey describe this as a
two part process:

1) Goal analysis to determine the components of the instructional goal - In the goal analysis the question,
"what exactly would a learner be doing if they were demonstrating that they could already perform the goal?"
(p. 37) is answered. Dick and Carey propose that goal analysis is a two-step process: 1) Classifying Outcomes
and 2) Determining Goal Steps. The first step requires understanding different types of outcomes and
identifying the desired outcome.

A second step of goal analysis includes an outline, usually represented graphically in a flow chart (see
below), of the steps that the learner will need to take to achieve an instructional goal.

Note that the flow chart may also represent the acquisition of knowledge and information rather than a skill.
Thus, the flow chart may also look like this:
Note: This is only one way to create a flow chart. There are many examples online and in ID books. I have
seen a rectangle, diamond, and circle used.

2) Subordinate Skill Identification to identify skills that a learner needs to meet the instructional goal -
Once you have the main steps identified, you may need to determine the set of sub skills that a learner needs
to meet an instructional goal are identified and outlined. This may also be represented in graphical form.
Consultation with a content expert may be needed.

Follow this link for an example of an instructional analysis for teaching faculty to podcast.

9. ANALYSIS OF THE INSTEACHING METHODS

7 SECRETS OF THE BEST TEACHERS AND INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERS

1. Good Planning.
a. Great Plan
b. Don’t. Over-plan
c. Manage your Time
d. Be Flexible
e. Make Objectives clear
f. Promote Activity
g. Be Proactive
2. Good Classroom management
a. Identify Rules and Procedures
b. Belt to Belt Teaching
c. Discipline Pro-actively
d. Do not be a screamer
 3. Good Instruction
a. Teach for real life
b. Ensure Active Student involvement
c. Ensure success for all students
d. Teach Enthusiastically
e. Aligned Teaching and Testing
f. Face your Lessons Appropriately
g. Teach anything to anyone
4. Right Attitude
a. Portray an attitude of Responsibility
b. Defuse negative Coworkers
c. Work Cooperativelly
5. True Professionalism
a. Dress professionally
b. “Fit In” without “falling in”
c. Continue Professional Growth
d. Do your Best not be the best
e. Make decisions that benefit everyone
6. Effective Disciplines
a. Hide your Buttons
b. Be Consistent
c. Relieve Stress with Psychology
d. Becoming Better not Bitter
e. Give students what they need.
f. Find good in everyone

7. Motivation and Inspiration

a. Make your excitement becomes everybody’s excitement
b. Make everybody be your favorite
c. Maximize the power of Praise
d. Use rewards appropriately
e. Motivate the unmotivated
f. Maximize the power of you

10. The learners and the Learning Outcomes

The Learner
1. 1. What is a learner?
2. 2.  The learner is an embodied spirit.  He/she is a union of a sentient body and a rational soul.
3. 3.  His/her soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual abstraction, self- reflection,
and free rational volition.  His/her body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain.
4. 4. A learner who is hungry, physically exhausted and sleepy cannot be at his/her best in the classroom.
That’s why a school cannot ignore the learner’s physical needs.
5. 5. The learner has also a spiritual nature. “ Man does not leave by bread alone but every word that
comes from the mouth of God”, said the Greatest Teacher. He/she needs to be fed with sublime
thoughts, words of inspiration, spiritual advice drawn from the Bible for Christians, Koran for Muslims,
the Vedas for the Hindus, Gautama’s Buddha’s teachings for the Buddhists Only When the learner is
nourished materially and spiritually can he/she be complete for that is his/her very nature.
6. 6.  Five senses Instinct  Imagination Memory  Intellect
 7. 7. Five Senses The five senses are part of the learner’s sentient body. For effective and efficient
learning, it is important that his/her senses function normally.
8. 8. Instincts o The learner is also equipped with instincts. The word instinct comes from the Latin word
instinctus which means impulse. o This means that the learner has a natural or inherent capacity or
tendency to respond to environment stimuli such as danger signs for survival or self-preservation.
9. 9. Imagination It is the ability to form a mental image of something that is not perceived through the
senses. It is the ability of the mind to build mental scenes, objects or events that do not exist; are not
present or have happened in the past.
10. 10. Memory This is the cognitive faculty of retaining and recalling past experience.
42
11. 11. Intellect o By his/her intellect, the learner can engage in cognitive processes such as forming ideas
or concepts, reasoning out and making judgement. o Early concepts get modified and expanded as the
child grows and develops. There is so much concept formation that takes in every teaching-learning
process.
12. 12. Appetitive Faculties 1. Feelings and emotions 2. Rational will
13. 13. Feelings and Emotions Emotions is the on/off switch for learning. Positive feelings and emotions
make teaching- learning process exciting and a joyful, fruitful affair. Negative feelings and emotions
make the same process a burden.
14. 14. Will The learner’s will serves as guiding force and the main integrating force in his/her character. By
his/her will, the learner will what his/her intellect presents as good and desirable. It is this will that
makes the learner free to choose or not to choose to do the good as presented by his/her intellect. It is
this free will that will not allow the learner to be totally determined by his/her environment.
15. 15. Factors that contribute to the differences among learners : 1. Ability 2. Aptitude 3. Interests 4.
Family and cultural background 5. Attitudes and values
16. 16. Ability oThe learners’ native ability dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity.
oAbility determines the learners’ capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use
and application.
17. 17. Aptitude Refers to the learners’ innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity to learn certain
skills.
18. 18. Interests Learners’ interest in learning makes learning no longer a task but a pleasure. Interests are
not inherited. They are developed. A classroom set-up could offer centers of interest to give learners
an opportunity to develop interests in many things.
19. 19. Family and cultural background Students who come from different socioeconomic background
manifest a wide range of behavior due to differences in upbringing practices. Some families allow their
members to express their preferences regarding self discipline while others are left passively follow
home regulation.
20. 20. Attitudes and values A positive attitude will enhance the maximum and optimum use of the
learner’s cognitive and affective faculties for learning. Learners with a positive attitude will demonstrate
the value of persistence in their studies. Persistent students sustain interest in learning activity not
mindful of the extra time and effort being spent.

7 Most Effective Online Learning Tips For All Learners

Regardless of where you are at in your learning stage, knowing the best way for you to learn is key to
intellectual growth. Growth can’t be achieved in your life as quickly if you’re not retaining as much information
as you possibly could.

But the tricky part about learning is the fact that there isn’t a universal method that will work for everyone.
Everyone is different in their own way of studying and learning. To help with that, I’ve put together some of the
most effective online learning tips that you can use for yourself.
Even though each one of us has different learning styles and preferences, these online learning tips are still as
applicable to you as they are to me. Here are the 7 most effective online learning tips for all types of learners.

1. Use a Learning Strategy That Works for You

The first online learning tip is to use a learning strategy that works for you. What I mean by this is that there
are four core methods for us to learn.

 Visual (learning through sight)

 Auditory (learning through hearing)

 Reading/Writing (learning through text and print)

 Kinesthetic (learning through action)

Not everyone learns exclusively through one of these four methods though. We often have a mix of each one
of these things. However, there is definitely one style of learning that each of us prefers over the other if we
can get away with it.

Knowing which type of learner you are most dominant in can help you devise strategies and techniques
around your studying habits whenever possible. Of course, you can still use the other methods loosely or may
have to rely on them more in certain circumstances.

2. Pick the Best Time and Place to Learn

This online learning tip does not only apply to online learning but offline/physical as well. Choosing when to
learn and study is very important in terms of maximizing your energy and learning more efficiently. We all have
different energy levels over the course of the day, and some of us prefer to do certain activities at certain
points in the day.

For example, your night time might be the best time for you to be studying as you can retain more information
and you’re more alert compared to studying in the morning. The same could be said about the morning as well
given that some folks are more alert (early risers) during the day than they are during nighttime.

Being able to strike a balance between your energy and alertness levels while also considering the time of day
is crucial when it comes to learning and studying and even doing other things.

Another factor that can come into play aside from time is location. The atmosphere around you can contribute
greatly to the quality of your studying and learning time.[1]

Things that can help with improving the atmosphere are things like:

 Lighting
 Seating

 Tablespace

 Quietness

 Listening to music such as soft jazz or classical music.

3. Taking Good Notes

Even if you’re not physically studying at school or in a classroom, note-taking is still an important part of
learning and growing intellectually. How good your notes are will determine how useful studying them later will
be. A sign of good note-taking is when the notes are written or seen in such a way that you know the
sequence of information that was brought up revolving around them.

With that in mind, you want your notes to be as detailed as possible for you to be able to retain them. It’s also
here where you can lean into the type of learner you are. You could write or type out the information and have
key bullet points, have a trigger word to recall what was discussed in class, or use pictures to help you.

Some other strategies to consider that can help you out are the following:

 If you’re in a class that’s given assigned reading, read through it before the next class. Do the same
with your previous notes.
 Keep your notes from each subject together. Have notebooks for every class or topic you’re deeply
exploring. This way, you avoid confusing them or mixing up information while reviewing them.

 Always write down the main points of the topic so you can get a brief but solid overview of the subject.

4. Review and Simplify Often

Reviewing notes and previous ideas will, of course, be very helpful for you. Consider these as prompts that
you’re able to use to recall the rest of the information. But instead of waiting until big tests or some other key
date, I’d suggest getting into the habit of spending a half-hour every day to review content or notes. By
reviewing things constantly, you’re not overwhelmed with the amount of information that you’ve got to handle.

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Another thing you can consider is to simplify the process as much as you possibly can. I find this to be super
helpful as it gets me to ask the question, “how can I make retaining this information easier for me?” This leads
me to review my notes and reorganize them and then trim them down to easier and bite-sized pieces of
information.

If you are constantly simplifying the process—from organizing notes to slimming them down—you’re still
learning and growing. Some other methods for simplifying notes are highlighting or underlining keywords,
concepts, or phrases. You can also employ more visual aids or construct mind maps to help with remembering
better.

5. Avoid Distractions
This is probably one of the most obvious but also important online learning tips because any distraction is a
bad one when it comes to trying to learn or review something. Sometimes, distraction comes from outside
sources that are beyond our control. However, there are also several other things that are internal that can be
distracting.

These are things like our cell phones or having various tabs on your computer up while you’re reading or
studying something else. We don’t often think about those as distractions, but they can and will pull us away
from learning.

Here are some ways that can help you mitigate distractions:

 Getting a white noise generator

 Listening to music that can help you concentrate and drown out any other sounds
  Turning off your cell phone

 Closing down tabs or even blocking access to certain sites during a period of time

6. Speak to Instructors or Use Feedback Loop

Another one of the key online learning tips is speaking with your teachers when you can or using the feedback
loop if you can’t.

The feedback loop is similar to speaking to an instructor as you’re essentially roleplaying as the instructor and
approaching the question with a fresh perspective and pair of eyes. From that perspective, you’re giving
yourself feedback that wouldn’t be so different from a student/teacher relationship.

By employing the feedback loop or speaking to instructors, you’re able to look for more clarity and
understanding in the situation. Seeking guidance also allows you to gain better insights and learn better and
more effectively.

7. Study in Groups (Online or Offline)

Similar to talking to your teacher or using the feedback loop, discussing topics with other people around you is
another way that you can help improve your learning. This online learning tip is a touch different from the
previous tip because it’s more of a collaborative approach to understanding something.

There are other benefits as well with having someone to bounce questions and study together. It allows you to
be more focused, bond more with other people, and can help you grow and maintain motivation, too. Studying
in groups also helps you learn more efficiently and effectively.[2]

Final Thoughts
The key to studying and learning is to make it as simple of a process as it can be for you. But developing this
system is an acquired skill for everyone, and it requires plenty of time and patience on your part. This is
especially the case given the current global pandemic that we are facing, forcing us to remote learning. But
through these online learning tips, you’ll be able to get closer to building that system and making studying and
learning for you easier and more effective.