Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc) together in different chemical species is called a
chemical bond.

Kossel- Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding (Octet Rule)

W Kossel and G.N Lewis observed that atoms of all the noble gases (except helium) contain 8 electrons in their outermost shell
and do not have any tendency to take part in chemical combination. All other atoms tend to achieve this configuration during
chemical combination either by transference or mutual sharing of their valence electrons. This is known as octet rule.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

i) Octet rule cannot explain the formation of electron deficient molecules such as BeCl 2, BF3, etc in which the central atoms have
only 4 and 6 valence electrons respectively.

ii) Octet rule cannot explain the existence of various stable molecules such as PF5, PCl5, SF6, IF7, etc in which the central atoms
have more than eight valence electrons.
iii) Octet rule fails to explain why inert gases form compounds like XeF 2, XeF4, XeF6, KrF2, etc even though they have already
attained octet state.
iv) In molecules with an odd number of electrons like nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO 2, the octet rule is not satisfied for
all the atoms.

Types of Chemical Bonds

i) Ionic or Electrovalent Bond
The bond formed by the complete transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another is called electrovalent or
ionic bond. This type of bond is usually formed between a metal and a non-metal atom. For example: bonding in NaCl, MgCl 2,
CaO, Na2S, Al2O3, CaF2, etc.

Favourable Conditions for the Formation of Ionic Bond

i) The metal atom which loses electron(s) to form cation should have low ionization energy.
ii) The non-metal atom which accepts electron(s) to form anion should have high electron gain enthalpy (electron affinity).
iii) The higher the value of lattice energy of an ionic compound, the more stable is the crystal lattice formed and greater is the
tendency for the formation of ionic bond.
[Lattice energy (lattice enthalpy) is the amount of energy released when one mole of an ionic solid is formed from its
constituent ions in the gaseous state.]

ii) Covalent Bond

The bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms of same or different elements is called covalent
bond. This type of bond is usually formed between two non-metal atoms. For example, bonding in H2, H2O, NH3, Cl2, O2, N2, HCl,
CH4, etc.
Lewis structures of some covalent compounds are given below:
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

3) Co-ordinate Covalent Bond or Dative Bond

The bond formed by the sharing of electrons in which the shared pair of electron(s) is contributed by one of the bonded atoms is
called co-ordinate covalent or dative bond. This bond is represented by an arrow (→) pointing from the donor atom to the
acceptor atom. It should be noted that once the co-ordinate covalent bond is formed, it becomes identical to the normal
covalent bond and cannot be distinguished from the covalent bond.
It can be illustrated by the following Lewis structures.

or H2SO4

Resonance
It has been found that the observed properties of certain compounds cannot be satisfactorily explained by writing a single Lewis
structure. In such cases, two or more electronic structures of equivalent energy are written for the molecule and the actual
structure is regarded as a combination of these various possible structures.
This phenomenon by which two or more structures can be written for a molecule involving identical position of atoms is called
resonance. The actual structure of the molecule is said to be a resonance hybrid of various possible alternate structures which
are called resonance structures or canonical forms. A double headed arrow (↔) between the structures is used to represent the
resonating structures.
For example, ozone (O3) can be represented by two Lewis structures I and II as shown below:

Resonance hybrid of ozone

Since double bonds are shorter than single bonds, we would expect the two bond lengths in ozone molecule to be unequal. But
actual bond lengths in ozone molecule are found to be equal (128 pm). To account for this, ozone molecule is considered to be a
resonance hybrid of structures I and II. The actual structure of ozone is neither I nor II. It also does not mean that ozone
molecule quickly shifts from one respective structure to another but in fact, one of the bonding pairs is delocalized and is spread
over the region of all the three atoms rather than localized between two particular atoms. The resonance hybrid is more stable
than any of the resonating structures.

Resonance structures of some important molecules and ions are given below:

Resonance structures of SO3 molecule Resonance structures of SO 2 molecule

-- -
Resonance structures of CO3 ion Resonance structures of NO3 ion

Resonance structures of NO2 molecule

 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

Polar Character of Covalent Bond and Dipole Moment

If a covalent bond is formed between two dissimilar atoms (i.e. between two atoms of different electronegativities), the shared
pair of electrons is displaced towards the more electronegative atom. Due to this, the more electronegative atom acquires a
- +
partial negative charge (indicated as δ ) and the less electronegative atom acquires a partial positive charge (indicated as δ ).
Thus, the covalent bond develops a partial ionic character and such a bond is called polar covalent bond.
The polar character of a covalent bond increases with the increase in electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms.
Some examples of polar covalent molecules are HCl, HBr, H 2O, NH3, etc.

The degree of polarity or ionic character in a covalent bond is expressed in terms of dipole moment. Dipole moment (μ) is
defined as the product of the magnitude of charge (q) on any one of the atoms and the distance between them (d).
i.e. μ = q ×d
-10 -8
Since the charge ‘q’ is of the order of 10 esu and the internuclear distance ‘d’ is of the order of 10 cm, therefore dipole
-18
moment is of the order of 10 esu-cm, which is known as Debye, denoted by D.
-18 -30
i.e. 1D = 10 esu-cm = 3.335 × 10 Cm (Coulomb-metre)
Dipole moment is a vector quantity and is represented by an arrow with a tail at the positive end and the head pointing towards
the negative end (⇸). Greater the value of dipole moment more will be the ionic character in a covalent bond.

Covalent Character in Ionic Bonds and Fajan’s Rule

Just as covalent bonds have some partial ionic character due to the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms, ionic
bonds also have partial covalent character.
When two oppositely charged ions approach each other, the cation tends to attract the electron cloud of the anion towards
itself as a result of which the electron cloud of the anion gets distorted. This distortion of electron cloud of the anion by the
cation is known as polarisation which causes an increase in the electron density between the two ions, resulting in some
covalent character in the ionic bond.
[Note: The electronic charge of the cation is also polarised by the anion, but it is far less pronounced because of the small size of
the cation.]

The polarizing power of the cation and the polarisability of the anion is guided by Fajan’s rules which are discussed below:
(i) Smaller the size of the cation, greater is its polarising power. For example, LiCl is more covalent than KCl.
(ii) Larger the size of the anion, greater will be its polarisability. For example, LiI is more covalent than LiF. Similarly, AlF3 is
predominantly ionic but AlCl3 is covalent in nature.
(iii) Greater the charge on cation or anion, greater will be the covalent character in the ionic bond. For example, for NaCl and
+ 2+ 2+
CaCl2, the cations have similar radii (Na = 116 pm; Ca = 114 pm), but the increased polarisation by the higher charge of Ca
gives a lower melting point for CaCl2.

Dipole Moment of Some Molecules

i) The dipole moment of BeF2 and CO2 molecules is zero.
BeF2 and CO2 both are linear molecules. The two equal bond dipoles point in opposite directions and cancel the effect of each
other. Hence, the resultant dipole moment in these molecules is zero.
δ- 2 δ+ δ-
F Be F O C O
Resultant μ =0 Resultant μ =0
o
ii) In BF3, the resultant dipole moment is zero although the B – F bonds are oriented at an angle of 120 to one another. It is
because the three bond moments give a net sum of zero as the resultant of any two is equal and opposite to the third.
F
F B
F
Resultant μ =0
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

Molecular Geometry
The shape of a molecule depending on the relative arrangements of the bonded atoms within the molecule is known as
geometry of the molecule or molecular geometry. Various theories have been proposed to predict the shapes or geometry of
molecules. One of them is the VSEPR theory.

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

This theory provides a simple method to predict the shape of covalent molecules. It is based on the idea that electron pairs try
to be as far apart as possible to minimize the repulsive interactions between them. The shapes of molecules depend upon the
number and nature of electron pairs (bond pairs or lone pairs) present in the valence shell of the central atom.

The main postulates of this theory are-

i) The geometry or shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs (bond pairs as well as lone
pairs) surrounding the central atom.

ii) The electron pairs (lone pairs or bond pairs) surrounding the central atom try to remain as far apart as possible to minimize
the repulsive interactions between them.

iii) The repulsive interactions between various electron pairs follow the following sequence-
lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bond pair > bond pair- bond pair.

Geometry of Some Simple Molecules Based on VSEPR Theory

i) Shape of BeF2

In BeF2, the central Be atom has two bond pair of electrons in its valence shell which try to remain as far apart as possible and
o
are positioned at an angle of 180 to have minimum repulsion. This gives linear structure to BeF2 molecule.

Lewis structure of BeF2 Linear structure of BeF2

Similar is the case with BeCl2 molecule.

ii) Shape of BF3

In BF3, the central boron atom has three bond pair of electrons in its valence shell which are directed towards the three corners
o
of an equilateral triangle to minimize the repulsion between them making an angle of 120 with each other. As a result, BF3
molecule has trigonal planar structure.

Lewis structure of BF3 Trigonal planar structure of BF3

iii) Shape of CH4

In CH4, the central carbon atom has four bond pair of electrons in its valence shell which are directed towards the four corners
o o
of a regular tetrahedron to minimize the repulsion between them making an angle of 109.5 (109 28') with each other. Thus,
CH4 molecule has tetrahedral structure.

Lewis structure of CH4 Tetrahedral structure of CH4

 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

iv) Shape of PCl5

In PCl5, the central phosphorus atom has five bond pair of electrons in its valence shell. Among these five electron pairs, three
o
pairs lie in one plane known as equatorial plane making an angle of 120 with each other and the remaining two pairs lie
perpendicular to the equatorial plane in opposite directions. As a result, PCl 5 molecule has trigonal bipyramidal structure.

Lewis structure of PCl5 Trigonal bipyramidal structure of PCl5

v) Shape of SF6
In SF6, the central sulphur atom has six bond pair of electrons in its valence shell. Among these six electron pairs, four lie in
o
equatorial plane making an angle of 90 with each other and the remaining two pairs lie perpendicular to the equatorial plane in
opposite directions. Thus, SF6 molecule has octahedral structure.

Lewis structure of SF6

Octahedral structure of SF6

vi) Shape of H2O
In H2O, the central oxygen atom has four pairs of electrons in its valence shell, among which two are bond pairs and the other
two are lone pairs. The expected geometry of H2O would be tetrahedral, but according to VSEPR theory, the repulsion between
two lone pairs is the maximum and the repulsion between lone pair and bond pair is stronger than the repulsion between two
o o
bond pairs. Consequently, the bond pairs are pushed slightly inwards and the bond angle in H 2O decreases from 109.5 to 104.5
making the geometry of H2O molecule V-shaped (or bent).

Lewis structure of H2O

V-shaped (bent) structure of H2O
vii) Shape of NH3
In NH3, the central nitrogen atom has four pairs of electrons in its valence shell, among which three are bond pairs and one is
lone pair. The expected geometry of NH3 would be tetrahedral but according to VSEPR theory, the repulsion between lone pair
and bond pair is stronger than the mutual repulsion between bond pairs. Consequently, the bond pairs of electrons come closer
o o
and the bond angle in NH3 decreases from 109.5 to 107 giving pyramidal structure to NH3 molecule.

Lewis structure of NH3 Pyramidal structure of NH3

Similar is the case with PCl3 molecule.

Valence Bond Theory

According to valence bond theory, when two atoms approach each other, new forces of attraction and repulsion are set in. The
nucleus of one atom and the electrons of the other atom attract each other. Similarly, repulsive forces arise between electrons
of the two atoms and the nuclei of the two atoms. If the net result is attractive, i.e. when the attractive interactions are stronger
than the repulsive interactions, certain amount of energy is released, a chemical bond is formed and the molecule becomes
stable.
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

For the sake of illustration, let us study the formation of hydrogen molecule.
When two hydrogen atoms are separated by a large distance,
there is virtually no interaction between them and the
potential energy of the system (the two H atoms) is taken as
zero. However, when the two hydrogen atoms approach each
other, the attractive forces predominate over the repulsive
forces and the potential energy of the system decreases
continuously until a certain minimum value is attained. At this
stage, the atomic orbitals of the two H-atoms overlap to a
maximum extent which results in the pairing of electrons and
the two hydrogen atoms are said to be bonded together to
form a stable molecule. If the two H-atoms are forced to
come further closer, the repulsive forces start predominating
and as a result, the energy of the system rises sharply.

Overlap of Orbitals and Formation of Sigma () and Pi () Covalent Bonds
According to valence bond theory, the formation of a covalent bond involves the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals of the
combining atoms. Depending upon the nature of atomic orbitals involved and the manner of overlapping, the covalent bond
formed may be classified into two types-
i) Sigma () bond ii) Pi () bond

1) Sigma () bond

The covalent bond formed by the end to end (head on or axial) overlapping of the half-filled atomic orbitals of the combining
atoms along the inter-nuclear axis is called sigma () bond.
There are three types of axial overlap as discussed below-

i) s-s overlap
The overlap of the half-filled 's' orbitals of the combining atoms is called s-s overlap and the bond thus formed is called s-s sigma
() bond. For example: the overlapping which occurs in the formation of H 2 molecule.

ii) s-p overlap

The overlap of the half-filled 's' orbital of one atom with that of p-orbital of another atom is called s-p overlap. For example: the
overlapping which occurs in the formation of HF molecule.

iii) Head on p-p overlap

The overlap of the half-filled 'p' orbitals of the combining atoms along their inter-nuclear axis is called head-on or end to end p-p
overlap. For example: the overlapping which occurs in the formation of F 2 molecule.

2) Pi () bond
The covalent bond formed by the sidewise or lateral overlapping of the half-filled 'p' orbitals of the combining atoms
perpendicular to the inter-nuclear axis is called pi () bond. This bond is present in addition to the  bond in all molecules
containing double or triple bonds. The extent of sidewise overlapping is small, so  bond is weaker than  bond.
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

For example: the overlapping that occurs in the formation of O 2 molecule.

Differences between Sigma and Pi Bonds

Sigma () bond
1) Sigma bond is formed by the head on overlapping of half-
filled atomic orbitals (s-s, s-p or p-p) of the combining atoms.
2) Overlapping of atomic orbitals takes place along the inter-
nuclear axis.
3) It is stronger than  bond because the orbitals overlap to a
greater extent during the formation of this bond.
4) This bond can be present alone.
Pi () bond
1) Pi bond is formed by the sidewise overlapping of half-filled
p-orbitals of the combining atoms.
2) Overlapping of atomic orbitals takes place perpendicular to
the inter-nuclear axis.
3) It is weaker than  bond because the orbitals overlap to a
lesser extent during the formation of this bond.
4) This bond is always formed in addition to sigma bond.

Hybridisation
Although the formation of many molecules can be easily explained with the help of atomic orbital overlap concept, the simple
valence bond theory is unable to explain the geometry and shape of molecules like CH 4, NH3, H2O, etc. In order to explain the
geometry and shapes of various molecules, valence bond theory has been supplemented by the concept of hybridisation of
atomic orbitals by Linus Pauling.

Hybridisation is the process of mixing up of dissimilar orbitals of an atom having slightly different energies to form same
number of new orbitals having equal energies and identical shapes. The new orbitals formed after hybridization which have
identical shapes and same energy contents are called hybrid orbitals.
Conditions and Features of Hybridisation
i) Only atomic orbitals of nearly same energy belonging to the same atom or ion undergo hybridisation.
ii) Both half filled as well as completely filled orbitals of valence shell can take part in hybridisation.
iii) Hybridised orbitals are oriented in space as far as possible so as to minimize the electronic repulsions and maximize the
stability of the molecule. Thus, the type of hybridisation indicates the geometry of the molecule.

Types of Hybridisation
There are various types of hybridisation involving s, p and d orbitals which are discussed below:

i) sp hybridisation
The mixing of one 's' orbital and one 'p' orbital giving rise to two sp hybrid orbitals having equal energy and identical shape is
o
called sp hybridisation. The sp hybrid orbitals have linear geometry, i.e. they are oriented in space at an angle of 180 to
minimize the repulsion between them.
This type of hybridisation is involved in the formation of molecules like BeF 2, BeCl2, CO2, C2H2, etc.

2
ii) sp hybridisation
2
The mixing of one s-orbital and two p-orbitals of an atom giving rise to three sp hybrid orbitals having equal energy and
2 2
identical shape is called sp hybridisation. The three sp hybrid orbitals are directed towards the three corners of an equilateral
o
triangle making an angle of 120 with each other.
This type of hybridisation is involved in the formation of molecules like BF3, C2H4, etc.
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal
3
ii) sp hybridisation
3
The mixing of one s-orbital and three p-orbitals of an atom giving rise to four sp hybrid orbitals having equal energy and
3 3
identical shape is called sp hybridisation. The four sp hybrid orbitals are directed along the four corners of a regular
o
tetrahedron making an angle of 109.5 with each other.
This type of hybridisation is involved in the formation of molecules like CH4, H2O, NH3, etc.

3
iii) sp d hybridisation
3
This type of hybridisation involves mixing of one ‘s’, three ‘p’ and one ‘d’ orbitals to form five sp d hybridised orbitals which
adopt trigonal bipyramidal structure. Three of the hybrid orbitals are directed towards the three corners of an equilateral
o
triangle making an angle of 120 between them (equatorial orbitals) and the remaining two orbitals are oriented at right angles
to the plane of equatorial orbitals which are called axial orbitals.
This type of hybridisation is involved in the formation of molecules like PCl5, PF5, etc.

3 2
iv) sp d hybridisation
3 2
This type of hybridisation involves mixing of one ‘s’, three ‘p’ and two ‘d’ orbitals to form six sp d hybridised orbitals which
adopt octahedral structure.
This type of hybridisation is involved in the formation of molecules like SF6, K3[Fe(CN)6], etc.

Hybridisation in Some Carbon Compounds

3
i) CH4 - sp hybridisation
Carbon atom has only two unpaired electrons in its ground state which are insufficient to form four bonds with hydrogen atoms.
So, during the formation of CH4, one electron from 2s orbital is promoted to 2p z orbital thus creating four half-filled orbitals.
3
Now, one 's' and three 'p' orbitals in the valence shell of the excited carbon atom undergo hybridisation to form four sp hybrid
orbitals each of which overlap with 1s orbital of four H-atoms forming methane molecule with tetrahedral geometry.
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

'C' atom in ground state: ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
'C' atom in excited state:
3
sp hybridization
↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
After hybridisation:
3
Four sp hybrid orbitals
CH4 formation: ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

Tetrahedral structure of CH4

2
ii) C2H4 (ethylene or ethene) -sp hybridisation
During the formation of C2H4, one 's' and only two 'p' orbitals in the valence shell of the excited carbon atom undergo
2 o
hybridisation to form three sp hybrid orbitals which are inclined to each other at an angle of 120 . In the formation of ethene,
2
one of the sp hybrid orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially with similar orbital of the other carbon atom to form C-C sigma
2
bond. The other two sp hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom are utilized for forming sigma bond with two H-atoms. The
unhybridized p-orbitals of the two carbon atoms overlap sidewise with each other to form  bond. Thus in a C2H4 molecule, two
carbon atoms are bonded through one  and one  bond.

iii) C2H2 (acetylene or ethyne) - sp hybridisation

During the formation of C2H2, one 's' and only one 'p' orbital in the valence shell of the excited carbon atom undergo
o
hybridisation to form two sp hybrid orbitals which are inclined to each other at an angle of 180 . In the formation of ethyne, one
of the sp hybrid orbital of one carbon atom overlaps axially with similar orbital of the other carbon atom to form C-C sigma
bond. The other sp hybrid orbital of each carbon atom is utilized for forming sigma bond with one H-atom. Each of the two
unhybridized p-orbitals of both the two carbon atoms overlap sidewise to form  bonds. Thus in a C2H2 molecule, two carbon
atoms are bonded through one  and two  bonds.

Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)

Molecular orbital theory was proposed by Hund and Mulliken in 1932. This theory assumes that in molecules, the atomic orbitals
lose their identity and the electrons in molecules are present in new orbitals called molecular orbitals which are not associated
with a particular atom but belong to the molecule as a whole. Major postulates of this theory are-
i) When two atoms come closer to each other to form a bond, the atomic orbital of one atom overlaps with the atomic orbital of
the other atom to form a set of new orbitals called molecular orbitals.
ii) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals combining together. Half of the new
molecular orbitals have energy lower than that of the combining atomic orbitals and are called bonding molecular orbitals
and the other half which have energy greater than that of the combining atomic orbitals are called antibonding molecular
orbitals.
The bonding molecular orbitals are denoted by σ, π, etc whereas the corresponding antibonding molecular orbitals are
* *
denoted by σ , π , etc.
iii) The filling of the electrons in the molecular orbitals is in accordance with Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and
Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity.
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

Energy Level Diagram for Molecular Orbitals

The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals for O2, F2, etc is given below:
* * * * *
σ1s < σ 1s < σ2s <σ 2s <σ2pz < (π2px = π2py) < (π 2px = π 2py) < σ 2pz
The increasing order of energies of various molecular orbitals for Li 2, Be2, B2, C2, N2 is given below:
* * * * *
σ1s < σ 1s < σ2s <σ 2s < (π2px = π2py) < σ2pz < (π 2px = π 2py) < σ 2pz

Bond Order
Bond order is defined as half the difference between the number of electrons present in the bonding and the antibonding
molecular orbitals.
1
Bond order = (Nb – Na)
2
where, Nb = number of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals and N a = number of electrons in antibonding molecular orbitals.

Information Obtained from Bond Order

i) Stability of Molecule
If the value of bond order is positive, it indicates a stable molecule and if the value of bond order is negative or zero, it means
that the molecule is unstable and is not formed.

ii) Bond Length

Bond length of a molecule is inversely proportional to its bond order. In other words, greater the bond order, shorter will be the
bond length.

iii) Nature of the Bond

Bond order of a molecule is equal to the number of covalent bonds between the atoms in the molecule.

Iv) Magnetic Nature of a Molecule

If all the electrons in a molecule are paired (or if all the molecular orbitals in a molecule are doubly occupied), the substance is
diamagnetic and if there are unpaired electrons in a molecule (or if one or more molecular orbitals are singly occupied), the
substance is paramagnetic.
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Species

i) Hydrogen Molecule (H2)
There are altogether two electrons in hydrogen molecule. So, its electronic configuration is:
2
H2 : (σ1s)
Bond Order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (2-0)/2 = 1
This means that the two hydrogen atoms are bonded together by a single covalent bond. Since no unpaired electron is present
in hydrogen molecule, therefore, it is diamagnetic.
+
ii) Hydrogen Molecule Cation (H2 )
This molecule ion has only one electron.
+ 1
H2 : (σ1s)
Bond Order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (1-0)/2 = ½
+ +
Positive bond order indicates H2 to be stable species. However, H2 is less stable than H2.
Magnetic Nature: Paramagnetic

iii) Helium Molecule (He2)

2 * 2
He2 : (σ1s) (σ 1s)
Bond Order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (2-2)/2 = 0
Zero bond order indicates that He2 is unstable and does not exist.
Similarly, Be2 also does not exist.

iv) Oxygen Molecule (O2)

Each oxygen atom has 8 electrons, hence in O2 molecule, there are 16 electrons.
2 * 2 2 * 2 2 2 2 * 1 * 1
O2 : (σ1s) (σ 1s) ( σ2s) (σ 2s) (σ2pz) (π2px) (π2py) (π 2px) (π 2py)
Bond Order = (Nb – Na)/2 = (10-6)/2 = 2
So, in oxygen molecule, atoms are held together by a double bond.
Magnetic nature: paramagnetic

Hydrogen Bond
The bond between a covalently bonded hydrogen atom of one molecule and more electronegative atom (F, O or N) of the same
or another molecule is called hydrogen bond. It is a weak bond and is much weaker than a covalent bond. It is represented by a
dotted (………) line.

Cause/Origin of Hydrogen Bond

When hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as F, O or N, the shared pair of electrons is
displaced towards the electronegative atom which causes the development of partial negative charge (δ-) on the
electronegative atom and a partial positive charge (δ+) on the hydrogen atom. The electrostatic force of attraction between the
positively charged H-atom of one molecule and the negatively charged electronegative atom of the same or other molecule
results in the formation of hydrogen bond.
δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
…… H – X …… H – X …... H – X …..

Types of Hydrogen Bonding

1) Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond: The hydrogen bond formed between different molecules of the same or different
compounds is called intermolecular hydrogen bond. For example, hydrogen bonds in NH 3, H2O and HF molecules, H-bonds
between water and ammonia, water and alcohol, etc.

δ+ δ- δ+ δ- δ+ δ-
…… H – F …… H – F …... H – F …..

Fig: Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in (i) HF (ii) NH3 and (iii) H2O molecules

Fig: Solubility of (i) alcohol and (ii) ammonia in water due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding
 Chemistry notes for class XI by Rabindra Agrawal

2) Intramolecular Hydrogen Bond: The hydrogen bond formed between hydrogen atom and highly electronegative atom (F, O
or N) present in the same molecule is called intramolecular hydrogen bond. For example, hydrogen bond in o-nitrophenol,
o-hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid), etc.

Fig: Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in (i) o-nitrophenol and (ii) salicylic acid