Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

Development of cement industry in Poland e History, current state,

ecological aspects. A review

ski*, Roman Buczkowski
Bartłomiej Iglin

, Gagarina 7, 87-100 Torun
Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun
, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The history of the Polish cement industry has been presented, including its beginnings in 1857, when the
Received 26 June 2015 cement plant Grodziec was established, and the current state of today. The cement industry in Poland at
Received in revised form present encompasses 11 cement plants operating in a full production cycle, one cement grinding plant
6 June 2016
and one calcium aluminate cement plant. The cement industry in Poland has recently implemented a
Accepted 17 September 2016
Available online 20 September 2016
number of investments to improve the production efficiency and support the environmental protection
e one of the most important investments is the use of alternative fuels in cement production.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Cement industry
Cleaner production
Alternative energy
Poland

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
2. The birth of the cement industry in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
2.1. The kingdom of Poland and the Russian partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
2.2. The Austrian partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
2.3. The prussian partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
3. The Polish cement industry in the years 1918e1939. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
4. The Polish cement industry in the years 1939e1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
5. The Polish cement industry in the years 1945e1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
6. The Polish cement industry in the years 1989e2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
7. Pro-ecological activities in the cement industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
7.1. Carbon footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
7.2. The process of combusting alternative fuels using the cement plant kujawy as an example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
7.2.1. Combustion of waste alternative solid shredded fuels (PASr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
7.2.2. Combustion of car tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
8. Prospects for the development of the cement industry in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
9. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720

1. Introduction

Cement is the most important binding construction material,

which after mixing with water creates a workable paste with an
ability to harden in the air and under water. Buildings, technical and
* Corresponding author. industrial constructions, infrastructure facilities, dams, roads or

ski).
E-mail address: iglinski@chem.umk.pl (B. Iglin

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.139
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin
bridges that surround us would not have been created without
cement (Hewlett, 2004; Zetola, 2010; Gao et al., 2015).
One of the inventors of Portland cement is thought to be Joseph
Aspdin, who in 1824 was granted a patent on the process of
obtaining a binder created from roasted mixture of limestone and
clay, and who used for the first time the name “Portland cement”.
The binder is obtained by firing the calcium carbonate contained in
the stone until its total decomposition. However, this process was
carried out at a relatively low temperature. It is because of this that
Isaac Johnson, who in 1845 after numerous attempts established
the correct proportions of limestone and clay, is often considered to
be the inventor of the modern Portland cement (Francis, 1977;
Huntzinger and Eatmon, 2009). Johnson introduced roasting at a
higher temperature, which enabled the formation of compounds of
good binding properties (Francis, 1977). A relatively simple tech-
nological process of cement production led to a rapid development
of the cement industry in Europe and the USA in the second half of
the 19th century. The production of cement increased particularly
quickly after World War II. The global production of cement
reached 134 million Mg in 1950, 832 million Mg in 1980 and at
present it exceeds 1600 million Mg (Kurdowski, 2010; Rodrigues
and Joekes, 2011; Madlool et al., 2011).
2. The birth of the cement industry in Poland
2.1. The kingdom of Poland and the Russian partition
Poland is among the few countries that were the first to start
cement production at an industrial level. The first cement works
Grodziec commenced its operation on the Polish land in Grodziec
near Be˛ dzin in 1857 (Fig. 1); this was the fifth cement plant in the
world (Srzednicki, 2007). At the plant in Grodziec clinker was burnt
in periodically working kilns. The first production reached 3000
barrels, 164 kg each, which amounted to about 490 Mg/year. The
cement works met not only the demand from the Kingdom of
Poland, but also supplied cement to the markets of the Russian
Empire. In 1860 the cement plant had two large kilns for burning
clinker, four pairs of pan crushers and two incandescent sets. The
annual production increased to 2.5 Gg (Szela˛ g, 2007).
In 1870 the cement works had three limestone kilns and twelve
Fig. 1. Cement works Grodziec in 1870 (Zachuta, 2004).
703
kilns for burning clinker and drying the stock. The whole burning
cycle lasted about a week and consisted of three activities: loading,
burning and unloading. The time of cooling the kiln before
commencing unloading depended on the temperature of its sur-
roundings. The fuel consumption reached up to 40% of the weight
of raw feedstock. In 1911 shaft kilns were replaced by rotary kilns
using the wet process with the capacity of 150 Mg of clinker per
24 h. In those times this was a record capacity (Zachuta, 2004;
Stelmach, 1957).
The second cement plant to be opened in 1884 for exploitation
in the Kingdom of Poland was the cement plant Wysoka (Borek,
1957). Clinker in the cement works Wysoka was burnt first in 9
and then in 14 typical shaft kilns and the Dietsch kilns. In 1892 nine
more double shaft Dietsch kilns were constructed in the plant. The
cement production increased quite quickly from 6 Gg to 65 Gg per
year and the workforce consisted of about 200 workers. At the end
of the 19th century the cement works Wysoka was among the
leaders in Europe (Borek, 1957; Wo
jcik, 1984).
In 1894 the cement plant Klucze was built. Clinker was burnt in
the Dietsch kilns. In 1900 the cement plant produced 16.4 Gg of
cement annually whilst in 1904 it was already 41 Gg of cement
(Zachuta, 2004). At that time the plant employed 220 workers and
was equipped in three steam engines of total power of 660 hp. In
January 1895 the cement plant Firley commenced its operation.
Initially, the cement works had a double shaft Dietsch kiln. The
second kiln was added in 1896 and the third one followed a year
later. In order to reduce dust emission hermetically sealed feeders
and equipment were built in places where powder cement was
stored. In 1904 the cement plant Firley employed 100 workers
whilst the total power of steam engines was 450 hp (Jezioran
ski,
1904).
Construction boom at the end of the 19th century spurred the
growth of small cement plants. The construction of the cement
works Rudniki began in 1894. The plant employed up to 80
workers; initially, the production was about 9.8 Gg/year. In 1887 the
cement works Łazy commenced its operation. The annual pro-
duction of cement did not exceed 18 Gg. In 1898 the construction of
the cement works Opoczno began. The plant employed 75e100
workers whilst the annual production of cement was 23 Gg. As a
result of poor quality resources and lack of railway access, the
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ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin

cement plant closed after a few years. In 1899/1900 the cement Table 2
plant Wrzosowa was built. The cement works was equipped with 5 A structure of cement sales in 1911e1913 (Sprawozdanie, 1928).

shaft Scho€fer kilns. The annual production capacity of the plant was Customers 1911 1912 1913
20 Gg of cement. In 1898 the construction of the plant Kielce also [Gg] [%] [Gg] [%] [Gg] [%]
commenced. The chemical composition of cement produced in the
Mines 19.9 7.7 22.9 8.2 21.9 6.7
Kingdom of Poland and the Russian Empire was shown in Table 1
Fortifications 33.1 12.8 56.8 20.3 122.5 37.6
(Zachuta, 2004). Railways 9.0 3.5 8.1 2.9 7.4 2.3
Another cement plant was the cement works Ogrodzieniec. The Public roads and bridges 10.9 4.2 12.0 4.3 11.3 3.5
plant was equipped in four double Dietsch kilns. Its annual pro- Wholesalers and private consumers 185.8 71.8 179.9 64.3 162.9 49.9
duction was 41 Gg. The machinery was powered by two steam In total 258.7 100 279.7 100 326.0 100
engines of total power of 350 hp. The cement works Wołyn
, which
opened in 1898, produced about 26 Gg of cement (Zachuta, 2004).
In 1900 the amount of 112 Gg of cement was produced in the Kingdom of Poland. The cement plant Rudniki was extended and
Kingdom of Poland, which amounted to 12% of the production in three new plants were constructed: Wiek, Morawin and Ros.
the Russian Empire. The fast development of the cement industry at Table 2 shows cement customers in the years 1911e1913
the end of the 19th century did not have solid and rational foun- (Sprawozdanie, 1928).
dations, and resulted from temporary market conditions. Cement
was produced without taking into consideration the market, which
resulted in surplus production with typical consequences such as a 2.2. The Austrian partition
significant decrease in prices and profit. Newer plants, with greater
capital, sold cement below the production cost in order to make In 1885 the cement plant Szczakowa commenced its operation
(Fig. 2) (Skowron, 2011). It produced 12.5 Gg of Portland cement
their name on the market and secure customers. Due to their
difficult economic situation, cement factories reached an agree- and 17.5 Gg of construction lime; it employed 300 workers. In 1906
the cement plant was modernised. The stock was crushed using the
ment at the end of 1899 to establish the Central Sales Office for
Portland-Cement, limit global production and increase prices wet process in a ball mill. A rotating kiln of length of 26 m and
capacity of 70 Mg per 24 h was installed. This kiln used the dry
(Stelmach, 1957).
The Japanese-Russian war and the revolution of 1905 contrib- process; it was the first kiln of this type on the Polish territory. In
1910 another kiln of dimensions ø2.4/2.1/52.3 and capacity of
uted to worsening of the crisis in the Polish cement industry. The
125 Mg per 24 h was installed (Kro
likowski, 1976).
construction of bridges and civil works were totally abandoned
In 1899 in the vicinity of Krako
w the cement works Bernard
whilst the construction of houses was reduced to a minimum. The
following cement plants stopped working: Opoczna, Rudniki and Liban and Ska commenced its operation. The annual production of
the plant was 100 wagons of cement, which was about 1 Gg. In the
Kielce. The last one of these was totally demolished in 1911
(Stelmach, 1957). years 1891e1895 a significant development of the cement works
took place. During that period six shaft kilns for continuous work
In 1910 in the cement plant Wysoka a rotating kiln of diameter
of 2.5 m and length of 45 m was installed along with a ball and tube were built, milling plants were extended and the cement plant's
own power station commenced its operation. A narrow gauge
mill “Kominor A”, a dryer and a coal crusher. In this kiln the wet
process was used; its capacity was 100 Mg per 24 h, which was half railway was used to transport the stock instead of horse-drawn

jcik, 1984). carts. In 1913, 40 Gg of cement was produced. The heyday of the
of the capacity of shaft kilns “Dietsch” (Borek, 1957; Wo
In the years 1912e1914 the whole plant was modernised e shaft plant was in the years 1912e1914. In order to burn clinker two new
kilns of dimensions ø2.25/1.85/50 m were installed in a new pro-
kilns were demolished and replaced with two twin rotating kilns,
which used the wet process, of dimensions ø3.2/2.7
70.2 m. In duction hall (Zachuta, 2001).
In 1899 the plant Goleszo
w started to produce cement. The
addition, mills for crushing stock, cement and coal, a dryer for coal,
two new silos for cement and a power plant of power of 2.4 MW cement works initially had 12 shaft “Schneider” kilns of combined
capacity 180e200 Mg/24 h. Shaft kilns were gradually withdrawn
were built. As a result of modernisation, the production capacity of
the cement works Wysoka increased to 170 Gg/year. At the same and replaced by four rotating kilns of length of 38 m and capacity of
100 Mg/year (Cimała, 1969). In 1911 the construction of the cement
time in the cement works Grodziec the installation of a rotating kiln
works Go
rka began, which had production capacity of 45 Gg
was commenced. The kiln's dimensions were ø3.2/2.7
51 m and
annually (Srzednicki, 1983).
its capacity was 150 Mg clinker per 24 h, which in those times was a
record amount (Jezioran
ski, 1904; Rutle, 1957).
An increase in demand for cement in the years preceding the 2.3. The prussian partition
World War I resulted in the growth of the cement industry in the
The cement works Bolszewo (Wejherowo) commenced its

Table 1
Chemical composition of cement from the Polish plants at the turn of the 20th century (Zachuta, 2004).

The name of cement plant SiO2 Al2O3 þ Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Alkali Ignition loss Hydraulic factor

Grodziec 21.05 11.15 62.35 1.00 1.71 e 1.80 e

Wysoka 21.31 11.72 64.85 1.21 0.16 0.52 e 1.98
Firley 26.63 6.80 61.47 1.38 1.05 e 2.50 e
Łazy 24.15 8.15 63.65 1.08 1.30 e 1.41 2.00
Kielce 20.90 9.65 62.61 1.09 1.89 e 3.77 2.09
Klucze 23.09 10.38 62.11 1.34 1.62 e 2.64 e
Rudniki 22.00 10.59 62.31 1.21 2.20 e 3.03 2.01
Wrzosowa 23.95 7.21 64.45 0.79 0.78 e 1.41 2.01
Opoczno 21.20 8.20 63.85 0.88 1.02 1.02 3.75 e

ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin 705

Fig. 2. The cement plant Szczakowa, gearless drive of the kilns (Zachuta, 2004).

operation in 1872. At the time of its opening, the cement plant had
8 shaft “Dietsch” kilns. In 1904 the shaft kilns were replaced with a
rotating kiln of dimensions of ø2/2.4/35 m. The annual production
of the plant was 17e20 Gg cement and a few thousand Mg of lime
(Zakrzewski, 1974).
It is often assumed that the first stage of the development of
cement industry came to an end in 1914. During World War I the
cement industry suffered significant losses. Many plants were
destroyed and devastated. For example, the equipment from the
cement plants Wołyn
and Ros was taken away to Russia; the plant
Firley was destroyed to such a degree that its restoration was not
viable (Kridzielski, 1996).
3.. The Polish cement industry in the years 1918e1939.
As a result of regaining Poland's independence and restoration
of the state, the circumstances of the cement industry changed.
Initially, plants experienced many technical difficulties linked to
dealing with devastation. There was a shortage of spare parts, coal,
food and clothing for employees. The 12 cement plants that oper-
ated in Poland in 1919 produced 199 Gg of cement, which
amounted to 21% of their production capacity (Kridzielski, 1996).
The cement consumption gradually increased since 1921; sig-
nificant amounts were used by mines, railways and bigger cities.
The use of cement by the Polish industry kept increasing with every
year. When analysing the sales outcomes for cement in the years
1920e1926 (Table 3), a considerable decrease in clinker production
in 1924 may come as a surprise. These inauspicious circumstances
were linked to the general economic situation of the country, which
was a result of the currency change (Sprawozdanie, 1928).
Years 1926e1929 brought an improvement in the Polish market
situation, which contributed to a further growth of the cement
industry. Plants could afford to modernise their process lines. For
example, at the cement works Grodziec two rotating kilns using the
wet process and of dimensions ø2.4/2.7/74 m were installed as well
as one kiln of dimensions ø2.7/3.15/86 m. Its production capacity
increased to 250 Gg/year after the modernisation, which meant
that the cement plant Grodziec was the leader among the Polish
cement plants (Zachuta, 2004).
In 1930 a new cement plant Saturn was opened. There two
rotating kilns of dimensions ø 2.85/2.55.4/92 m and using the wet
process were installed; their total production capacity was
480e500 Mg/24 h. The cement works produced two kinds of
Portland cement e the normal one (after 28 days compression
strength was 300 kg/cm2 and ultimate tensile strength was 22 kg)
and another type known as “Lew” (Lion in Polish) (after 28 days
compression strength was 500 kg/cm2 and ultimate tensile
strength was 40 kg). Within the grounds of the cement works many
trees and flowers were planted and an orchard for the crew was
established, as a result of which the cement plant was nicknamed
“a garden factory” (Kwapiszewski, 1968).
The years of the Great Depression were a difficult time for the
cement industry. A clear illustration of the economic situation of
the cement industry in 1929e1933 is provided by a comparison of
the value of paid dividends (Table 4) (Rocznik, 1938).
In 1934 the government lowered the price of coal by 15% to meet

Table 3
The Polish cement industry in the years 1920e1926 (Sprawozdanie, 1928).

Year Net clinker production [Gg] Gross cement sale [Gg] Cement import [Gg] Cement export [Gg] Cement consumption per person [kg]

1920 238 238 1.4 40.6 7.3

1921 337 337 1.0 74.0 9.7
1922 459 459 24.4 81.3 14.4
1923 489 473 32.2 20.1 17.1
1924 350 409 4.4 29.6 13.4
1925 529 497 8.4 11.8 16.9
1926 558 558 2.4 41.1 19.8
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ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin
Table 4
The value of paid dividend [%] for selected cement plants (Rocznik, 1938).
Cement plant 1929 1930 1931 1932
Goleszo
w 15 6 0 0 0
Wołyn
12 12 5 3
Wysoka 12 10 6 4
the needs of factories, which brought relief to the cement industry.
General improvement of the economic situation, free competition
and lowered cement prices resulted in increased demand on the
internal market; however, the situation regarding export was
slightly worse. The cement works Saturn sold its cement to Swe-
den, Norway, South America and the USA. The cement plant
Szczakowa exported cement using different brands such as “Vis-
tula”, “Pavao” or “Kowa” (Polish Cement Association, 2015). Fig. 3
shows the export of the Polish cement in the years 1926e1939.
The second half of the 1930s was the time of the improving
market situation of the cement industry in Poland (Fig. 4). The
construction of the Central Industrial Region consumed large
quantities of building materials. In August 1939 the production
capacity of all the cement plants was 1.8 million Mg of cement/year
(Polish Cement Association, 2015). The Polish cement plants were
located in the south of the country (Fig. 5), in the vicinity of the
Central Industrial Region.
4. The Polish cement industry in the years 1939e1945
After the German army entered Poland, the invaders over-
exploited the Polish cement works. Production was forced without
carrying out necessary maintenance of equipment and, as a prin-
ciple, all investment was abandoned. The cement plant Goleszo
w
was turned into a sub-camp of the Nazi camp Auschwitz in
O
swie˛ cim-Brzezinka. The cement plan was ruled by SS and
exploited slave labour of prisoners (Zachuta, 2004).
5. The Polish cement industry in the years 1945e1989
As soon as the front line units passed by, cement plants were

rka, Grodziec and Saturn re-
opened. Three cement works: Go
opened as early as in April 1945, producing over 27 Gg of clinker.
Other plants gradually restarted their operation e in total in 1945,
302 Gg of cement was produced in Poland. Subsequent work to
Fig. 3. The export of cement in the years 1926e1939 (own data based on (Zachuta,
2004)).
1933
2
2
Fig. 4. Cement production in the years 1918e1939 (own data based on http://www.
polskicement.pl/Historia-46).
restore the former production power of existing factories resulted
in the yield of 1.4 Tg of cement in 1946, which amounted to 78% of
the pre-war production (Roszkowski, 1989). At the end of 1947 the
level of global production nearly reached that of 1938 (Table 5)
(Polish Cement Association, 2016).
In 1950 the construction of a clinker plant Wiek II (Fig. 6) was
commenced in Ogrodzieniec, near the old cement plant Wiek, us-
ing the local deposits of limestone and loam. In the middle of 1951
the cement plant Odra commenced its operation at the site of the
demolished German cement works Opole Port. The cement plant
produced 38 Gg of cement in 1951 and 181 Gg of cement in 1952
(Flaczyk, 1998).
The first cement works to have been built from scratch was
Wierzbica (130 km from Warsaw). The following data bears testi-
mony to the size of the investment: cubic volume of production
halls and buildings was about 400,000 m3; nearly 500,000 m3 of
soil was moved during ground work e grading, foundation digging
and excavation work. The production capacity of the cement works
Wierzbica was 350 Gg of Portland cement, brand “350”. The cement
plant used the wet process, which consisted of two technological
lines that utilised the rich local deposits of marl and Jurassic
limestone. The plant was equipped with a three-stage crusher and
two stock mills of capacity of 45 Mg/h; 2 rotating kilns of diameter
3.6/3.3 m and length 150 m, each of capacity of 500 Mg/24 h (these
were the largest mills in Poland at that time); 3 drying-crushing
mills for coal; 2 coal dryers; 3 mills for crushing clinker of capac-
ity of 45 Mg/h. This was complemented by 10 cement silos of ca-
pacity of 2.5 Gg, 3 packaging machines of capacity of 45 Mg/h as
well as service and support facilities (Bodzioch, 1977).
After World War II Poland became an important producer and
exporter of cement (Fig. 7). Fig. 8 represents the location of 16
cement plants. In the years 1945e1955 cement export reached
4.7 Tg of cement in total. The lowest level of cement export was
noted in 1945 (100.5 Gg) e the year the war ended, whilst the
highest export occurred in 1955 (664.6 Gg). 56% of export was sent
to socialist countries and 44% to capitalist countries (Porowski,
1966).
The year 1955 brought the beginning of a dynamic growth of the
cement industry, which continued for 10 years. A new cement plant
that opened in Chełm was equipped with 6 rotary kilns of annual
production capacity of 800 Gg of cement (Grzymek and
Niewidomski, 1956). In 1957 a cement grinding plant was opened
_
in Zera
(a district of Warsaw). This is where cisterns were used for
n
the first time for fuel-efficient transportation of loose cement. The

ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin 707

Fig. 5. Cement plants in Poland in 1938.

Table 5 At the beginning of the 1960s a cement plant in Działoszyn was

Clinker and cement production in Polish cement plants in 1947 (Polish Cement built. A compact processing system encompassed 4 technological
Association, 2016).
lines consisting of mills of dimensions 2.6
13 m used for grinding
Cement plant Clinker production [Gg] Cement production [Gg] the wet stock, 4 kilns 3.6/3.3/3.6
150 m as well as 7 mills for
Goleszo
w 145.8 167.3 grinding cement (Zachuta, 2004). In the mid1960s the cement plant

rka
Go 118.9 89.2 Rudniki was established. The amount of 2 Gg of clinker per 24 h was
Grodziec 184.1 140.6 yielded by 3 rotating kilns of length 140 m and diameter 3.75/3.45/
Groszowice 235.4 270.2 3.75. It is in the cement works Rudniki where for the first time
Nowa Wie
s 16.1 0
proportioning of coal dust and stock was synchronised with the
Opole Miasto 129.3 131.4
Podgrodzie 32.8 21.0 kiln revolutions as an automatically controlled operation.
Rejowiec 61.5 55.1 The cement works Nowiny was the next factory to be built. This
Saturn 131.6 143.6 cement plant used the wet process and was equipped with two
Szczakowa 234.7 240.7
rotating kilns of diameter 3.6/3.3/3.6 m and length of 150 m; its
Wejherowo 16.4 17.7
Wiek 72.2 72.8
capacity was 500 Mg per 24 h (Zachuta, 2004).
Wysoka 184.6 179.7 At the turn of 1961/1962 the automation of the domestic cement
industry began. This included, among others, equipping the
In total 1563.4 1529.3
installation with control and measurement instruments. In 1965
the cement plant Chełm II was constructed. Large deposits of chalk
in Chełm and of marl in Rejowiec contributed to the choice of the
cement works Poko
j was extended in order to dry slag and regrind
location. The plant consisted of:
for the production of metallurgical cement, brand “250”. At the
cement works Goleszo
w a new mill hall and a mechanical work-
 2 roll crushers of capacity of 500 Mg/h,
shop were constructed. At the cement plant Podgrodzie rotor and
 4 tube mills ø 2.4
8.8 m of capacity 100 Mg/h,
wheel press equipment was replaced by gravity plates to granulate
 2 kilns ø 5.2/4.8
160 m of capacity 1.2 Gg/24 h and 1 kiln ø
the feedstock. Table 6 represents the cement production in indi-
4.9
160 m also of capacity 1.2 Gg/24 h,
vidual cement plants in the Jubilee Year (1957e100 years of the
 4 coal dryers of capacity 18 Mg/h and 2 mills,
Polish cement) (Kuklin
ski and Roszkowska, 1962).
708
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Fig. 6. The cement plant “Wiek II” (Zachuta, 2004).
Fig. 7. Cement export in the years 1945e1955 (own data based on (Porowski, 1966)).
 3 carrousel packaging machines of packaging capacity 3.6 Gg/
24 h (Szygocki, 1966).
With every year the production of cement in Polish plants kept
rising (Fig. 9). In order to meet demand the amount of hydraulic
fillers, mainly blast furnace slag, was increased. The cement in-
dustry became the major consumer of blast furnace slag (Szygocki,
1966; Ochocin
ski, 1985).
The next investment was the construction of the cement works
Kujawy (Fig. 10). The stock was obtained from waste fractions of
limestone exploited for the production of lime and soda in Bielawy
and Wapienno as well as slate from Łe˛ czyca (Radzimski, 2009). The
heart of the installation consisted of 3 kilns ø 4.9
160 m of ca-
pacity 1.2 Gg and heat consumption 1550 kcal/kg of clinker.
After the years of stagnation between 1965 and 1970, in 1971 a
quick development of the cement industry in Poland followed. The
investments were aimed at improving the efficiency of installations
and at the same time facilitating conditions for more fillers being
used in cement. The investments linked to loose cement as well as
the extension of maintenance facilities of cement plants were fav-
oured. More attention was paid to the environmental protection,
which resulted in electrofilters being installed (Brzozowski and


Puczkowska, 1984; Ministerstwo Srodowiska, 2004). The
following cement plants were constructed or extended: Kujawy,
Nowiny II, Małgoszcz, Warta II, Chełm II and Rudniki.
The production of cement in Poland kept growing with every
year. In 1974 it reached 16.5 Gg, which placed Poland in the 10th
position in the world (Table 7) (Zachuta, 2004).
Table 8 contains detailed information about the scale of pro-
duction of the cement industry in Poland in 1975 (Jurkowski, 1976).
It is worth stressing that, apart from the construction or
extension of cement plants, personnel facilities were developed. In
1975 cement plants had at their disposal the following (Zare˛ ba,
1976; Cembureau, 1980):
 26 staff hotels with 2500 places,
 40 on-site company clinics which employed 95 doctors,
 26 on-site canteens where 7500 people dined,
 54 holiday centres facilitating rest and relaxation of 2500 people
during one stay,
 there were 13 cultural centres, 28 clubs and community rooms,
36 libraries, 18 sports clubs.
In 1976 the cement plant Strzelce Opolskie commenced its
operation; it used the wet process and in order to produce clinker it
utilised limestone from the deposits in Strzelce Opolskie and clay
from the mine in Krasiejo
w. At the cement works 3 cement kilns ø
5
185 m of capacity 1.6 Gg/24 h were installed. In 1977 the

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B. Iglin 709

Fig. 8. The location of Polish cement plants in 1955.

Table 6

ski and Roszkowska, 1962).
The cement production in Poland in 1957 (Kuklin

Cement plant Cement production [Gg] Cement plant Cement production [Gg]

Bolko 77.5 Przemko 111.5

Goleszo
w 288.6 Przyja

zn
362.1
Go
rka 240.0 Saturn 191.8
Grodziec 381.7 Szczakowa 320.0
Groszowice 419.1 Warszawa 220.2
Odra 362.1 Wejherowo 47.6
Piast 271.8 Wiek 123.8
Podgrodzie 152.4 Wysoka 416.2

j
Poko 532.4 In total 4518.8

cement plants Go
razd

_ ze
_ and Ozar _ o

w commenced their operation.
In 1977 all the Polish cement plants produced 21.3 Tg of cement,
which placed Poland in the 9th position in the world (Cembureau,
1980). The greatest production of cement in the history of the
Polish cement industry was achieved in 1978, which was 21.8 Gg.
Fig. 11 shows the location of all the cement plants in Poland in 1978.
An economic crisis began in Poland in 1979, which had a severe
impact on the cement industry. There was a shortage of fuel and
foreign currency to purchase spare parts; the production kept
decreasing regularly; the cement plant Grodziec was closed down
whilst at other plants kilns were mothballed. In 1980 protest ac-
tions took place in many cement plants. In 1981 the supplies of
mazut fell by 66% whilst coal supplies decreased by 33%; electricity
supplies were significantly reduced. The cement plant Kujawy was
mothballed; at the cement works Warta clinker production was
stopped whilst at the cement plants Poko
j, Wiek and Wysoka the
oldest kilns were withdrawn from service. The cement production
decreased from 21.8 Gg in 1978 to 14.0 Gg (Cembureau, 1980).
In the following years cement production gradually increased. A
great deal of modernisation took place in factories, including
transferring onto a dry or semi-dry process; some cement plants
were withdrawn from production. Also, the attempts to reduce the
environmental impact of cement plants were undertaken (dust
emission reached 125 Gg/year). In 1988 13.3 Tg of clinker and
16.6 Tg of cement were produced (Table 9) (Zachuta, 2004).
6.. The Polish cement industry in the years 1989e2014
The introduction of the market economy in Poland in 1989
resulted in a downturn in the construction industry, which led to
less cement being produced and thus cement production being
reduced to 12.5 Tg in 1990. Privatised cement plants undertook
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Table 7
The biggest cement producers in the world in 1974 (Zachuta, 2004).

No Country Production [Tg]

1. U.S.S.R. 115.0
2. Japan 72.7
3. USA 67.7
4. Italy 36.6
5. Federal Republic of Germany 35.9
6. France 33.6
7. Spain 34.0
8. China 23.0
9. Great Britain 18.4
10. Poland 16.8

concentration as well as prioritising economic efficiency and

Fig. 9. Cement production (grey colour) and blast furnace slag consumption in the
years 1950e1965 (own data based on (Szygocki, 1966)).
actions to make the production process more efficient; alternative
waste fuels started to be used. In 1996, 13.8 Tg of cement was
produced, with the production capacity of 19 Tg. Fig. 12 represents
the cement production in Poland in the years 1989e1999. In 1998 a
new uniform standard on all types of commonly used cement was
introduced in Poland e PN-B-19701 (Norma, 2012). The standard
follows the European cement classification system in terms of
classifying cement into types and classes of durability, nomencla-
ture and signs.
In 2003 the technical modernisation of the cement industry was
virtually completed. This is especially so in case of the most energy-
consuming process, that is, firing of cement clinker. At the moment,
the industry exploits 17 dry-process kilns and 3 wet-process kilns.
As a result of privatisation significant means were obtained for
modernisation of plants and new investments. The introduction of
modern management and process control methods, production
environmental protection all contributed to the cement industry
securing a leading position in Europe in terms of technical and
organisational development (Zachuta, 2004).
The cement industry in Poland currently consists of 11 cement
plants operating in a full production cycle, one cement grinding
plant and one plant producing calcium aluminate cement (Fig. 13).
The cement industry is totally privatised (Table 10) (Polish Cement
Association, 2016).
The production of cement and clinker has increased in recent
years (Fig. 14). The highest production of cement (18.6 Tg) and
clinker (13.6 Tg) was achieved in 2011. This was linked to the
construction of the infrastructure for the European Football
Championship 2012 (Polish Cement Association, 2015). 2014
cement consumption increased by þ6.6% compared to 2013,
demonstrating good prosperity for the cement market in Poland.
Forecast sales should amount to 16 Tg of cement (27-th place in the
world). The main reason behind this increase is higher economic
activity in railways and the road construction sector (Cembureau,
2014).
The cement industry in Poland is important not only globally,
but also for the local communities e it employs 25,000 people.
Cement plants contribute between 1.5 and 1.7 billion PLN (0.62% of
Polish budgetary revenue) (1 USD ¼ 3.98 PLN, 09.02.16) in taxes
and other fees to the Treasury and local authorities.

Fig. 10. The cement plant Kujawy from a bird's eye view (the current state) (Radzimski, 2009).

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Table 8
The scale of production of the cement industry in Poland in 1975 (Jurkowski, 1976).

Details 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

Number of cement plants 14 16 19 21 22 23

Mean annual production of a single cement plant [Gg] 180 238 341 456 553 771
Annual production capacity of the largest cement plant [Gg] 300 800 1000 1300 1350 1600
Number of cement kilns 41 51 67 77 86 98
Mean 24-h production of one kiln [Mg] 180 200 230 290 340 440
Number of grinding mills 42 54 84 98 105 120
Cement production per hour [Mg] 11 12 14 18 20 25

Fig. 11. Location of the Polish cement plants in 1978.

7. Pro-ecological activities in the cement industry
The cement industry in Poland has recently implemented a
number of investments to improve the production efficiency and
environmental protection. Capital expenditures directly linked to
the environmental protection reached over 500 million PLN in the
years 2008e2012. In the last decade the environmental impact of
cement plants was considerably reduced due to thorough technical
modernisation. Dust emission, which was most often associated
with cement plants in the past, has become insignificant (Fig. 15)
(Polish Cement Association, 2015).
The technology of cement production in Poland is based on the
modern dry process. The energy demand in this technology is about
50% lower than if clinker is fired in wet process kilns. Cement plants
systematically reduce the consumption of heat for clinker burning.
This is of key importance as fuel represents one of the biggest items
in the cost of cement production. Heat consumption ratios of the
Polish cement industry put it among the most efficient in Europe.
The unit heat consumption for clinker firing averaged 3,7 kJ/kg of
clinker for the entire industry in 2012 (Fig. 16). The cement industry
methodically strives to cut electricity consumption in the entire
cement production process. It is now definitely lower than in the
past: in 2012 94 kW h were used per 1 Mg of cement produced
(Polish Cement Association, 2016).
Air protection equipment is an integral part of every cement
plant's processing system. Processing lines for firing clinker in both
wet and dry process are equipped with furnace electrostatic pre-
cipitators and pulse bag-filter dust collectors (collecting dust dur-
ing transport of the feedstock, process of preparing fuel and furnace
feed). Pulse bag-filter dust collectors are used in cement crushers
along with cement dosing and collection systems as well as the
equipment for transportation, bagging, palletisation and loading of
cement, which are installed in the packaging hall. In terms of air
protection, the main strategic environmental goal for cement
plants is currently to make the production process more airtight as
well as reducing fugitive emission, especially from storing and
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Table 9  duration of gases remaining at a high temperature e the tem-

Clinker and cement production in individual plants in 1988 (Zachuta, 2004). perature of gases exceeds 1100  C for 8e10 s whilst the tem-
Cement plant Production [Gg] perature above 1600  C lasts 2e3 s,
Clinker Cement
 a very high thermal capacity of a kiln e the weight of fireproof
expansion vessel of the kiln along with the material contained
Chełm 2037 2321
within, reaches from a few hundred to a few thousand Mg,
Go
razd
_ ze
_ 1550 1920
Groszowice 280 312 depending on the type and the size of an installation.
Kujawy 547 537  thermal capacity of a hot drum is so high that even in case of an
Małogoszcz 845 756 emergency break in fuel combustion, the temperature of the
Nowa Huta 124 752 brickwork surface and the material within the kiln does not fall
Nowiny 1340 1357
Odra 427 650
for 30 min,
_ o
Ozar
w 1363 1523  no waste left after the combustion of fuels e ashes react with the
Poko
j 550 704 fired material and their components become a part of cement
Przyja


zn 756 1150 clinker,
Rudniki 597 1094  alkaline environment e the fired material is highly alkaline. It
Saturn 238 240
binds the acidic compounds present in exhaust gases e.g.
Strzelce Opolskie 1190 1420
Warszawa e 420 sulphur dioxide whilst newly created components become a
Warta 775 1260 part of clinker composition (Polish Cement Association, 2015).
Wejherowo 32 38
Wiek 680 180
Solid and liquid, municipal and industrial waste can be used as
In total 13,331 16,634 alternative (replacement) fuels instead of conventional fuels in
industrial plants and power plants (Piestrzyn
ski, 2012). The defi-
nition of an alternative fuel states that it is a fuel obtained from
reclaiming waste of calorific value. It is used in industry as a
replacement of hard coal and mazut. The following forms of fuels
can normally be distinguished:

 solid shredded fuel (in Polish the acronym PASr is used for
paliwo stałe rozdrobnione; in English is used RDF e refuse derived
fuel) created as a result of shredding waste to the granulation
specified by consumers. Alternative solid fuels replace coal or
coal dust, and include dry fuels from shredded waste (cleaning
materials, plastics, wood, rubber and others). They are produced
in a technological process, which consists of segregation and
grinding of selected waste and separating unwanted waste. The
final product is granulate of diameter up to 70 mm and physical-
chemical parameters meeting the requirements of the
consumer,
 solid impregnated fuel (in Polish the acronym PASi is used for
paliwo stałe impregnowane) created as a result of mixing liquid
waste with substances of absorbent properties,
 liquid fuel is obtained as a result of mixing liquid waste.
Fig. 12. The production of cement (grey) and clinker in Poland in the years 1989e1999
(own data based on (Zachuta, 2004)). The Polish cement industry has been using alternative fuels for
15 years. As early as in 2008 the percentage of new fuels in Poland
(26%) was higher than that in the world (11%) and in the European
transporting clinker (Gao et al., 2015).
Union (21%) (Fig. 17). It is worth adding that currently the per-
Abandoning the wet process in the production of cement clinker
centage of alternative fuels in the Polish cement industry exceeds
resulted in lower heat consumption and, consequently, a decrease
50% (Polish Cement Association, 2015).
in the amount of emitted flue gases. This led to a considerable
The waste that the Polish cement industry uses in co-firing
reduction of CO2 emission e by about 40% per unit of fired clinker in
cannot be sent directly to recycling due to various reasons: it is
comparison to the early 1990s. The cement industry in Poland leads
not economically viable, there is no suitable market for the prod-
the way in terms of utilising waste products. Alternative fuels ob-
ucts of recycling or recycling is not the best option due to envi-
tained from waste products are used in the production of clinker in
ronmental issues as it could increase the carbon footprint (Strazza
cement kilns. Cement kilns can be successfully used as the equip-
et al., 2010). As currently in Poland there is only one municipal
ment for thermal waste treatment (Ishak and Hasim, 2015;
waste incinerating plant, it is only natural that cement furnaces
Piestrzyn
ski, 2012; Buczkowski et al., 2012).
have taken over that function. Moreover, co-firing of waste in
The advantages of cement kilns resulting from a principle of
cement furnaces is cheaper than investing into specialist in-
their operation, the temperature range of work and chemical
stallations that require high expenditures and usually have much
composition of the fired mixture include:
higher running costs.
Co-firing of waste in cement furnaces is a complex method of
 the temperature of combustion and the clinkerisation process e
waste management. According to the Act on Waste (The Act, 2013),
the temperature of gases reaches even 2000  C. In the outlet of
there are the following types of waste recovery:
the expansion vessel in the dry process it reaches 1100e1200  C.
Combustion takes place in an oxidising atmosphere,
 recovery of energy e chemical energy contained in waste,

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Fig. 13. Cement plants in Poland in 2014.

Table 10
Summary statistics of the cement industry in Poland in 2014 (Polish Cement Association, 2016).

Group Plant Summary statistics

Lafarge Cement plant Małogoszcz Plants with a full production cycle

Cement plant Kujawy
HeidelbergCement Cement plant Go
razd
_ ze
_ A plant with a full production cycle
Ekocem Sp. z o.o. A grinding plant
CRH _ o
Grupa Ozar
w Plants with a full production cycle
Cement plant Rejowiec
Dyckerhoff Dyckerhoff Polska Sp. z o.o. Plants with a full production cycle
Cemex Cement plant Chełm Plants with a full production cycle
Cement plant Rudniki
Polen Cement Cement plant Warta A plant with a full production cycle
Miebach Cement plant Odra A plant with a full production cycle
Polska Energetyka Holding SA Cement plant Nowa Huta A plant with a full production cycle
Mapei
rka Cement
Go A plant with a full production cycle A producer of calcium aluminate cement

 material recovery e “the mineral” component of waste, which is Office, 2014).

a part of the stock.
Fig. 18 shows the amount and structure of alternative fuels used
in the cement industry in Poland in 2012. Alternative liquid fuels
replace heavy fuel oils and are created from oil and solvent waste by
treatment, mixing and averaging as required by the consumer.
These are high energy fuels; their calorific value reaches 30e36 MJ/
kg.
It is worth mentioning that Poles generate a significant amount
of municipal waste, which is still mainly deposited at waste sites,
and which could undergo energy recycling in cement plants. In
2013 in Poland 11,295 Gg of municipal waste was generated, of
which 50% consists of biodegradable waste (Central Statistical
Poland has the most polluted air in the European Union. One of
the main causes is so called “low emission”. Despite numerous
educational actions Polish citizens still tend to burn municipal
waste in household stoves (WHO, 2016). This is caused by very high
retail price of coal (over 800 PLN/tonne) and ignorance (Central
Statistical Office, 2015). Moreover, the ash obtained from rubbish
combustion is used as a fertiliser for growing fruit and vegetables.
Combusting noxious waste such as tyres or RDF in a cement kiln is
the best alternative to burning them in household stoves. About 5
million tonnes of waste are used for cement production annually
(including 1 million as an alternative fuel). As a result, waste is
eliminated from the environment and, at the same time, fossil fuels
and resources deposits are preserved.
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Fig. 14. The production of cement (grey) and clinker in Poland in the years 2000e2014 (own data based on (Polish Cement Association, 2015)).
Fig. 15. Dust emission by the cement industry in Poland in the years 1975e2010 (own
data based on (Polish Cement Association, 2015)).
Table 11 shows the values of mean emission from coal firing, co-
firing in cement kilns and uncontrolled firing (e.g. at home). Polish
hard coal is highly sulphated and also contains significant amounts
of heavy metals. Looking at the table below, it can be concluded
that emission from co-firing of alternative fuels is lower than that
from hard coal firing and significantly lower than that from waste
combustion in a household stove (Głodek, 2011; Strazza et al.,
2011).
The chemical composition of the cement in Poland has been
changed. Since 1950 waste blast furnace slag, and since 1965 waste
fly ash has been added. The addition of alternative fuels causes the
increase of the heavy metal content in cement (Fig. 19) (Kalarus,
2007).
One of the newest environmentally-friendly projects in the
cement industry was the construction of the first in the world
drying facility for alternative fuels at the cement plant Chełm. The
aim of this investment was to enable the combustion of lower
quality alternative fuels with high moisture content, as a result of
which this type of fuel could only be combusted in small amounts
due to its low calorific value. There is another equally important
reason for the cement works Chełm to have this drying facility. Due
to the elimination of part of moisture contained in alternative fuels
(up to 8%), heat consumption per unit in the production process of
clinker is also reduced. This is a result of avoiding water evapora-
tion in high temperatures. It is also worth adding that up to now the
drying facilities for alternative fuels have been used in plants pro-
ducing such fuels very rarely due to the cost of water evaporation.
At the cement works heat is free of charge as the clinker furnace
generates huge amounts of so called waste heat, which until now
has not been utilised. Thus, the whole project leads to optimisation
of heat utilisation in the plant; heat is used in the process of fuel
preparation and refinement instead of being lost. As a result of
citizens’ complaints about a noxious odour emitted during the
process of drying alternative fuels, a special pipeline was installed
in order to direct gases after drying to the hot part of the cooler,
from which they are sucked into the clinker furnace. As a result of
this, noxious odour compounds undergo complete combustion,
which eliminates the issue of odours (The Cement Plant Chełm,
2014).
Table 12 Represents emission of selected substances in the

razdze.
_
cement works Go (45e48% of heat is obtained from waste).
This emission is significantly lower than the acceptable levels
(Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the
Council of November 2010 on industrial emissions (integrated
pollution prevention and control).
7.1. Carbon footprint
A carbon footprint is the total sum of greenhouse gases’ emis-
sions directly caused by cement production and takes into account
the following processes: mineral mining, energy production and
consumption, transportation as well as the production process it-
self. The analysis was conducted by the Building Research Institute
(Building Research Institute, 2013). The starting year for the anal-
ysis is year 2010. Carbon footprint for year 2015 is lower than that of
2010, which is due to a continuous process of reducing carbon
footprint by the domestic cement industry. The analysis was carried

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B. Iglin
Fig. 16. Specific heat consumption of the Polish cement industry in 1989e2012 (own data based on (Polish Cement Association, 2016)).
Fig. 17. The percentage of alternative fuels in the world, the European Union and
Poland (Polish Cement Association, 2015).
out for the Polish cement types: CEM I, CEM II and CEM III (Table 13)
(Building Research Institute, 2013).
When analysing the table, it can be concluded that CEM III
(0.578 kg CO2/kg) is characterised by the lowest carbon footprint. It
is worth adding that because the use of alternative fuels has been
on the increase since 2010, the carbon footprint has decreased by a
few per cent.
Due to the technology of clinker production (a decarbonisation
process) and high coal consumption, the cement industry is among
industry branches emitting a significant amount of CO2. Fig. 20
represents CO2 emission in the cement industry between 2000
and 2014. In recent years a decrease of emission CO2/kg of cement
has been observed.
CO2 emission reduction is already possible at the stage of pro-
ducing the basic ingredient of concrete, namely cement (Strazza
et al., 2011). When cement is produced, CO2 is emitted in the pro-
cess. However, this emission can be lower if the lower clinker
content of cement is off set with recycled materials or waste from
715
Fig. 18. Types of alternative fuels used in cement plants in Poland in 2012: 1 e RDF, 2 e
used tyres, 3 e rubber waste, 4 e waste from rinsing of minerals, 5 e sewage sludge
waste, 6 e power plant waste, other (own data based on (Polish Cement Association,
2015).
other economic sectors, e.g. granulated blast furnace slag from the
steel industry or fl y-ash from power plants (Fig. 17).
Following the stipulations of the Kyoto Protocol, the cement
industry has taken the following actions in an attempt to reduce
CO2 emission:
 improvement of production processes,
 valuation of waste in production processes,
 replacement of fuels with a high carbon content by fuels with
reduced carbon content (e.g. move from hard coal to gas),
 collecting carbon dioxide from flue gases,
 reduction of carbon dioxide amount emitted by means of
transport.
Even though there has been a significant drop in carbon dioxide
emission (in Poland there has been a roughly 40% drop in the
amount of carbon dioxide emitted per unit of clinker in comparison
to the early 1990s), the cement industry is striving to reduce its

czuk and Mokrzycki, 2004).
emission further (Uliasz-Bohen
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Table 11
Emissions created during cement production (Głodek, 2011; Strazza et al., 2011).

Atmospheric emissions [mg/Nm3] Hard coal Co-firing in a cement kiln Uncontrolled firing

Dust 14.2 13.7 1175

SO2 135 77.6 143.7
NOx 959 383 479
HCl 2.70 2.66 10.31
Hg 0.0123 0.0074 0.0228
PAH 0.0013 0.0000077 0.65

Fig. 19. Heavy metals content in cement (own data based on (Kalarus, 2007)).

Table 12

razd
Emission in the cement plant Go _ ze
_ (The Cement Plant Chełm, 2014).

Type of substance Unit Amount Acceptable values Limit usage [%]

3
Hg mg/m 0.0003e0.0181 0.05 0.6e36.2
Cd þ Tl mg/m3 0.0016e0.0059 0.05 3.2e11.8
Sb þ As þ Cr þ Co þ Mn þ Ni þ V mg/m3 0.013e0.044 0.5 2.6e8.8
Dioxins and furans ng/m3 0.001e0.01 0.1 1e10

Table 13
Carbon footprint for Polish cement types: CEM I, CEM II, CEM III (Building Research Institute, 2013).

Cement manufacturing process CEM I [kg CO2/kg] CEM II [kg CO2/kg] CEM III [kg CO2/kg]

Raw materials production 0.084 0.097 0.11

Klinker 0.73 0.55 0.39
Tying regulator 0.00014 0.00008 0.00008
Ash 0.00 0.00022 0.00
Slag 0.00 0.00016 0.00106
Limestone 0.00 0.0024 0.00
Other substrates 0.00015 0.00001 0.00001
Grinding 0.037 0.037 0.037
Transport 0.02 0.03 0.04
TOTAL 0.871 0.717 0.578

The technological process of firing clinker considerably limits
possibilities of further reduction of carbon dioxide emission.
Consequently, the current attempts to limit CO2 mainly focus on the
use of alternative fuels, including biomass, reducing the amount of
clinker in cement as well as using stock of lower carbonate content
(fly ash, furnace slag).
7.2. The process of combusting alternative fuels using the cement
plant kujawy as an example
In the cement works Kujawy there are two types of waste that
are used as replacement fuel: alternative shredded solid fuel (PASr)
as well as used car tyres. They belong to a different category than
dangerous waste. According to the legal regulations, the plant is
permitted to replace a maximum of 40% of conventional fuel with

ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin
Fig. 20. CO2 total emission [Gg] and CO2 emission per 1 kg of cement (own calculations based on (Polish Cement Association, 2016)).
alternative fuels. Burning the amount waste exceeding 40% of the
total used fuel would necessitate the same emission norms as for a
conventional incineration plant (Radzimski, 2009).
7.2.1. Combustion of waste alternative solid shredded fuels (PASr)
Waste alternative solid shredded fuels (PASr) consist of
shredded packaging waste (plastics, papers) e from the food in-
dustry as well as materials and objects unsuitable for use or out of
date, post-production waste from plastics processing, textiles,
waste paper from the paper industry as well as wood and sawdust.
This waste should contain no metal parts, be shredded to the
desired size and mixed. The following is an estimate of the waste
composition:
 plastics: 35%
 paper: 30%
 rubber: 10%
 wood: 5%
 textiles: 20%
The waste is provided by various suppliers; these tend to be the
treatment and segregation plants for municipal and industrial
waste. Before the waste is transported to the cement plant, it is
initially analysed (in terms of chlorine and impurities), has metal
parts removed, is mixed and shredded to the desired size. In such a
form, as an alternative solid shredded fuel (PASr), it is transported
to the cement plant. In order to ensure the required supplies of the
stock and the continuity of the technological process, fuels are
stored at a roofed site of capacity about 2500 m3. The storage site is
equipped with two buffer loading bins to feed the fuel mass into the
transportation equipment as well as a wheel loader (Radzimski,
2009).
Fuel mass of height about 4 m is placed right next to the walls of
the warehouse; the centre of the site is where supply vehicles are
unloaded and where a wheel loader operates. Alternative solid
shredded fuel is placed in loading bins of capacity 25 m3, which are
located on tensiometric weigh hoppers (in order to control
loading). Containers in the lower part are equipped with a set of
screw conveyors of regulated efficiency. They put fuel onto a pipe
conveyor belt, which transports it to the exchanger of a clinker
717
firing installation.
A cross belt magnetic separator is located above the belt, directly
behind the area where fuel is placed onto a conveyor. Its purpose is
to separate and discard any ferromagnetic parts. Fuel mass is
directed from a pipe conveyor belt onto another, shorter conveyor
belt, and then transported to a closed tank of capacity of 25 m3, also
equipped with tensiometric weigh hoppers (Fig. 21). The lower part
of the tank houses a mixer and two screw conveyors, by means of
which fuel is transported through a gravity conveyor and chamber
dispenser to the pneumatic transport conduit. Pneumatic transport
consists of a blower, a conduit transporting fuel to the calciner's
burner, dispensing chamber as well as a valve. A pressure trans-
mitter is installed behind the blower (Radzimski, 2009).
Fuels are combusted in the calciner, that is, an additional com-
bustion chamber, which is installed in front of a kiln drum and
behind a cyclone exchanger. Due to an extra air flow, the com-
bustion process in the calciner is independent from the combustion
process in the kiln. Combustion in the calciner occurs in the
mixture of fuel and fired stock at a temperature of 1000e1100  C
(Radzimski, 2009).
7.2.2. Combustion of car tyres
Used car tyres have been used as a fuel at the cement works
Kujawy since 2005. Their calorific value varies between 25 and
29 MJ/kg; the value 26 MJ/kg is assumed for production purposes.
The ash content in tyres oscillates around 6%e7%. The tyres from
passenger vehicles only are used for industrial purposes; “large”
tyres from lorries and tractors contain a high amount of unwanted
iron reinforcing wire, which would necessitate changes to the
chemical composition of the stock mixture (Radzimski, 2009).
Tyres are loaded directly into the “cold” end of a rotating kiln by
means of locks. They undergo combustion there by mixing with the
material of temperature of about 1000  C. The installation for
combusting used tyres enables their transportation from the stor-
age warehouse and automatic batching into the upper part of the
chamber of a rotating kiln. This system is specially adjusted to
transport and load whole tyres of size up to 1250 mm and weight of
8e80 kg. Tyres are stored at a hardened-surface and sewered yard,
which is equipped with a settling tank located about 150 m from
the kiln. Tyres are transported from the storage site to the batching
718
ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin
Fig. 21. A part of the conveyor feeding alternative solid shredded fuels (PASr) to the calciner. An alternative solid shredded fuel (PASr) storage warehouse can be seen in the
background. (Radzimski, 2009).
point by trailers. Tyres are loaded into the upper part of the kiln
chamber at the level of 24.6 m. The installation consists of three
mechanical systems that work together in a control system:
a) horizontal transportation of tyres from a trailer to an incline
transportation conveyor takes place by means of two roll con-
veyors. The platform where tyres are loaded has a roof and two
walls. Trailers are unloaded manually. Tyres can be directly loaded
onto a roll conveyor or stored at the platform. The conveyor loading
tyres onto an incline transport conveyor is equipped with a control
device which sets tyres to the axis of a conveyor.
b) transportation onto a higher level is facilitated by a conveyor
belt at an angle of 40 . The supporting structure of the conveyor
is made of steel profiles and attached to the construction parts of
the tower of heat exchanger. A rubber belt is equipped with sills
preventing tyres from sliding down. The distance between sills
is 1.5 m,
c) transportation onto the level of 24.6 m consists of five roll
conveyors and a conveyor belt. The last roll conveyor is equip-
ped with a weight-table; it performs the function of a weight
system (Fig. 22). Each conveyor is equipped with a set of sensors
that prevent loading of a tyre if there is no space on the
conveyor. After weighing, a tyre rolls down onto a conveyor belt,
which transports it to the lock entrance. The lock consists of two
dampers, which are opened and closed by a computer system
according to a given algorithm. Additionally, below the lower
gates of the lock there is a flat valve, which prevents exhaust
retraction. This valve is coupled with the kiln's main ventilator
and it is opened during normal operation. The gates of the lock
and the valve are powered by pneumatic actuators (Radzimski,
2009).
The speed of loading tyres results from a given value and de-
pends on the weight of the tyre currently loaded in to be burnt. The
whole process is controlled by a computer at the central control
system. Roll conveyors and the conveyor belt have a constant
transportation speed whilst the speed of an incline conveyor belt is
regulated by a frequency transmitter (Radzimski, 2009).
8.. Prospects for the development of the cement industry in
Poland
The forecast for the development of the cement industry in
Poland is closely dependent on the forecast for the construction
sector. In the near future a stagnation of the Polish construction
sector is forecast, as a result of which the production of cement will
remain stable or decrease slightly. It is likely that after 2015 there
will be an increase in demand for construction materials e planned
investments include the energy sector and railways, further con-
struction of motorways and high speed roads. According to the
long-term forecast, the cement consumption in Poland in 2030
could even reach 27 Tg, which when calculated per person is 750 kg
(Jungiewicz, 2012).
The cement industry in Poland can play an essential role in
implementing modernisation plans e.g. building transport infra-
structure, development of housing, power generation projects and
environmental protection projects. Further extension of the tech-
nology infrastructure needs to be based on construction materials
produced in Poland. The General Directorate for National Roads and
Motorways has announced that 809 km of motorways and major
roads with concrete surface will be created as part of the plan for
road constructions in Poland within the current financial frame-
work (up to 2023). New production technologies of concrete road
surfaces in Poland mean that nowadays a concrete road surface is
not more expensive than the asphalt one. Currently, we have about
600 km of major roads and motorways with a concrete surface.
Also, a number of concrete local roads is on the rise. The Local
Authorities, who are responsible for such investments, take into
account not only construction costs, but most of all exploitation
costs. In this calculation concrete increasingly becomes the
preferred choice (Generalna Dyrekcja ro
g Krajowych i Autostrad,
2014).

ski, R. Buczkowski / Journal of Cleaner Production 141 (2017) 702e720
B. Iglin
Fig. 22. A part of an installation for loading tyres e a roll conveyor and a conveyor belt (Radzimski, 2009).
The main threat to the development of the cement sector in
Poland is posed by carbon dioxide emission limits, which are a part
of the European Union's climate policy. The countries that are
Poland's neighbours are not bound by the European Union Emis-
sions Trading System and do not reduce CO2 emission (Supino et al.,
2016). This means that the Polish cement producers are not
competitive on the Polish market as they have to purchase emission
permits. As a result, they invest in emission reduction technologies
and increasingly use alternative fuels in cement production
(Peternik, 2009; Rahman et al., 2015).
9. Summary
Cement production has played an important part in the eco-
nomic development of Poland. The first cement plant on the Polish
soil, the fifth in the world at that time, commenced its production in
1857. The cement industry on the Polish territory was classed
among the world leaders on the eve of World War I. In the
late1930s the equipment in operation in the cement industry was
at the highest technical level in terms of its size and modernisation.
A dramatic development of the cement industry took place after
World War II. In the late 1970s the annual cement production
reached a record high of nearly 22 million tonnes. This was possible
due to the extension of existing and construction of a number of
new plants. The industry experienced a crisis in the early 1980s.
Cement production fell to the level of 16e17 million tonnes per
year. Any investment into the cement industry was virtually
abandoned. A breakthrough for the industry came in 1990. In terms
of economy, this was the year when the implementation of the
principles of free market started. This industry branch was among
the first ones to be privatised. This process began in 1992. Currently,
the cement plants in Poland belong to international groups of
producers, which have means for investment, extensive organisa-
tional experience and great technical and intellectual resources.
Currently, the cement industry in Poland is among the world
leaders.
719
The cement industry has been one of the main sectors of the
Polish economy for 160 years. During that time it had some suc-
cesses as well as downturns. Knowledge and experience passed
onto the next generations led to optimisation of the production
process. The cement industry in Poland is among the most modern
in Europe due to the involvement of the key global economic
players. This facilitates modern and efficient cement production,
and ensures its high quality. Foreign investors in the cement in-
dustry are crucial to securing the appropriate investment level in
order to increase the production potential and meet the environ-
mental standards. This will support the development of the cement
sector in both the near and distant future.
The cement industry is an energy-intensive and high pollutant
emitting industry. Although several improvements in cement
technologies and equipment have been developed, there is a high
potential to reduce the consumption of non-renewable fossil fuels
for energy, which is also one of the main sources of emissions, by
replacing them with alternative fuels. Co-firing of replacement
fuels in installations generates significant economic and environ-
mental benefits through:
 Increased income due to the lower price of fuel from waste
when compared with fossil fuels,
 lower reported CO2 emission (saving of CO2 emission limits
granted to a given production sector),
 increased level of waste recovery.
Cement manufacturing is one of the leading energy consuming
and heavy pollutant processes which is accountable for CO2, NOX,
SO2 emissions and some heavy metal discharge from the pre-
calciner kiln system. In past few decades there has been an enor-
mous amount of researches to reduce the energy and environ-
mental cost by using alternative fuel and raw material. In recent
years utilisation of alternative fuels in cement manufacturing has
gained a wide attention due to its effectiveness in substituting the
thermal energy requirement from fossil fuels and reducing the
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B. Iglin
pollutant emission. Alkaline environment, high temperature and
long residence time allow rotary kiln to burn a wide range of waste
and hazardous material.
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