PROJECT

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND
ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING
ECE 2505: FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

TITLE:
PERFOMANCE OF WOOD ASH AS A PARTIAL

REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN CONCRETE
AUTHOR:
BARONGO S. SIANYO
REG.NO. E25-0170/05
PROJECT SUPERVISOR
MR. PAUL MULU
Submitted to the department in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering.
DEC 2010
ABSTRACT
The author intends to investigate the performance of wood ash as partial replacement of cement
in concrete with a view of achieving the target compressive strength specified in the concrete
mix design. Particular emphasis being put on using Pozzolanic cement with wood ash obtained
from cooking fire place. The ash considered as waste reuse.
Wood ash has been used in agriculture as fertilizer since it contains valuable nutrients to plants
such as potash, phosphate, iron, manganese, boron, copper and zinc. It also contains other
compounds such as calcium carbonate in larger proportion about 15% and alumina in small
proportion about 1.6%, which give the wood ash its Pozzolanic property, but it has never been
used in any concrete application works. But in most homesteads, this ash is considered as waste
and therefore dumped in pits.
Considering therefore the potential use of wood ash in concrete, and furthermore, considering the
price of a 50kg bag of cement being over 700ksh currently, hence rendering it unaffordable to
the common citizens, the author intends to increase the bulk of cement using wood ash which is
readily available as wastes in homesteads, with several standardized checks to be put in place to
safeguard the concrete quality and performance. Therefore generally expecting the cost of
constructing low cost housing to reduce as a result of reduced bags of cement required to finish a
similar construction work.
E25-0170/05 II
DECLARATION
I, Barongo S. Sianyo, do declare that this report is my original work and to the best
of my knowledge, it has not been submitted for any degree award in any University
or Institution.
Signed_______________ Date ____________
CERTIFICATION
I have read this report and approve it for examination.
Signed_______________ Date_____________
Mr. Paul Mulu (project supervisor)
E25-0170/05 III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to sincerely give my deepest appreciation to Mr. Mulu for his
technical advice, knowledge and information in this proposal. His fulfilling
contribution from the commencement of the research has led to the success of this
proposal.
E25-0170/05 IV
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my family who have always believed in me and supported
me throughout my studies, to Barongo Z. for his encouragement and continuing
prayers and mostly to God for His guidance
E25-0170/05 V
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. II
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................................... III
CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................................................... III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... IV
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. V
List of figures ............................................................................................................................................... IX
List of tables................................................................................................................................................. IX
List of charts ................................................................................................................................................. X
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Problem justification ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 General objectives ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.2 Specific objectives ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research hypothesis ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.5 Limitations of research........................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Chemical properties of Pozzolanic Portland cement .......................................................................... 4
2.2 Pozzolana as used in cement ............................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Clays and shales ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Volcanic ash ................................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Fly ash ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2.2.4 Rice husk ash ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.5 Wood ash ................................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 18
3.1 preparation of wood ash .................................................................................................................... 18
3.1.1 Properties of a good wood ash ................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Laboratory testing of wood ash ......................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1 Physical test on wood ash .......................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Aggregates ........................................................................................................................................ 21
3.3.1Cleanness .................................................................................................................................... 21
E25-0170/05 VI
3.3.2Grading of aggregates ................................................................................................................. 21
3.3.3 Aggregate crushing value: BS 812-112 ..................................................................................... 24
3.4 Bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates, BS 312, AASHTO Designation: T 19/T
19M-00, ASTM Designation: C 29/C 29M-97 ....................................................................................... 25
3.5 Consistency of standard cement paste: BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187 and Initial and final setting times of
Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with wood ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70 ..... 26
3.6 Test for cement concrete mixed with various percentage replacement of cement with wood ash. .. 28
3.6.1 Concrete mix design .................................................................................................................. 28
3.6.2 Definitions.................................................................................................................................. 28
3.6.3 Stages in mix design .................................................................................................................. 30
3.6.4 Batching of concrete materials ................................................................................................... 30
3.6.5Trial mixes .................................................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER 4: DATA COLLECTION ........................................................................................................ 36
4.1 Laboratory tests results ..................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.1 Specific Gravity test of wood ash .............................................................................................. 36
4.1.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates ...................................................................................................... 36
4.1.3 Aggregate Crushing Value ......................................................................................................... 37
4.1.4 Bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates ............................................................... 37
4.1.5 Consistency and setting time tests ............................................................................................. 38
4.1.6 Test on fresh concrete ................................................................................................................ 38
4.1.7 Test on hardened concrete.......................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 5.0: DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................... 40
5.1. Specific Gravity of wood ash ........................................................................................................... 40
5.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates ............................................................................................................. 42
5.2.1 Fine aggregates .......................................................................................................................... 42
From table 12; ..................................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.2 Coarse aggregates ...................................................................................................................... 43
5.3 Aggregate Crushing Value ................................................................................................................ 44
BS 812-112 ............................................................................................................................................. 44
5.4 bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates ...................................................................... 44
5.5 Consistency and setting time tests .................................................................................................... 46
5.6 Test on fresh concrete ....................................................................................................................... 49
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5.6.1 Slump test................................................................................................................................... 49
5.7 Test on hardened concrete................................................................................................................. 50
5.7.1:7, 14 and 28 day concrete cube compressive crush test ............................................................. 50
CHAPTER 6.0: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 52
6.1. Specific Gravity of wood ash ........................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates ............................................................................................................. 52
6.3 Aggregate crushing value.................................................................................................................. 54
6.4 bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates ...................................................................... 55
6.5 Consistency and setting time tests .................................................................................................... 56
6.6 Test on fresh concrete: slump test ..................................................................................................... 57
6.7 Test on hardened concrete: 7th, 14th and 28th days compressive strength .......................................... 58
CHAPTER 7.0: CONCLUSSION .............................................................................................................. 60
CHAPTER8.0: RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................... 61
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................. 62
APPENDIX A: CONCRETE MIX DESIGN PROCESS ....................................................................... 62
APPENDIX B: RAW DATA .................................................................................................................. 68
1. Sieve analysis of aggregates ....................................................................................................... 68
2. Consistency and setting time tests .............................................................................................. 69
3. Slump test.................................................................................................................................... 70
4. 7, 14 and 28 day concrete cube crush test ................................................................................... 71
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 72
E25-0170/05 VIII
List of figures
Figure 1: Volcano emitting volcanic ash ...................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2: Volcanic ash Pozzolana being excavated - Rwanda ................................................................... 10
Figure 3: fly ash .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4: fly ash .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5: fly ash .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 6: Setting times test carried out ..................................................................................................... 27
Figure 7: Preparation for slump test ......................................................................................................... 32
Figure 8: Concrete cubes being cast .......................................................................................................... 33
Figure 9: Placing of concrete cubes for curing .......................................................................................... 34
Figure 10: Concrete compressive test being carried out ............................................................................ 35
List of tables
Table 1: compounds formed in the finished products of Portland cements .................................................. 5
Table 2: elements of Portland cement........................................................................................................... 5
Table 3: compounds of Portland cement ...................................................................................................... 6
Table 4: compounds present in clays and shales .......................................................................................... 7
Table 5: elements of volcanic ash ................................................................................................................. 8
Table 6: compounds present in fly ash........................................................................................................ 10
Table 7: typical chemical analysis of rice husk ash .................................................................................... 15
Table 8: chemical analysis of wood ash ..................................................................................................... 17
Table 9: grading limits for coarse aggregates (from BS 882 : 1992) ......................................................... 22
Table 10: grading limits for sand (from BS 882 : 1992)............................................................................. 23
Table 11: specific gravity test results of wood ash ..................................................................................... 36
Table 12: sieve analysis results of fine aggregates ..................................................................................... 36
Table 13: sieve analysis results of coarse aggregates ................................................................................ 37
Table 14: bulk density test results ............................................................................................................... 38
Table 15: consistency test ........................................................................................................................... 38
Table 16: initial and final setting times ...................................................................................................... 38
Table 17: slump test results ........................................................................................................................ 38
Table 18: 7day concrete cube compressive test results .............................................................................. 39
Table 19: 14 day concrete cube compressive test results ........................................................................... 39
Table 21: summary of the percentage variation of compressive strength .................................................. 59
Table 22: approximate compressive strenght (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with free-water/ cement
ratio of 0.5................................................................................................................................................... 66
Table 23: approximate free-water content (Kg/m3) required to give levels of workability........................ 66
Table 24: Concrete mix design form ........................................................................................................... 67
Table 25: Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997 ...................................................................... 68
Table 26: Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997 ...................................................................... 68
Table 27: Consistency of standard cement paste: BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187 ................................................. 69
E25-0170/05 IX
Table 28: Initial and final setting times of Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with
wood ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70 ....................................................................................................... 69
Table 29: slump test results ........................................................................................................................ 70
Table 30: 7 day concrete cube compressive test results ............................................................................. 71
List of charts
Line chart 1: Grading envelopes for grading M sand and 20 mm graded coarse aggregate (as given in BS
882 : 1992). ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Line chart 2: grading curves of fine aggregates ......................................................................................... 42
Line chart 3: grading curves of coarse aggregates .................................................................................... 43
Line chart 4: consistency of standard cement paste, BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187 ............................................. 46
Line chart 5: initial setting time of cement paste, from table 16 ................................................................ 47
Line chart 6: final setting time, from table 16 ............................................................................................ 48
Line chart 7: slump test results ................................................................................................................... 49
Line chart 8: concrete cube compressive test results.................................................................................. 50
Line chart 9: variations of the 28day compressive strength ....................................................................... 51
Line chart 10: relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength ................................ 62
Line chart 11: relationship between compressive strength and free-water/ cement ratio .......................... 62
Line chart 12: estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete ............................................................. 64
Line chart 13: recommended proportions of fine aggregates according to percentage passing a 600 micro
metre sieve .................................................................................................................................................. 64
Bar chart 1: comparison of specific gravities ............................................................................................. 41

Bar chart 2: comparison in bulk densities .................................................................................................. 45
E25-0170/05 X
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
In Kenya, due to its housing standard legislated by the colonial authorities, who protected
Settlers‘ environment, excessive high quality-materials for housing construction are required
which restricts new constructions for low income people. Thus in the urban and the peri-urban
areas of Kenya, illegally constructed houses are widely spread to create informal settlements.
The capital city, Nairobi with a population of over three million has about 60% of its residents
living in informal settlements, which occupy just 5% of the total residential land area. The
terrible unhygienic dwelling condition in the informal settlements causes epidemic diseases and
crimes. [7]
Furthermore, the high cost of cement, a key component in the production of concrete used for
housing construction, results in the sluggish housing provision. The ratio of a 50kg bag of
cement cost to average daily wage exceeds five in Kenya. Cement is manufactured by three
companies: Bamburi Cement Ltd., Blue Triangle, and Athi River Mining Ltd. These companies
operate a cartel to maintain artificially high prices. The severe shortage of appropriate housing
cannot be improved unless serious measures are taken.
This has led therefore to a research on ways of increasing the bulk of cement on site, ( hence,
reduction in the cost of purchasing cement), without compromising the quality of concrete to be
used on housing construction. Hence a research on wood ash to be used as pozzolana was
proposed to be carried out.
Wood ash is generated as a by-product of combustion in wood-fired power plants, paper mills,
and other wood burning facilities. Since wood is a renewable source of energy and
environmentally benign friendly material, there will be increased use of wood in energy
production in the future. As a result, there will be increased amount of wood ash generation. The
safe disposal of such huge amount of wood ash would pose a challenge and hence a study on the
various ways this would be put to use is necessary. [10]. One of the ways proposed by the
research above is test the viability of wood ash as a construction material. Because of its
availability, regardless of the class, ( wood ash is readily available in homesteads since the major
source of heat energy to most homesteads in Kenya is wood), its use in housing construction
would significantly reduce the cost of construction.
Using a certain mix ratio, cement will be replaced by wood ash by certain percentages till
appropriate replacement percentage on which the concrete standards in terms of strength and
others are not adversely affected, is obtained. Pozzolana is a finely-divided material that reacts
with calcium hydroxide and alkalis to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
These simple building technologies, if they prove worthwhile, they have the potential to
transform lives in Kenya‘s cities and could help build affordable houses.
E25-0170/05 1
1.1 Problem justification
This project aims at reducing the quantity of cement to be used in construction of building
structures while at the same time not compromising on the strength and other important
properties of a good quality concrete. One should take note that, the cost of a single 50kg bag of
cement in Kenya is about over 700ksh. This is very high compared to the average income of
Kenyans of about a dollar per day. Coupled with the rise in cost of building materials, this hence
makes the cost of construction to a common Kenyan very prohibitive. Note, these cost keep on
rising since the makers of cement, corrugated iron sheets and steel products attribute the upward
adjustment of prices to the recent surge in the ongoing global economic recovery.
This steep rise in the cost of building material could give impetus to the price bubble in the real
estate market pushing homeownership beyond the reach of a large segment of Kenya‘s middle
class. Also the steady recovery of key markets such as china and India has however increased
demand for commodities forcing analysts led by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to
forecast that the current rally in prices will continue in the near term.
This hence means, should wood ash prove to be a successful additive to cement concrete as a
pozzolana, the overall cost of construction will be reduced in terms of purchasing reduced
number of bags of 50kg cement and hence increase the number of Kenyans who can successfully
engage in construction of homes.
1.2 Problem statement

The cost of a bag of cement is high, over ksh 700 per bag, hence not affordable to many Kenyans
whose average income is about a dollar per day.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objectives

The major objective of the above project was to analyze the performance of wood ash as a partial
replacement of cement in concrete.
Pozzolana is a siliceous and aluminous material which reacts with calcium hydroxide in the
presence of water to form compounds possessing cementetious properties at room temperature
and that have the ability to set under water.
E25-0170/05 2
1.3.2 Specific objectives
To assess the properties of wood ash to be used in the partial replacement of cement (through
physical analysis)
1. physical analysis
 Determining bulk densities of wood ash, fine and course aggregate
 Determining the specific gravity of the wood ash
 Determine the consistency and the setting times of Pozzolanic cement with %
partial replacement with wood ash
2. To assess effects of wood ash in cement concrete (analyzing the cement-wood ash
concrete properties).
 To perform slump tests for cement-wood ash fresh concrete.
 To perform compressive strength tests of wood ash/Pozzolanic Portland
cement concrete at 7, 14 and 28 days
1.4 Research hypothesis

Wood ash can successfully be used in partial substitution of cement since it can be related to fly
ash which is obtained from coal, which is a fossilized wood. Rice husk ash is also of plant origin.
This implies that wood ash could be used as a Pozzolana in concrete.
1.5 Limitations of research

 Inability to perform full physical, chemical, and micro structural analysis of
wood ash because of the limited time scope of the project and funding.
 Wood ash from different trees, design and operating parameters of the boiler
(especially combustion temperature), and ash collection technique may result
to ashes of different chemical, physical and micro structural properties.
E25-0170/05 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Concrete is a composite material, which essentially consists of two components:
aggregates and cementitious paste. To produce exceptional concrete, it is extremely important to
have a smooth gradation of material from rock down to the finest particles (in other words, a
good mix of particle sizes, so that the largest practicable rock fills the majority of the volume,
while the progressively smaller rock and sand fill the voids left between the larger particles).
Ideally, it is best to have as much volume as possible filled with strong, durable aggregate
particles, with enough paste (comprised of as much CSH and as little lime as possible) to coat
every particle. Also, voids should not be present in the paste unless they are specifically provided
as microscopic entrained air bubbles to provide durability in freeze-thaw environments.
In real life, though, economics and local aggregate sources dictate the quality of materials used.
The result is that excess voids often exist between the aggregate particles that must now be filled
by paste and air. The challenge becomes producing an appropriate amount of the best possible
quality paste, so that the resulting hardened paste will fill the excess voids with durability and
strength approaching that of the aggregates.
2.1 Chemical properties of Pozzolanic Portland cement

The chief chemical constituents of Portland cements are as follows:
Lime (CaO) 60-70 %
Silica (SiO2) 17-25 %
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8 %
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6 %
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4 %
Sulphure Trioxide (SO3) 1-3 %
Soda and / or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5-1.3 %
Lime: high lime content increases setting time but gives an early strength. Too little lime will
reduce the strength of the cement unduly
Silica and alumina: are complementary, a reduction of one normally being accompanied by
increase of the other. High silica prolongs the setting time but increases the strength.
Alumina: tends to reduce the setting time but also increase the strength.
Iron oxide: not a very active constituent of cement but its due to its presence that Portland
cement derives its characteristic grey color. Iron oxide also combines with lime and silica.
Soda and potash: have little or no value
E25-0170/05 4
Calcium sulphate or gypsum is added in the amounts of 2-3% at grinding stage to prevent
excessively rapid setting of cement but excessive quantity of Sulphure compounds is avoided
such as magnesia, as it causes unsoundness of cement and may reduce its strength.
The constituents forming the raw materials used in the manufacture of Portland cements combine
forming compounds in the finished product, of importance being:-
Compound Chemical formula Usual abbreviation

Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetra calcium alumino-ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
Table 1: compounds formed in the finished products of Portland cements
C3S and C2S form 70 -80% of all Portland cements, are the most stable and contribute most of
the eventual strength and resistance of the concrete to corrosive salts, alkalis and acids. C3S
hydrates rapidly than C2S therefore contributing more to the early strength and heat generated.
Contribution of C2S to strength takes place principally after seven days and continues up to 1
year.
C3A hydrated quickly and generates much heat. It makes a small contribution to the strength
principally within 24 hours and is the least stable component of the four compounds of cement.
C4AF it‘s comparatively inactive and contributes little to the strength and heat of hydration of
the cement at any age.
Hence the difference in properties of the different Portland cements arises from the relative
proportions they posses of the four principal compounds and from the fineness to which the
cement clinker is ground. The normal Portland cement composition and compound content
therefore is as follows
Analysis : % Normal Portland cement

Lime 63.1
Silica 20.1
Alumina 6.3
Iron oxide 3.6
Table 2: elements of Portland cement
Compounds: %
Tricalcium silicate 40
Dicalcium silicate 30
Tricalcium aluminate 11
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Iron compound 11
Table 3: compounds of Portland cement
[3]
2.2 Pozzolana as used in cement

Pozzolana is also used in cement. It‘s a siliceous material which while itself possess no
cementitious properties, will, either processed or unprocessed and finely divided form, react in
the presence of water with lime at normal temperatures to form compounds of low solubility
having cementitious properties. They can be natural or artificial. They replace a proportion of
cement when making concrete and the principal advantages to be gained are economic,
 Improved workability
 Improved water retention/reduced bleeding
 Improved sulphate resistance
 Improved resistance to alkali aggregate reaction
 Lower heat of hydration
 Enhanced long-term strength
 Reduces leaching of soluble compounds from concrete
Pozzolanas in use include naturally occurring and artificial. Naturally occurring include: clays
and shales which must be calcined to be active, volcanic tuffs and pumicites, Bavarian trass.
Artificial include: ground blast-furnace slag and fly ash.
Pozzolanic reaction
At the basis of the Pozzolanic reaction stands a simple acid-base reaction between calcium
hydroxide, also known as Portlandite, or (Ca(OH)2), and silicic acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4). For
simplifying, this reaction can be schematically represented as following:
Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 —> Ca2+ + H2SiO42- + 2 H2O —> CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O
or summarized in abbreviated notation of cement chemists:
CH + SH —> CSH
The product of general formula (CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O ) formed is a calcium silicate hydrate, also
abbreviated as CSH in cement chemist notation. The ratio Ca/Si, or C/S, and the number of water
molecules can vary and the here above mentioned stoichiometry may differ.
As the density of CSH is lower than that of portlandite and pure silica, a consequence of this
reaction is a swelling of the reaction products. This reaction may also occur with time
in concrete between alkaline cement pore water and poorly-crystalline silica aggregates. This
delayed process is also known as alkali silica reaction, or alkali-aggregate reaction, and may
E25-0170/05 6
seriously damage concrete structures because the resulting volumetric expansion is also
responsible for spalling and decrease of the concrete strength.
(http//www.wikipedia.com)
2.2.1 Clays and shales
Clays or shales suitable for use as a pozzolana are very widespread and are readily available in
almost all regions of the world. They have been used as cement replacement materials on large-
scale construction programmes in a number of countries, particularly the US, Brazil, Egypt and
India. For example, in Egypt, a lime-calcined clay mortar was used in the core of the first Aswan
dam built in 1902 and an OPC-calcined clay mixture was used in the construction of the Sennar
dam in Sudan.
However this large-scale utilization has declined in the last three decades, due to the availability
of pozzolanas which require less processing and are therefore cheaper, such as volcanic ash and
pulverized fuel ash. Where these are not available, the use of calcined clay still has considerable
potential. Although sandy clays are often used as a pozzolana, frequently in the form of crushed
fired clay bricks, the coarser sand is not reactive. The pozzolanic activity resides in the finer clay
mineral fraction, and sandy clays may not produce the best pozzolanas. Despite their variable
pozzolanic performance, the use of ground underfired or reject bricks and tiles as a pozzolana is
likely to continue on a small scale due to the low cost of these waste materials.
Plastic clays, as used in tile manufacture or for pottery, can produce better pozzolanas, although
the composition of good pozzolanic clays is variable. Table below gives the chemical
composition (on an oven-dry basis} of some clays in India which produce pozzolanas
conforming to the Indian Standard for calcined clay pozzolana (IS 1344.1981).
Constituents Contents by weight

Silica + Alumina + Iron oxide >70%
Silica >49%
Calcium Oxide <10%
Magnesium Oxide <3%
Sulphur trioxide <3%
Water soluble alkali <0.1%
Water soluble material < 1%
Loss of ignition <10%
Table 4: compounds present in clays and shales
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Processing of calcined clays and shales
(a) Calcining
The early stages of processing calcined clay pozzolanas are similar to the moulding and firing
process for clay bricks, tiles or pottery, and traditionally the rejects from these industries have
been used as pozzolanas. The optimum calcining temperatures for clay pozzolanas are slightly
below those for clay bricks or tiles and therefore better results are likely to be obtained if the
moulding and firing process are designed specifically for pozzolana production. The Indian
Standard (IS1344 1981) gives the following range of temperatures for different types of clays:
Montmorillonite type 600 to 800°C
Kaolinite type 700 to 800°C
Illite type 900 to 1000°C
(b) Grinding
The second step in processing is the grinding of the calcined clay to a fine powder. On a small
scale, this has traditionally been performed with human or, more commonly, animal-powered
methods. Ball mills are more suited to large-scale applications. Some calcined clays, such as
kaolin, will be softer than others and will therefore require less grinding in order to achieve the
desired fineness.
2.2.2 Volcanic ash

Deposits of volcanic ash are likely to be found wherever there are active or recently active
volcanos, for example in the Mediterranean, the Pacific region, and central and eastern Africa.
The physical condition of volcanic ashes may range from loose fine material to coarse deposits
containing quite large particles. Deposits may be loose, with an appearance and texture similar to
a compacted coal or wood ash. Other deposits are cemented, sometimes with appearance and
properties similar to stone, and in this form they are normally referred to as tuffs or trassy. The
colour of deposits can vary from off-white to dark grey.

Silica 45-65%
Alumina + Iron Oxide 15-30%
Calcium + Magnesiun Oxide + alkalis Up to 15%
Loss of ignition Up to 12%
Table 5: elements of volcanic ash
Regular testing is therefore required if volcanic ash is to be used as a pozzolana and this has been
a constraint to its commercial exploitation. However, volcanic ash is, or has recently been,
successfully used as a pozzolana in many countries including the US, Germany, Japan, Italy,
Kenya and Indonesia, with pilot plants tested in Tanzania and Rwanda. For example, 200,000
E25-0170/05 8
tonnes of volcanic pozzolana were used in the construction of the Glen Canyon dam in the US,
completed in 1964.
Figure 1: Volcano emitting volcanic ash
Processing of volcanic ash
Once the deposits have been excavated most volcanic ashes will require only minor processing
before use as a pozzolana. Many ashes are only loosely cemented and can easily be excavated by
hand, although others may need mechanical or pneumatic equipment.
Some lithic tuffs may require blasting with explosives. The ash may require drying, and in dry
sunny climates this can simply be achieved by spreading the ash in a thin layer on a specially
prepared drying floor, similar to those commonly used to dry crops. Alternatively, in wet
climates, and for large quantities, inclined rotary driers are normally used.
If the ash is cemented it will need to be crushed before entering the dryer. Some volcanic ashes
will already be in a very fine, loose powdered form and may not require crushing or grinding.
Other ashes may be of sufficient fineness but be cemented together. These will require milling or
crushing. Coarse ashes and lithic tuffs will need to be ground in a ball mill or similar.
E25-0170/05 9
Figure 2: Volcanic ash Pozzolana being excavated - Rwanda
2.2.3 Fly ash

Fly ash is a residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by mechanical or
electrostatic separators from the flue gases of power plants. Its properties and composition vary
widely, not only between the plants but also from the hour to hour in the same plant. Its
composition is dependent on the type of fuel burnt and on the variation of load on the boiler. Its
color varies from light grey to dark grey or even brown. Its principal constituents are:

Silicon dioxide SiO2 30 - 60 %
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 15 - 30 %
Carbon in the form of unburnt fuel Up to 30%
Calcium oxide CaO 1-7%
Magnesium oxide MgO
Sulphure trioxide SO3
Table 6: compounds present in fly ash
The properties of greatest importance in connection with behavior of fly ash when mixed with
cement are its carbon content which are maintained as low as possible, its fineness is high as
possible and its silica content is ensured to be as high as possible. The silica usually combines
with the liberated lime during hydration of the cement , slowly over a very long period of time.
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Fly ash particles are glassy, spherical shaped ―ball bearings‖ — typically finer than cement
particles. There are two basic types of fly ash: Class F and Class C. Both types react in concrete
in similar ways.
Both Class F and Class C fly ashes undergo a ―Pozzolanic reaction‖ with the lime (calcium
hydroxide) created by the hydration (chemical reaction) of cement and water, to create the same
binder (calcium silicate hydrate) as cement. In addition, some Class C fly ashes may possess
enough lime to be self cementing, in addition to the Pozzolanic reaction with lime from cement
hydration.
Class C ash is normally labeled cementitious fly ash with SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 making up at
least 50% by mass. Class F ash is labeled Pozzolanic fly ash with SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 making
up at least 70% by mass composition of the fly ash.
The main benefit of fly ash in concrete is that it not only reduces the amount of non-durable
Calcium hydroxide (lime), but in the process converts it into calcium silicate hydrate (CSH),
which is the strongest and most durable portion of the paste in concrete. Fly ash also makes
substantial contributions to workability, chemical resistance and the environment.
Figure 3: fly ash
(a) How Fly Ash Contributes to Concrete Durability and Strength

Durability is the ability to maintain integrity and strength over time. Strength is only a measure
of the ability to sustain loads at a given point in time. Two concrete mixes with equal cylinder
breaks of 4,000 psi at 28 days can vary widely in their permeability, resistance to chemical
attack, resistance to cracking and general deterioration over time — all of which are important to
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durability. Cement normally gains the great majority of its strength within 28 days, thus the
reasoning behind specifications normally requiring determination of 28-day strengths as a
standard. As lime from cement hydration becomes available (cements tend to vary widely in
their reactivity), it reacts with fly ash. Typically, concrete made with fly ash will be slightly
lower in strength than straight cement concrete up to 28 days, equal strength at 28 days, and
substantially higher strength within a year‘s time. Conversely, in straight cement concrete, this
lime would remain intact and over time it would be susceptible to the effects of weathering and
loss of strength and durability.
Most people have seen concrete or masonry walls or slabs with the white, chalky surface coating
or streaks called efflorescence. Fly ash chemically reacts with this lime to create more CSH, the
same ―glue‖ produced by the hydration of cement and water, thereby closing off the capillaries
that allow the movement of moisture through the concrete. The result is concrete that is less
permeable, as witnessed by the reduction in efflorescence.
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Other evidence of the contribution fly ash makes to strength and durability includes:
– Cement has an upper limit of roughly 7.5 sacks (7.5 x 94 sack = 705) when using
1" maximum size aggregate, above which the psi per pound of cement strength contribution in a
concrete mix diminishes rapidly. The tallest concrete structures in the world are made with
concrete where fly ash is a necessary component. Its ability to contribute to additional CSH,
lower water demand, reduced heat of hydration and its fine particle size are crucial to making
high-strength concrete (8,000 psi to over 20,000 psi).
– Cement was invented in 1824, over 170 years ago. There are examples on the west coast of
Italy, in a town named Cosa, where a mixture of natural pozzolans (volcanic) were combined
with lime to produce concrete that has withstood waves and attack from seawater for over 2,000
years and is still intact.
– The Pantheon in Rome is a pozzolan and lime concrete structure built around 300 B.C. and still
stands today. It features a cast concrete dome 124 feet in diameter and was the world‘s largest
domed structure until modern times
(b) How Fly Ash Contributes to Concrete Workability

1. fly ash produces more cementitious paste. It has a lower unit weight, which means that on
a pound for pound basis, fly ash contributes roughly 30% more volume of cementitious
material per pound versus cement. The greater the percentage of fly ash ―ball bearings‖ in
the paste, the better lubricated the aggregates are and the better concrete flows.
2. fly ash reduces the amount of water needed to produce a given slump. The spherical
shape of fly ash particles and its dispersive ability provide water-reducing characteristics
similar to a water reducing admixture. Typically, water demand of a concrete mix with
fly ash is reduced by 2% to 10%, depending on a number of factors including the amount
used and class of fly ash.
3. fly ash reduces the amount of sand needed in the mix to produce workability. Because
fly ash creates more paste, and by its shape and dispersive action makes the paste more
―slippery‖, the amount of sand proportioned into the mix can be reduced. Since sand has
a much greater surface area than larger aggregates and therefore requires more paste,
reducing the sand means the paste available can more efficiently coat the surface area of
the aggregates that remain.
Evidence of the contribution fly ash makes to workability includes:
– Lightweight concrete including fly ash is much easier to pump.
– Finishers notice the ―creamier‖ texture when working. They also see reduced ―bug holes‖ and
segregation when stripping forms. Slip form pavers eliminate rock pockets and voids in an
otherwise harsh, no-slump paving mix
(c) How Fly Ash Protects Concrete

An extremely important aspect of the durability of concrete is its permeability. Fly ash concrete
is less permeable because fly ash reduces the amount of water needed to produce a given slump,
and through pozzolanic activity, creates more durable CSH as it fills capillaries and bleed water
channels occupied by water-soluble lime (calcium hydroxide).
Fly ash improves corrosion protection. By decreasing concrete permeability, fly ash can reduce
the rate of ingress of water, corrosive chemicals and oxygen — thus protecting steel
reinforcement from corrosion and its subsequent expansive result.
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Fly ash also increases sulfate resistance and reduces alkali-silica reactivity. At this point a
distinction between Class C and Class F fly ashes needs to be made. While both improve the
permeability and general durability of concrete, the chemistry of Class F ashes has proven to be
more effective in mitigating sulfate and alkali-silica expansion and deterioration in concrete.
Some Class C fly ashes have been used to mitigate these reactions, but must be used at higher
rates of cement replacement.
Fly Ash in concrete can reduce sulfate attack in two additional ways:
– Fly ash reduces calcium hydroxide, which combines with sulfates to produce gypsum. Gypsum
is a material that has greater volume than the calcium hydroxide and sulfates that combine to
form it, causing damaging expansion.
– Aluminates in the cement also combine with sulfates to form expansive compounds. By
replacing cement, the amount of available aluminates is reduced, thereby lowering the potential
for this type of expansive reaction. In reducing alkali-silica reactivity, fly ash has the ability to
react with the alkali hydroxides in Portland cement paste, making them unavailable for reaction
with reactive silica in certain aggregates. Certain studies suggest that greater than 30%
replacement with fly ash for cement has a dramatic effect in combating this expansive reaction.
(d) How Fly Ash Reduces Heat of Hydration in Concrete

The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction. Heat is generated very quickly, causing the
concrete temperature to rise and accelerating the setting time and strength gain of the concrete.
For most concrete installations, the heat generation is not detrimental to its long-term strength
and durability. However, many applications exist where the rapid heat gain of cement increases
the chances of thermal cracking, leading to reduced concrete strength and durability. In these
applications, replacing large percentages of cement with fly ash (fly ash generates only 15 to 35
percent as much heat as compared to cement at early ages) can reduce the damaging effects of
thermal cracking. While the first structures to apply this concept in earnest were hydroelectric
dams built in the 1930s and 1940s with 40% to 50% cement replacement, warm weather
concreting and the risk of thermal cracking is a problem that exists today for all concrete. Warm
weather will naturally raise the temperature of concrete aggregates, which make up the majority
of the mass in concrete. This natural heating of the aggregates, coupled with solar heating at the
construction site, can cause even thin concrete slabs to suffer the damaging effects of thermal
cracking, along with finishing difficulties caused by rapid uncontrolled setting. Replacing 20% to
35% of the cement for ―everyday‖ concrete in warm conditions will help reduce thermal
cracking and provide the time needed to obtain the desired finish. [5]
2.2.4 Rice husk ash

Rice husk is an agricultural residue from the rice milling process. According to the United
Nations FAO (2008), the annual world rice production for 2007 was estimated by 649.7 million
tons, the Husk constitute approximately 20% of it. The chemical composition of Rice Husk is
found to vary from sample to another due to the differences in the type of paddy, crop year,
climate and geographical conditions.
Burning the husk under controlled temperature below 800 can produce ash with silica mainly in
amorphous form. RHA is a highly reactive Pozzolanic material suitable for use in lime-
Pozzolana mixes and for Portland cement replacement. RHA contains a high amount of silicon
dioxide, and its reactivity related to lime depends on a combination of two factors, namely the
non-crystalline silica content and its specific surface.
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Constituent Percentage by weight (%)
SiO2 92.15
Al2O3 0.41
Fe2O3 0.21
CaO 0.41
MgO 0.45
Na2O 0.08
K2O 2.31
Table 7: typical chemical analysis of rice husk ash
In broad terms, 1tonne of rice yields 200kg of husk. For countries like china, the potential
availability of ash is 6million tones; in India it is 3 million tones. Take note that the largest
producers of rice are the developing countries. Utilization of rice husks to produce a Portland
cement replacement is therefore most attractive in these countries since it reduces the demand on
Portland cement hence reduces cost of cement and provides cement in rural area traditionally
deprived of cement. [9]
Figure 4: fly ash

Figure 5: fly ash
2.2.5 Wood ash

Wood ash is the inorganic and organic residue remaining after the combustion of wood or
unbleached wood fiber. The physical and chemical properties of wood ash vary significantly
depending on many factors. Hardwoods usually produce more ash than softwoods and the bark
and leaves generally produce more ash than the inner woody parts of the tree. On the average,
the burning of wood results in about 6-10% ashes. When ash is produced in industrial
combustion systems, the temperature of combustion, cleanliness of the fuel wood, the collection
location, and the process can also have profound effects on the nature of the ash material.
Therefore, wood ash composition can be highly variable depending on geographical location and
industrial processes.
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Uses of wood ash
For a long time wood ash has been used in agricultural soil applications as it recycles nutrients
back to the land. Wood ash has some value as a fertilizer as it contains potash (potassium
carbonate), phosphate, iron, manganese, boron, copper and zinc and can be quite beneficial as a
natural fertilizer sometimes, but does not contain nitrogen. Because of the presence of calcium
carbonate it acts as a liming agent and will deacidify the soil increasing its pH. Potassium
hydroxide can be made from wood ash, which in turn can be used to make soap. Wood ash is
also commonly disposed of in landfills, but with rising disposal costs, ecologically friendly
alternatives are becoming more attractive.
Note
However wood ash has not found much application in cement based production of concrete.
Considering wood ash from the common fire place, no much research has been done on it.
Generally, major elements of wood ash are :
 Calcium
 Potassium
 Magnesium
Other elements include
 Sulphur
 Phosphorus and
 Manganese all present at around 1%
Iron, aluminium, copper, zinc, sodium, silicon and boron are present in relatively smaller
quantities. Oxygen and carbon are also present. Nitrogen content in wood ash is normally
insignificant due to the conversion of most of the wood nitrogen to
 Ammonia (NH3)
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
 Molecular nitrogen gas (N2) during combustion of wood
Woods such as pine and aspen ash have higher amounts of potassium compared to poplar or oak
ash. Sodium is generally low in all ash types also.
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Note
Due to lack of much data about wood ash from fire place, the elemental composition of industrial
wood ash is as shown on the table below, which can be used as a comparison to the elemental
composition of wood ash from the fire place. Only slight differences might be expected.
Elemental composition of industrial wood ash samples

Elements Concentration in %
Calcium 15
Potassium 2.6
Aluminium 1.6
Magnesium 1.0
Iron 0.84
Phosphorus 0.53
Manganese 0.41
Sodium 0.41
Table 8: chemical analysis of wood ash
[8]
Comparison between chemical composition of wood ash and fly ash and rice husk
Comparing the chemical composition of wood ash with fly ash and rice husk, rice husk and fly
ash have both high contents of silica and small content of lime and alumina, while wood ash has
high content of lime and less of alumina.
Hence expected result
This means theoretically the expected result would be an increased setting time but also
increased early strength, due to introduction of more lime to cement.
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The methodology adopted was manly collecting wood ash from homes and first performing
observational analysis in order to determine the quality characteristics of the ash in terms of
organic materials present, any other unburnt solids and color of the ash. Then some laboratory
tests were conducted on the wood ash and other materials to be included in production of
concrete. The test were conducted according to prescribed British Standards.
3.1 preparation of wood ash
3.1.1 Properties of a good wood ash

1. Fineness
The fineness of wood ash influences the final long-term strength of concrete. This is linked to the
chemical reaction that is expected to take place between the liberated lime during hydration
process of cement in concrete and the wood ash. The finer the wood ash, the larger the surface
area of reaction, hence a more complete reaction will take place whose effect on strength would
be a significant increase in strength of concrete. In case the wood ash is not fine, the area of
reaction is significantly reduced. Hence incomplete reaction between lime and ash would take
place which would to reduction of concrete strength instead.
2. Cleanliness and deleterious substances
Organic impurities: the wood ash should be clean and free from organic impurities which would
otherwise interfere with the chemical reactions of hydration. Wood ash from cooking fire place
normally is full of organic compound in form of food particles which found their place by
accidentally dropping off from cooking utensils while cooking. This are removed through
thorough sieving of the wood ash on a fine sieve. Also the color of the ash through observation
would indicate the areas of the ash with incomplete burnt food particles. The areas normally
appear as black regions within the ash. This is also removed by manually separating the black
ash from the grey ash by some spatula.
Non-biodegradable materials (plastics): the wood ash should also be free from non-
biodegradable materials such as plastics. Even though they don‘t react with cement and hence
concrete, their presence in concrete would be to occupy spaces and since the have very poor
bonding characteristics with concrete, the effect would be like creating void like conditions in
the concrete that eventually compromises the strength of a structure. This are common in wood
ash from homes since many people dispose plastics by burning them. They are removed from
wood ash by thorough sieving also.
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Incompletely burnt wood particles: These manifest themselves in terms of black particles in the
wood ash. They must also be removed from ash by thorough sieving of the wood ash. Their
effect in concrete is similar to organic impurities
3. Color
The normal color of a good wood ash should be grey. Any departure from this color is an
indication of heavy impurities in the ash and subsequently a low grade ash. Hence should not be
used.
3.2 Laboratory testing of wood ash
3.2.1 Physical test on wood ash
3.2.1.1 Specific gravity test
There are three types of specific gravities
Absolute specific gravity: It refers to the ratio of the weight of the solid referred to vacuum, to
the weight of an equal volume of gas – free distilled water both taken at stated temperature. The
volume of solid referred is the volume excluding all the pores. Thus in order to eliminate the
effect of totally enclosed impermeable pores, the material has to be pulverized. This test is both
laborious and sensitive and it is not normally required in concrete technology.
Apparent specific gravity: This is the ratio of the weight of the solid dried in an oven at 1000C
– 1100C for 24 hours to the weight of the water occupying a volume equal to that of the solid
including the impermeable pores. The latter weight is determined using a vessel (pycnometer)
which can be accurately filled with water to a specified volume.
Gross specific gravity: This is the specific gravity obtained on saturated surface - dry condition
of solid investigated. Calculations with reference to concrete are generally based on the saturated
surface - dry condition of the solid because the water contained in all the pores in the solid does
not take part in chemical reactions of cement and can therefore be considered as part of the solid.
This specific gravity is most frequently used and easily determined and necessary for calculation
of yield of concrete or the quantity of solid required for a given volume of concrete.
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Objectives
To perform apparent specific gravity test
Apparent Specific gravity test
Apparatus
a) Specific gravity bottle – 100ml capacity

b) Balance cable of weighing accurately up to 0.1g
Procedure
a) The wood ash was first oven dried

b) A dry flask was taken together with its stopper then weighed (W1)
c) Then as sample of wood ash was put in the flask, then together with the flask stopper the
new weight is then recorded (W2)
d) Distilled water was then added to the wood ash then mixed thoroughly with a glass rod to
remove entrapped air. Stirring continued and distilled water added till it was flash with
the graduated mark. The flask was then cleaned and dried on the outside and its weight
taken (W3)
e) The flask was then emptied, cleaned and refilled with kerosene flush with the graduated
mark, then wiped dry on the outside and weighed (W4)
calculation
Specific gravity = [W2-W1] / [(W4-W1)-(W3-W2)]
Where
 W1 = weight of empty flask

 W2 = weight of flask + wood ash
 W3 = weight of flask + kerosene + wood ash
 W4 = weight of flask + kerosene
Since the distilled water temperature was 23oC when specific gravity was done, a correction
factor of 0.9993 was applied to the average specific gravity to obtain the specific gravity of wood
ash at 20oC
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3.3 Aggregates
3.3.1Cleanness
Aggregates should be clean and free from organic impurities; aggregate containing organic material
makes poor concrete. The particles should be free from coatings of dust or clay, as these prevent the
proper bonding of the material. An excessive amount of fine dust or stone 'flour' may prevent the particles
of stone from being properly coated with cement and thus lower the strength of the concrete. Gravels and
sand are usually washed by the suppliers to remove excess fines (clay and silt, for example) and other
impurities, which, if present in excessive amounts, result in a poor quality concrete. However, excessive
washing can remove all fine material passing the 300 μm sieve. This may result in a concrete mix
lacking in cohesion and, in particular, being unsuitable for placing by pump. Sands deficient in
fines also tend to increase the bleeding characteristics of the concrete, which can result in poor
vertical finishes due to water scour.
Limits on the amount of fines are given in BS 882 when determined in accordance with the wet
sieving method specified in BS812.
3.3.2Grading of aggregates
The proportions of the different sizes of particles making up the aggregate are found by sieving
and are known as the 'grading' of the aggregate: the grading is given in terms of the percentage
by mass passing the various sieves. Continuously graded aggregates for concrete contain
particles ranging in size from the largest to the smallest; in gap-graded aggregates some of the
intermediate sizes are absent. Gap-grading may be necessary in order to achieve certain surface
finishes. The sieves used for making a sieve analysis should conform to BS 410 or BS EN 933-2.
The tests should be carried out in accordance with the procedure given in BS 812 or BS EN 933-
1
An aggregate containing a high proportion of large particles is referred to as being 'coarsely'

graded and one containing a high proportion of small particles as 'finely' graded. Grading
envelopes for sand of grading M and for 20 mm graded coarse aggregate are shown in Figure
below.
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Line chart 1: Grading envelopes for grading M sand and 20 mm graded coarse aggregate (as given in
BS 882 : 1992).
3.3.2.1Coarse aggregates
The sieve sizes in general use are 50, 37.5, 20, 14, 10, 5 and 2.36 mm for coarse aggregate.
Table 9: grading limits for coarse aggregates (from BS 882 : 1992)
3.3.2.2 Sand
The sieve sizes in general use are 10, 5, 2.36, 1.18 mm and 600, 300 and 150 μm. The fines
content is determined by wet sieving through a 75 μm sieve.
The C-M-F system of classification for sand in Table below is useful for selecting appropriate
proportions of fine and coarse aggregates in a mix, because the optimum proportion of sand is
E25-0170/05 22
partly related to its fineness. Good concrete can be made with sand within the overall limits
shown in Table below. Where the variability of grading needs to be restricted further for the
design of particular mixes or for the adjustment of sand content of prescribed concrete mixes,
this can be achieved by reference to one or more of the three additional grading limits C, M or F.
Table 10: grading limits for sand (from BS 882 : 1992)
Note
This test consists of dividing up and separating by means of a series of test sieves, a material into
several particle size classifications of decreasing sizes. The mass of the particles retained on the
various sieves is related to the initial mass of the material. The cumulative percentages passing
each sieve are reported in numerical and graphical form
Objective
(i). To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates to be used.

(ii). To draw grading curves for the aggregates specified.
Procedure
1. The test sieves were arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing aperture sizes
with pan and lid to form a sieving column.
2. The aggregate sample was then poured into the sieving column and shaken thoroughly
manually.
3. The sieves were removed one by one starting with the largest aperture sizes (top most),
and each sieve shaken manually ensuring no material is lost. All the material which
passed each sieve was returned into the column before continuing with the operation with
that sieve.
4. The retained material was weighed for the sieve with the largest aperture size and its
weight recorded.
5. The same operation was carried out for all the sieves in the column and their weights
recorded.
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6. The screened material that remained in the pan was weighed and its weight recorded.
Calculations
1. Record the various masses on a test data sheet.

2. Calculate the mass retained on each sieve as a percentage of the original dry mass.
3. Calculate the cumulative percentage of the original dry mass passing each sieve down to
the smallest aperture sieve.
3.3.3 Aggregate crushing value: BS 812-112

Objective
To determine the relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under gradually
applied compressive load.
Apparatus
1. An open ended steel cylinder of nominal 150mm internal diameter with plunger and base
plate.
2. Round ended steel tamping rod 16mm Ø and 600mm long.
3. A weighing balance.
4. BS Test sieves 14mm, 10mm and 2.36mm.
5. A compressive testing machine capable of applying 400KN, at a uniform loading rate.
6. A cylindrical metal measure of internal dimensions; 115mm Ø by 180mm deep.
Procedure
1. The surface – dry aggregate was sieved through 14mm and 10mm sieves and the material
retained on 10mm sieve adopted for test. The retained material was placed in the
cylindrical measure and its weight of aggregate determined and recorded as Wt (A).
2. The cylinder of the test apparatus was put in position and the test sample placed in three
layers each layer being subjected to 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
3. The surface of the aggregate was then leveled and the plunger inserted and ensured it
rested horizontally on the surface of the aggregates.
4. The apparatus with the test sample and plunger were then placed in position between the
platens of the testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate to the required load.
5. After loading the crushed material was removed from the cylinder and sieved through
2.36mm sieve. The fraction passing the 2.36mm sieve was then weighed and recorded as
Wt (B).
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Calculations
Aggregate Crushing Value
[4]
3.4 Bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates, BS 312, AASHTO
Designation: T 19/T 19M-00, ASTM Designation: C 29/C 29M-97
1. A watertight cylindrical metal measure of appropriate nominal dimensions and
approximate capacity as given in Table below.
The inner surface of the bottom of the measure must be flat and its outer surface
hemispherical or rounded to a radius of about 1 metre. The bottom must be solid and both
the walls and the bottom must be sufficiently rigid to withstand, without deformation, the
impacts to which it is subjected in use. The measure must also be fitted with two handles
on the sides for lifting.
Nominal size of Capacity (L) Internal diameter Internal depth Min thickness of
aggregate (mm) (mm) (mm) metal (mm)
Under 4.75 3 150 150 3
4.75 – 37.5 15 250 280 4
Over 37.5 30 350 290 5
2. A balance capable of weighing up 10 kg with an accuracy of 10 gram for material -4.75

mm.
3. A scale capable of weighing up 100 kg with an accuracy of 0.1 kg for material + 4.75
mm
4. Tamping Rod – A round, straight steel rod, 16 mm (5/8 in.) in diameter and
approximately 600 mm (24 in.) in length, having one end rounded to a hemispherical tip
of the same diameter as the rod
Procedure
Calibration of the measure
The measure was filled with water at 20 - 24 oC so that no meniscus was present above the rim
of the container. The water in the container was then weighed in order to determine its volume
by means of dividing the mass by the density of water.
Preparation of test sample
By means of a riffler, sufficient aggregates were quartered out to fill the measure used. The test
sample was then dried in an oven at a temperature of 105 to 110 0C to a constant mass.
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Determination of compacted bulk density
The measure was then filled to one-third full and leveled at the surface with the fingers. The
layer was then rod with 25 strokes of the tamping rod evenly distributed over the surface. The
measure was then filled two-thirds full and again leveled and rod as above. Finally, the measure
was filled to overflowing and rod again in the manner as previously mentioned. The surface of
the aggregate was then leveled with the fingers or a straightedge in such a way that any slight
projections of the larger pieces of the coarse aggregate approximately balanced the larger voids
in the surface below the top of the measure.
Calculation
The bulk density was then calculated as follows
Bulk density in kg/m3 = M/V

Where:
M = mass of aggregate filling the measure in kg
V = volume of water filling the measure in m3
Where:
V = Mw/D
Where:
Mw = mass of water filling the measure in kg
D = density of water at the test temperature
3.5 Consistency of standard cement paste: BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187 and Initial and
final setting times of Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with
wood ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70
Apparatus & Materials:
1) VICAT Apparatus
2) Digital weighing scale, used to measure the weight of dry cement.
3) Glass graduates, used to measure the volume of water.
4) Trowel.
5) Mixing bowl.
6) Stop-watch.
7) Portland Pozzolana Cement.
8) Water.
Needles of penetration:
1) For making the normal consistence of standard paste we use a plunger with 10mm
diameter.
2) Initial setting needle, 1mm in diameter. Used in the determination of the initial setting
time.
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3) Final setting needle, it is a needle with a metal attachment hollowed out so as to leave a
circular cutting edge 5mm in diameters and set 0.5mm behind the tip of the needle.
Procedures:
Normal consistency.
1) 400 grams of cement was weighed using the digital weighing scale, subtracting the
weight of the mixing bowl from the total weight obtained.
2) Amount of water was measured using the glass graduate. (This amount of water was
nearly 26%-33% of the amount of cement).
3) Cement and the water were then mixed together in the mixing bowl. (The mixture were
mixed till they were homogenous and totally mixed during 3 to 5 minutes).
4) The mould of the VICAT apparatus was then filled with the mixed cement, the surface of
the paste then smoothed off level with the top of the mould as quickly as possible.
5) The mould was then placed in its place in the VICAT apparatus and using the 10mm
diameter plunger, the plunger was lowered till it touched the paste and then left to fall
freely.
6) The depth of the VICAT ruler was then read off, if the depth was between 5- 7 mm then
the consistency of standard cement paste was obtained, otherwise another trial with fresh
cement was done.
7) The above procedure was repeated for all percentage replacement of cement with wood
ash.
Setting time measurement
1) Once the normal consistency was obtained, the specification found of the paste were used
to measure the initial and final setting times. So a fresh cement paste was made using the
amount of water and cement of the standard consistency. The amount of water used at
this stage was 0.85 times the amount of water required to produce cement paste of
standard consistency. The stop-watch was then started immediately mixing started.
2) The 1 mm diameter needle was used on the paste surface but the cutting
to test the initial setting time; the edge failed to.
penetration of the sample with this
needle by leaving it to freely fall, and
then read the VICAT ruler scale. a
trial was done each 15 minutes until
the depth of penetration was 5 mm.
The elapsed time from mixing the
water with dry cement till this
moment is called initial setting time.
3) The needle was then replaced with
another angular one (Final setting
needle), and then penetrating the
sample by it every 15 minutes till Figure 6: Setting times test carried out
only the needle made an impression
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3.6 Test for cement concrete mixed with various percentage replacement of cement
with wood ash.
3.6.1 Concrete mix design

Basically the problem of designing a concrete mix consist of selecting the correct proportions of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates and water to produce concrete having the specified
properties. Sometimes additional ingredients such as ground granulated blast furnace slag,
pulverized-fuel-ash (pfa), or admixtures are used. The properties most usually specified are
 The workability of fresh concrete: this is measured using two alternative tests, slump test
which is appropriate for higher workability mixes, and Vebe time test which is
appropriate for mixes which are to be compacted by vibrations.
 The compressive strength at a specified age
 The durability, by means of specifying the minimum cement content and the maximum
free water cement ratio and, in some cases, requiring the use of selected types of
materials.
3.6.2 Definitions
Free-water
The total water in concrete mix consist of water absorbed by the aggregate to bring it to a
saturated surface-dry condition, and the free water available for the hydration of the cement and
for the workability of the fresh concrete.
Its expressed as mass per unit volume of concrete and a major factor influencing the workability
of concrete. The free-water content required to produce a concrete of a specified slump or vebe-
time depends upon the characteristics of the aggregates. The general can be assumed that
uncrushed aggregates require less water compared to crushed aggregates to make concrete of
equal workability, and that the smaller the maximum size of the aggregate the higher the water
content needed..
Mix parameters
Concrete is normally specified by a system of proportions, example 1:2:4 (proportions of

cement: fine aggregates: coarse aggregates either by mass or volume. For this project, after a mix
proportion has been adopted, will have percentage replacement levels of 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40
percents of cement by wood ash.
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Durability
A durable concrete is one which gives a satisfactory performance during an adequate life in a
given environment: including protection of steel against corrosion in reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete. This is dependent on cement- water content or free- water/ cement ratio.
Type and strength class of cement
Different types and strength class of cement produce concrete having different rates of strength
development. Cement adopted for this research is the (Pozzolanic cement KS-EAS 18-1:2001
CEM IV/B [P] 32.5N)
Strength margin
As a result of the variability of concrete in production its necessary to design the mix to have a
mean strength greater than the specified characteristic strength by an amount termed the margin.
Thus
Where fm = the target mean strength
fc = the specified characteristic strength
k s = the margin, which is the product of:
s = the standard deviation
k = a constant
K is derived from normal distribution and increases as the proportion of defectives is decreased,
thus
K for 10% defectives = 1.28
K for 2.5 defectives = 1.96
For 5% defective level specified in BS 5328, k=1.64 and thus
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3.6.3 Stages in mix design
a. Stage 1: selection of the target water/ cement ratio
b. Stage 2: selection of the free-water content; depends upon the type and maximum size of
the aggregate to give a concrete of the specified slump or Vebe time.
c. Stage 3: Determination of the cement content
Cement content = free-water content / (free-water to cement ratio)
d. Stage 4: determination of the total aggregate content
Total aggregate content (saturated and surface dry) = D – C – W
Where
 D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)

 C = the cement content (kg/m3)
 W = the free-water content (kg/m3)
e. Stage 5: Selection of the fine and the coarse aggregate contents
Fine aggregates content = total aggregate content x proportion of fines
Coarse aggregate content = total aggregate content – fine aggregate content
3.6.4 Batching of concrete materials
Following the mix design process, concrete materials (Cement, Fine and Coarse Aggregates)
should be prepared early enough before the concrete works begins. This allows the smooth
running of the project. Batching of materials was done by weight basis. The advantage of weight
method is that bulking of aggregates (especially fine aggregates) does not affect the
proportioning of materials by weight unlike batching by volume method. Bulking of sand results
in a smaller weight of sand occupying a fixed volume of the measuring container thus the
resulting mix becomes deficient in sand and appears stony and the concrete may be prone to
segregation and honeycombing. Concrete yield may be reduced. The batch weights of aggregates
determined in the mix design process are based on a saturated surface – dry conditions. When
working with dry aggregates, the following options may be adopted to achieve saturated surface
– dry conditions;
1. The batch weights of fine and coarse dry aggregates required for the trial mix are
calculated by multiplying the batch weights derived from mix design by 100/(100+A)
,where A is the percentage by weight of the water needed to bring the aggregate to the
saturated surface – dry condition.
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2. The dry aggregates are brought to a saturated surface – dry condition before mixing
process by addition of the required amount of water for absorption by the aggregate
according to BS 1881 – 125:1983.
3. Increasing the weight of mixing water to allow for the absorption of some mixing water
by the dry aggregate during mixing process.
Batching of concrete materials by weight may be expressed as follows;
Wt (C) + Wt (CA) + Wt (FA) + Wt (Air) = Wt (CC)
Where;
Wt (C) = Weight of cement.
Wt (CA) = Weight of coarse aggregate.
Wt (FA) = Weight of fine aggregate.
Wt (Air) = Weight of entrained air.
Wt (CC) = Weight of compacted concrete.
3.6.5Trial mixes
This is made to check whether or not the particular aggregates and cement selected for use in a
given case will behave as anticipated. Adjustments therefore can be made to the original mix
proportions, if necessary, and will differ according to how much the results of the trial mixes
differ from the design values. Based on these, the courses of actions which may be contemplated
are;
a) To use trial mix proportions in the production of mixes.

b) To modify the trial mix proportions slightly in the production of mixes.
c) To prepare further trial mixes incorporating major changes to the mix proportions.
3.6.5 .1 Trial mixes production

The batch quantities of the trial mix are obtained by multiplying the constituent contents by
volume of the mix required. Example
d) 15 cubes of 150 mm each required + 3 cubes allowance = 18 cubes.
e) Volume of 1 cube; 0.15m×0.15m×0.15m=0.003375m3
f) Volume of mix required; 18cubes×0.003375m3=0.03375m3≅0.0608m3
The mixes should be produced according requirements of BS 1881: Part 125, which allows the
use of aggregates in any one of the four moisture conditions, example
a) Oven-dry
b) Air-dry
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c) Saturated surface-dry or
d) Saturated by soaking in water for at least 24 hours
The batch quantities to be determined were based on saturated surface-dry aggregates (c). When
dry aggregates are to be used, they should be allowed to soak with some of the mixing water
before other materials are added, to avoid obtaining false values for the workability and strength
of the concrete. According to BS 1881: Part 125, by mixing the aggregates with about half of the
total water and allowing it to stand for a period so that the aggregates take up most water it will
ultimately absorb, before adding cement, the rest of water and continuing to mix for the periods
specified.
3.6.5.2 Trial mixes test

The test on the fresh concrete, the making of test specimens, the curing and their method of test
will be in accordance with the relevant part of the BS 1881 as follows
 Slump test BS 1881: Part 102

 Making test cubes BS 1881: Part 108
 Normal curing BS 1881: Part 111
 Compression test of cubes BS 1881: Part 116
1. Slump test – BS 1881: Part 102
Slump test has been used extensively in site

work to detect variations in the uniformity
of mix of given proportions. It is useful on
the site as a check on the variations of
materials being fed to the mixer. An increase
in slump may mean that the moisture
content of aggregate has increased or a
change in grading of the aggregate, such as
the deficiency of fine aggregate. Too much
or too low slump gives an immediate
warning and enables the mixer operator to
remedy the situation.
Figure 7: Preparation for slump test
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Apparatus
a) A standard mould which is a frustum of a cone complying with BS 1881 – 102: 1983.
b) A standard flat base plate preferably steel.
c) A standard tamping rod.
d) Standard graduated steel rule from 0 to 300mm at 5mm intervals.
e) A scoop approximately 100mm wide
Procedure
a) The inside surfaces of the mould was cleaned and oiled to prevent adherence of fresh
concrete on the surfaces.
b) The mould was then placed on the base plate and firmly held.
c) The cone was then filled with fresh concrete in three layer with each layer compacted
with 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
d) After filling the mould, the top surface was struck off by means of rolling action of the
tamping rod.
e) Immediately after filling, the cone was then slowly and carefully lifted.
f) Immediately after removal of the mould the slump of the unsupported concrete was then
measured and recorded.
2. Compression test of cubes – BS 1881: Part 116
Casting of cubes
The specimens were cast in iron moulds vibrator to remove as much entrapped air as
generally 150mm cubes. This conforms to possible and to produce full compaction of
the specifications of BS 1881 – 3:1970. The concrete without segregation.
moulds surfaces were first cleaned and oiled
on their inside surfaces in order to prevent
development of bond between the mould
and the concrete. The moulds were then
assembled and bolts and nuts tightened to
prevent leakage of cement paste. After
preparing trial mixes, the moulds were then
filled with concrete in three layers, each
layer being compacted using a poker Figure 8: Concrete cubes being cast
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The moulds were then filled to overflowing and excess concrete removed by sawing action of
steel rule. Surface finishing was then done by means of a trowel. The test specimens were then
left in the moulds undisturbed for 24 hours and protected against shock, vibration and
dehydration at a temperature of 20 ± 30C.
Curing of cubes
Curing is the procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of
temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. The objective of curing
was to
keep concrete as nearly saturated as

possible, until the originally water – filled
space in the fresh cement paste was filled to
the desired extent by the products of
hydration of cement. The temperature during
curing also controlled the rate of progress of
the reactions of hydration and before placing
cubes into a curing tank they were marked
with a water proof marker. Details to be
marked on the cubes were mainly; type of
mix, date of casting, duration for curing and
crushing day. The cubes were placed in a
curing pond/tank at a temperature of 20 ± Figure 9: Placing of concrete cubes for curing
20C for the specified period of time.
Compressive Test
After curing the cubes for the specified period, they were then removed and wiped to remove
surface moisture in readiness for compression test. The cubes were then placed with the cast
faces in contact with the platens of the testing machine that is the position of the cube when
tested should be at right angles to that as cast. The load was then applied at a constant rate of
stress of approximately equal to 15 N/mm2 to failure. The readings on the dial gauge were then
recorded for each cube.
The crushing strength was influenced by a number of factors in addition to the water/cement
ratio and degree of compaction. These are;
1. The type of cement and its quality. Both the rate of strength gain and the ultimate
strength may be affected.
2. Type and surface of aggregate. Affects the bond strength.
3. Efficiency of curing. Loss in strength of up to 40% may result from premature drying
out.
4. Temperature. In general, the initial rate of hardening of concrete is increased by an
increase in temperature but may lead to lower ultimate strength. At lower temperatures,
the crushing strength may remain low for some time, particularly when cements of slow
E25-0170/05 34
rate of strength gain are employed, but may lead to higher ultimate strength, provided
frost damage does not occur.
5. Age. When moisture is available,
concrete will increase in strength
with age, the rate being greatest
initially and progressively
decreasing over time. The rate will
be influenced by the cement type,
cement content and internal concrete
temperature.
6. Moisture condition. Concrete
allowed to dry will immediately
exhibit a higher strength due to the
dry process but will not gain
strength thereafter unless returned to
and maintained in moist conditions.
Dry concrete will exhibit a reduced
strength when moistened.
[2]
Figure 10: Concrete compressive test being

carried out
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CHAPTER 4: DATA COLLECTION
4.1 Laboratory tests results
4.1.1 Specific Gravity test of wood ash

Density bottle no. 30 31
Mass of bottle (m1)g 63.0 53.29
Mass of bottle + dry ash (m2)g 78.24 70.37
Mass of bottle + dry ash + 169.32 163.79
water (m3)g
Mass of bottle full of water 159.50 152.77
(m4)g
Water temp T(oC) 23 oC 23 oC
Specific gravity of ash Gash 2.81 2.81
Average specific gravity Gash 2.81
Table 11: specific gravity test results of wood ash
Specific gravity of wood ash at 20oC = 2.81 x 0.9993 = 2.8

4.1.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates
4.1.2.1 Fine aggregates

Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997
Tests weight weight passing % retained % passing
sieves retained (g) (g)
(mm)
10 8 1217.5 0.7 99
5 30.5 1187 2.5 96.6
2.36 26.5 1160.5 2.2 94.4
1.2 280 880.5 22.8 71.6
0.6 460.5 420 37.5 34.2
0.3 296.5 123.5 24.2 10.1
0.15 100.5 23 8.2 1.9
0.75 18.5 4.5 1.6 0.4
pan 4.5
TOTALS 1225.5 100
Initial weight was 1230.0g

Table 12: sieve analysis results of fine aggregates
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4.1.2.2 Coarse aggregates
Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997
Tests weight weight passing % retained % passing
sieves retained (g) (g)
(mm)
30 0 10927.5 0 100
25 244.5 10683 2.3 97.8
20 4964 5719 45.5 52.4
15 1812.5 3906.5 16.6 35.8
10 3124 782.5 28.6 7.2
5 707.5 75 6.5 0.7
2 59.5 15.5 0.6 0.2
pan 15.5 0 0.2 0
TOTALS 10927.5 100

Table 13: sieve analysis results of coarse aggregates
4.1.3 Aggregate Crushing Value

BS 812-112
Weight of measure = 3370.5g
Weight of measure + aggregate = 5553.5g
Weight of measure + aggregate (crushed passing 2.36 sieve) = 3626.5
Hence Wt (A) = 5553.5 – 3370.5 = 2183g
Wt(B) = 3626.5 – 3370.5 = 256g
= 11.73
4.1.4 Bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates

BS 312, AASHTO Designation: T 19/T 19M-00, ASTM Designation: C 29/C 29M-97
Weight Test 1 Test 2
Wt of container 1544.50g 1544.50g
Wt of water 1983.50g 1983.50g
Wt of wood ash 1769.50g 1844.0g
Bulk density of wood ash 890 kg/m3 930 kg/m3
Wt of fine aggregate 3059.0g 3134.0g
Bulk density of fine aggregates 1540 kg/m3 1580 kg/m3
Wt of container 2 4669.50g 4669.50g
Wt of water in container 2 9712.50g 9712.50g
Wt of coarse aggregates in container 13730.50g 14110.0g
2
Bulk density of coarse aggregates 1413 kg/m3 1453 kg/m3
E25-0170/05 37
Table 14: bulk density test results
4.1.5 Consistency and setting time tests

Consistency of standard cement paste: BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187
%cement 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
replacement
with wood ash
Cement(g) 400.0 360.0 320.0 280.0 240.0
Water (ml) 165 170 175 180 187
Water/cement 41.30 42.50 43.80 45.0 46.80
ratio (%)
Table 15: consistency test
Initial and final setting times of Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with wood
ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70
%cement replacement 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
with wood ash
Initial setting time (min) 45 90 120 150 170
Final setting time (min) 160 210 270 345 425
Table 16: initial and final setting times
4.1.6 Test on fresh concrete
4.1.6.1 Slump test

BS 1881: Part 102
% cement replacement with water to binder actual ratio Slump (mm)
wood ash in concrete
0 0.50 32
10 0.56 30
20 0.62 50
30 0.57 40
40 0.60 30
Table 17: slump test results
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4.1.7 Test on hardened concrete
4.1.7.1: 7, 14, 28 day concrete cube crush test

BS 1881: Part 116
weight of wt
stress
crash strength specimen average density
N/mm2
tonnes g g g
0 32 8200 8247 8223.5 2.5 14
10 38.5 8250 8263 8256.5 2.5 16.8
20 27 8068 8060 8064 2.4 11.8
30 24.5 8250 7800 8025 2.4 10.7
40 20.5 8090 8197 8143.5 2.5 9
Table 18: 7day concrete cube compressive test results
weight of wt
crash strength specimen average stress
density
N/mm2
tonnes g g g
0 43.5 8230 8230 8230 2.5 19
10 52.5 8245 8256 8250.5 2.5 22.9
20 37 8070 8040 8055 2.4 16.2
30 33 8230 7850 8040 2.4 14.4
40 29 8080 8160 8120 2.5 12.7
Table 19: 14 day concrete cube compressive test results
%cement replacement crash strength stress N/mm2

With wood ash tonnes tonnes specimen 1 specimen 2 average
0 42.5 43.5 21 19 20
10 57 56 24.9 24.5 24.7
20 39.5 40.5 17.3 17.7 17.5
30 36 34.5 15.7 15.1 15.4
40 30.5 32.5 13.3 14.2 13.75
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CHAPTER 5.0: DATA ANALYSIS
5.1. Specific Gravity of wood ash
From table 11, Specific gravity of wood ash was found to be 2.80
But
Specific gravity of Pozzolanic Portland cement is 2.9
Specific gravity of fly ash ranges between 2.1 to 3.0
The specific gravity of wood ash was obtained as follows:
Where
M1= mass of bottle(g)
M2= mass of bottle + dry ash(g)
M3=mass of bottle + dry ash + water(g)
M4=mass of bottle full of water(g)
Hence,
Test 1 Test 2
Average specific gravity at 200C = 2.81 x 0.9993 = 2.80
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Chart showing the comparisons in specific gravity
3.05
2.95
2.9
2.85
2.8
specific gravity
2.75
2.7
2.65
2.6
2.55
wood ash fly ash pozzolanic portland aggregates
cement
Bar chart 1: comparison of specific gravities
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5.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates
5.2.1 Fine aggregates
From table 12;
GRADING CURVES FOR FINE AGGREGATES
120
100
80
%passing
60 % passing
%passing upper limit
%passing lower limit
40
20
0
0.75 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.2 2.36 5 10
sives size to BS410(1986)
Line chart 2: grading curves of fine aggregates
Note
The graded fine aggregate falls between upper and lower limit. Hence its okay.
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5.2.2 Coarse aggregates
From table 13
GRADING CURVES FOR COARSE AGGREGATES
120
100
80
%PASSING
60 % passing
%passing upper limit
40 %passing lower limit
20
0
2 5 10 15 20 25 30 37.5
sieves to BS 410(1986)
Line chart 3: grading curves of coarse aggregates
Note
The graded coarse aggregate fell below the lower limit. This means it had poor particle
distribution not appropriate for producing concrete of desired properties as per the British
Standards. Property expected to be most affected include the cube crashing strength.
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5.3 Aggregate Crushing Value
BS 812-112
The value obtained was 11.73. This test was performed as a confirmatory test that the coarse
aggregate used was the appropriate one, one that would result in concrete of desired high
strength property.
5.4 bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates

From table 14, the bulk density of Wood ash = 910 kg/m3, Fine aggregate = 1560 kg/m3, Coarse
aggregate = 1433 kg/m3. Bulk densities of both fine and coarse aggregates were between the
recommended values according to the British Standards of between 1200 – 1750 kg/m3. Bulk
density of fly ash ranges between 800 – 1000 kg/m3. The values above were obtained as follows:
Volume of container = wt of water/1000 = m3

Bulk density = wt of aggregates or wood ash/ volume of container = kg/m3
Average bulk density = bulk density of (test 1 + test2)/2
Volume of container 1= 1.984 x 103m3
Volume of container 2= 9.713 x 103m3
Bulk density of wood ash
Test 1 Test 2
Bulk density of fine aggregates
Test 1 Test 2
Bulk density of coarse aggregates
Test 1 Test 2
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Hence average bulk density of
Wood ash = 910 kg/m3

Fine aggregate = 1560 kg/m3
Course aggregate = 1433 kg/m3
Chart showing the comparisons in bulk densities

1800
1600
1400
1200
bulk density (kg/m3)
1000
Test 1
800 Test 2
600
400
200
0
Bulk density of wood bulk density of fly Bulk density of fine Bulk density of
ash ash aggregates coarse aggregates
Bar chart 2: comparison in bulk densities
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5.5 Consistency and setting time tests
From table 15
water to cement ratio vs %cement replacement with wood ash
48
47
46
water to cement ratio
45
44 Water/cement ratio (%)
43
42
41
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
%cement replacement with wood ash
Line chart 4: consistency of standard cement paste, BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187
E25-0170/05 46
Initial and final setting times of Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with wood
ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70
initial setting time vs % cement replacement with wood ash

180
160
140
120
initial setting time
100
80 Initial setting time (min)
60
40
20
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Line chart 5: initial setting time of cement paste, from table 16
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final setting time vs %cement replacement with wood ash
450
400
350
300
final setting time
250
200 Final setting time (min)
150
100
50
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Line chart 6: final setting time, from table 16
E25-0170/05 48
Note
Amount of water required to produce cement paste of standard consistency increased with
percentage increase in cement replacement with wood ash. Also, the setting times (initial and
final) increased with percentage increase in cement replacement with wood ash.
5.6 Test on fresh concrete
5.6.1 Slump test

From table 17, the result shows that the concrete mixes with higher wood ash content required
greater water content to achieve a reasonable workability as shown on the graph below:
water to binder actual ratio vs %cement replecement with wood ash

0.7
0.6
0.5
water to binder actual ratio
0.4
water to binder actual ratio
0.3
Linear (water to binder actual
ratio)
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Line chart 7: slump test results
Note
The slump adopted for mix design, for maximum aggregate size20mm, was ranging between 30 -
60mm
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5.7 Test on hardened concrete
5.7.1:7, 14 and 28 day concrete cube compressive crush test

The 7 day cube compressive stress were as follows for 0%, 10%, 20%, 30 and 40% cement
replacement with wood ash; 14, 16.8, 11.8, 10.7 and 9 N/mm2 . While the compressive stress at
14th day were as follows; 19, 22.9, 16.2, 14.4 and 12.7 N/mm2. For the 28th day were as follows;
20, 24.7, 17.5, 15.4 and 13.75N/mm2 respectively. This is represented in the graph below in
terms of gain in strength of concrete cubes in each class specimen of various percentages of
cement replacement with wood ash, with the increase in the days of curing from 7days to 14 days
and eventually to 28 days.
chart showing increase in compressive stress against days

30
25
20
compressive stress
0%
15 10%
20%
30%
10 40%
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
days
Line chart 8: concrete cube compressive test results
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From table 18, 19 and 20, its evident that with 10% cement replacement with wood ash, the
28day concrete cube compressive crashing strength increased highly more than the control
specimen whose stress was 20N/mm2 while the former was 24.7N/mm2. But as more cement was
replaced with wood ash, the crashing strength reduced progressively. With 20%, 30%, 40%
cement replacement with wood ash, the crashing stress was 17.5, 15.4, 13.75N/mm2 respectively.
This is shown in the graph below:
Average 28day compressive stress vs %cement replacement with wood

ash
30
25
20
average stress (N/mm2)
15
average
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
Line chart 9: variations of the 28day compressive strength
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CHAPTER 6.0: DISCUSSION
6.1. Specific Gravity of wood ash
The specific gravity of wood ash is the ratio of its mass to the mass of an equal absolute volume
of water. The specific gravity of an aggregate which also has similar definition is used in mixture
proportioning calculations to find the absolute volume that a given mass of material will occupy
in the mixture. Absolute volume of an aggregate refers to the space occupied by the aggregate
particles alone; that is, the volume of solid matter and internal aggregate pores, excluding the
voids between particles. In a given concrete mixture, substituting one aggregate with another of a
different specific gravity will cause the volume of concrete (yield) to change for the same batch
mass. Because concrete is often sold by volume, this change means either that the purchaser is
receiving less concrete than ordered or the producer is supplying more concrete than purchased.
Changes in the aggregate specific gravity also cause the concrete density to change.
Specific gravity of wood ash was therefore determined in order to compare it with the known
specific gravities of materials making up the concrete cube; cement, and fine and coarse
aggregates. For wood ash, it was found to be 2.8, closely related to Pozzolanic Portland cement,
fine and coarse aggregates ( uncrushed and crushed )whose specific gravities are 2.9 and 2.6 to
2.7 respectively. This therefore means that no change in volume of concrete was hence expected
with the use of wood ash in concrete cubes since the specific gravities of the materials that made
up these concrete cubes were very closely related.
Comparatively, fly ash which is used in some countries as Pozzolana and whose specific gravity
ranges between 2.1 and 3.0, is also closely related to wood ash whose specific gravity of 2.8 lies
in the range stated above. This hence proves that wood ash which currently has no any
application in concrete anywhere in the world can also be successfully used as Pozzolana in
making of cement for concrete.
6.2 Sieve analysis of aggregates

Coarse aggregate
It‘s first important to take note that variations in grading have very minor effects on hardened
concrete properties. The figure below (miller, 1978) shows the effect of changes in a coarse
aggregate grading on compressive strength at constant workability. All concrete was batched to
50mm slump. It‘s interesting to note that the BS 882 limits for the percentage passing the 10mm
sieve in 20–5 mm graded aggregate are 30–60 per cent. The graphs are virtually flat lines in this
range. [9]
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The effect of coarse aggregate on grading
Note
From grading curve of coarse aggregate, line graph 3, the particle size distribution of the
aggregates fell below the lower limit. From comparison between the theory above and the final
28 day compressive strength of concrete cubes, it‘s evident that grading of the coarse aggregates
has very little influence in the strength property of the hardened concrete since the strength
obtained for the control experiment remained same compared with coarse aggregate of good
grading ( between the upper and lower limit). The compressive stress for the control experiment
was found to be 20N/mm2 for class 20/20 concrete which is deemed okay.
Fine aggregate
The figure bellow (Ryle, 1988) shows the effect of changes in sand grading at constant
workability. Within the typical range of sand grading, the effect is fairly small. Again, it is
interesting to note that the peaks of the curves fall more or less at the mid-point of the overall BS
882 limits for the percentage of sand passing the 600 μm test sieve. The influence of grading on
fresh concrete is much greater. Workability, cohesion, handling, compaction, bleeding and
finishing can all be affected. [6]
E25-0170/05 53
The effect sand grading on compressive strength
Note
From the grading curve of fine aggregate, line graph 2, the particle size distribution of the
aggregate fell between the upper and the lower limits. This means that these aggregates were
okay from the point of view of grading. The expected properties of fresh concrete to be affected;
Workability, cohesion, handling, compaction, bleeding and finishing were relatively fine (not
very much affected) as the effects of adverse changes of the above properties of fresh concrete
could have been reflected in the final 28 day compressive strength of concrete cubes in terms of
low or very low compressive strength.
Hence:
The theoretical objective of aggregate grading is to provide the maximum relative volume
occupied by the aggregate, while maintaining the lowest aggregate surface area. This is because
the space in the concrete mix not occupied by aggregate must be filled with cement paste, and
because the surface of all the solids in the mix must be wetted. In practice, a compromise
between these demands, which in some ways conflict, must be achieved. Modern mix design
methods mean that aggregates with quite a range of grading may be used. However, uniformity
and consistency of materials are still needed.
6.3 Aggregate crushing value

Aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually
applied compressive load. To achieve a high strength concrete, aggregate possessing low
aggregate crushing value is normally preferred.
E25-0170/05 54
The aggregate used for the project above possessed an aggregate crashing value of 11.73. This is
low enough to produce concrete of the desired high strength.
6.4 bulk density of wood ash, fine and coarse aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates
It‘s important to note first that the bulk density or unit weight of an aggregate is the mass or
weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of a specified unit volume. The volume
referred to here is that occupied by both aggregates and the voids between aggregate particles.
The approximate bulk density of aggregate commonly used in normal-weight concrete ranges
from about 1200 to 1750 kg/m3. The void content between particles affects paste requirements in
mix design. Void contents range from about 30% to 45% for coarse aggregates to about 40% to
50% for fine aggregate. Angularity increases void content while larger sizes of well-graded
aggregate and improved grading decreases void content.
It‘s also important to note that the particle shape and surface texture of an aggregate influence
the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-
textured, angular, elongated particles require more water to produce workable concrete than do
smooth, rounded, compact aggregates. Hence, aggregate particles that are angular require more
cement to maintain the same water cement ratio. However, with satisfactory gradation, both
crushed and non-crushed aggregates (of the same rock types) generally give essentially the same
strength for the same cement factor. These factors are hence normally considered in the concrete
mix design, where for instance crashed aggregates are used, then more cement and water are
used in the mix design compared to a case where non crushed aggregates are used. [1]
Note
The bulk density of fine aggregates was found to be 1560 kg/m3 and that of course aggregate,
1433 kg/m3. These were hence between the recommended values of 1200 – 1750 kg/m3. The
coarse aggregate type was crushed, hence this factor was considered during concrete mix design
where water to cement ratio used was 0.47 with a maximum of free water to cement ratio of
0.55. With a slump of between 30 to 60, these facilitated to the pretrial mix of 0.005m3 ratios of
cement: water: fine aggregates: coarse aggregate as 22.5: 10.5: 38.5: 49 kilograms respectively to
produce a workable mix, which gave a slump of 32 for the control specimen of a specified
characteristic strength of 20N/mm2 at 28 days. Taking cement content as 1 then the above ratios
for the specified class 20 concrete would be 1:1.7:2.2 for cement: fine aggregate: coarse
aggregate respectively. Considering the common mix ratio of 1:2:4 for same class, its evident
that the ratio of the crushed coarse aggregates used to produce a similar class of concrete reduced
significantly or the cement content increased hence the water content increased to produce a
water to cement ratio of 0.47.
E25-0170/05 55
Wood ash
The bulk density of wood ash was found to be 910 kg/m3, while the bulk density of fly ash has
been found to range between 800 – 1000kg/m3. Since the bulk density of wood ash lies within
the range of fly ash which has already found application in concrete, then wood ash can also be
equally used to serve the same purpose as fly ash in concrete.
6.5 Consistency and setting time tests

Consistency test
Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or mortar or to its
ability to flow. During cement testing, pastes are mixed to normal consistency as defined by a
penetration of 5 to 7 mm of the Vicat plunger. Mortars are mixed to obtain either a fixed water
cement ratio or to yield a flow within a prescribed range. The normal consistency method is
therefore normally used to regulate water contents of pastes and mortars, respectively, to be used
in subsequent tests; allowing comparing dissimilar ingredients with the same penetrability.
It was therefore noted that, increase in cement percentage replacement with wood ash, the
amount of water required to produce cement paste of standard consistency rose as shown by the
following results as found in the laboratory. For 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%,and 40% replacement of
cement with wood ash, the water to cement ratio required to produce a paste of standard
consistency were as follows, 41.30, 42.50, 43.80, 45.0 and 46.80 respectively.
Compared to fly ash, Concrete mixtures containing fly ash generally require less water (about
1% to 10% less at normal dosages) for a given consistency than concrete containing only
Portland cement. Higher dosages can result in greater water reduction. However, some fly ashes
can increase water demand up to 5% (Gebler and Klieger 1986). Fly ash reduces water demand
in a manner similar to liquid chemical water reducers (Helmuth 1987).
It‘s important to note that also the water demand of concrete containing silica fume increases
with increasing amounts of silica fume, unless a water reducer or plasticizer is used. Some lean
mixes may not experience an increase in water demand when only a small amount (less than 5%)
of silica fume is present. Calcined clays and calcined shales generally have little effect on water
demand at normal dosages; however, other natural Pozzolanas can significantly increase or
decrease water demand.
Setting times test
The objective of the setting time test is to determine:
1. The time that elapses from the moment water is added until the paste ceases to be fluid
and plastic (called initial set) and
2. The time required for the paste to acquire a certain degree of hardness (called final set).
Initial set of cement paste must not occur too early and final set must not occur too late. The
setting times indicate that a paste is or is not undergoing normal hydration reactions. Sulfate
(from gypsum or other sources) in the cement regulates setting time, but setting time is also
affected by cement fineness, water-cement ratio, and any admixtures that may be used. Setting
times of concretes do not correlate directly with setting times of pastes because of water loss to
the air or substrate, presence of aggregate, and because of temperature differences in the field (as
contrasted with the controlled temperature in a testing lab).
E25-0170/05 56
It was therefore noted that the setting times for cement paste increased with increase in
percentage cement replacement with wood ash. For the initial setting time, for 0%, 10%, 20%,
30%, and 40% replacement of cement with wood ash, the setting times were as follows:45, 90,
120, 150, 170 minutes respectively. While for the final setting times were as follows: 160, 210,
270, 345 and 425 minutes respectively.
Since wood ash has more lime content (literature review) which is responsible for increasing the
setting time of cement, hence introduction of wood ash in cement means an increase in lime
hence increase in setting times of cement paste.
Comparison with fly ash, fly ash also increases setting times of cement paste and also of
concrete. The degree of retardation normally depends on factors such as the amount of Portland
cement, water requirement, the type and reactivity of the slag or Pozzolana dosage, and the
temperature of the concrete.
Set retardation is an advantage during hot weather, allowing more time to place and finish the
concrete. However, during cold weather, pronounced retardation can occur with some materials,
significantly delaying finishing operations.
6.6 Test on fresh concrete: slump test

This is normally a test performed in the laboratory to determine and measure how hard
(workability) and consistent a given sample of concrete is before curing. This is essentially a
method of quality control. Therefore, for a particular mix, the slump should be consistent. A
change in slump will demonstrate an undesired change in the ratio of concrete ingredients. The
ingredients are then adjusted to keep a concrete batch consistent.
Workability of concrete mix is defined as the ability of fresh concrete mix to fill the mold
properly with the desired work and without reducing the concrete quality. It normally depends on
the water content, aggregate shape and size distribution, cementitious content and level of
hydration.
As cement was being replaced with wood ash in increasing percentage replacements of order
10%, it was noted that the amount of water required producing a concrete mix of the required
slump (30 – 60) as per the mix design, kept increasing. For the control specimen, the water to
binder ratio was 0.5 with a slump of 32. For 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% replacement of cement
with wood ash, the water to binder ratio were as follows respectively; 0.56, 0.62, 0.57, 0.60 with
slumps of 30, 50, 40 and 30 respectively. Hence the general trend was an increase of water to
binder ratio as seen in line graph 7.
The reason for the increase in water requirement is attributed to high water requirement of the
wood ash compared to that of cement. This was also confirmed by the consistency test performed
early.
E25-0170/05 57
Compared to fly ash, which as discussed in the literature review, ―how fly ash contributes to
concrete workability”, fly ash reduces the amount of water required to produce a given slump by
2 to 10% depending on a number of factors including amount of ash used and its class. It also
reduces the amount of sand needed in the mix to produce workability because fly ash creates
more paste and by its shape and dispersive action makes the paste more ―slippery‖, the amount
of sand proportioned into the mix can be reduced. Fly ash also produces more cementitious
paste. It has a lower unit weight, which means that on a pound for pound basis, fly ash
contributes roughly 30% more volume of cementitious material per pound versus cement.
6.7 Test on hardened concrete: 7th, 14th and 28th days compressive strength
Compressive strength of concrete is the capacity of the concrete cubes to withstand axially
directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are
crushed. Therefore, it is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails
completely.
The compressive strengths were observed to increase from day 0 to day 28 reaching the expected
maximum. At 7th day it was generally observed that the concrete cubes had already attained 70
percent of the 28th day compressive strength and by 14th day, the cubes had already attained 92%
of the 28th day strength. This is well shown in the line graph 8.
Another significant observation made was that the 28th day compressive strength of concrete
cubes decreased with percentage increment in cement replacement with wood ash except for the
10% cement replacement which was observed to have attained a higher compressive stress of
24.7N/mm2 than anticipated stress of concrete class 20. This was also above the stress value of
the control specimen which was 20N/mm2. Reasons for this high compressive strength might be
attributed to chemical reactions between the Pozzolanic cement and the wood ash. These
reactions have not yet been well documented hence further research concerning this is required.
Reasons for the decreasing compressive strength for the other mixes with increasing percentage
cement replacement with wood ash might have been attributed to increase in water to binder
ratio. The basis of concrete strength versus water-cement ratio relation is that an increase in
water-cement ratio produces more capillary pores in the matrix portion of concrete. This makes
the matrix weaker. The higher the water-cement ratio, the more diluted the cement paste
becomes, therefore the weaker it will be at any stage of hydration. But also, the water
requirement should be such that the mix is workable. Therefore, the water required to produce a
workable mix for these mixes, might have been actually excess making the cement which was
responsible for giving wood ash its cementing properties more dilute, therefore affecting the
hydration processes.
The percentage variations in 28day compressive strength for the class 20 concrete can be
summarized as shown in the table below.
E25-0170/05 58
%cement Water-cement slump 28 day concrete % variation in
replacement with ratio cube compressive 28day compressive
wood ash stress N/mm2 stress for class 20
concrete
0% 0.50 32 100.0
20
10% 0.56 30 123.5
24.7
20% 0.62 50 87.5
17.5
30% 0.57 40 77.0
15.4
40% 0.60 30 68.8
13.75
Table 21: summary of the percentage variation of compressive strength
E25-0170/05 59
CHAPTER 7.0: CONCLUSSION
The objectives of the project were achieved; the entire stated tests were performed according to
the prescribed methodology according to British Standards accorded to them.
The hypothesis statement was proved right that actually wood ash can find major application in
concrete production. This was according to the results obtained with 10% partial replacement of
cement with wood ash which gave higher compressive strengths compared to the control
specimen.
Hence from the laboratory results obtained, it‘s evident that wood ash can actually find
application in concrete production. It can be used at the industrial level for cement production
since fly ash which is used already in some countries as Pozzolana was found to have almost
similar characteristics as the wood ash even though the ash was ordinarily obtained from the
cooking fire places. The following properties tested in the laboratory attest to this.
property Wood ash Fly ash

Specific gravity 2.8 2.1 – 3
Bulk density 910 kg/m3 800 – 1000 kg/m3
At the site, wood ash can also be used for concrete production when using Pozzolanic cement but
only in small quantities. From the results obtained, it was found that a 10% replacement of
cement with wood ash, resulted to an increase of concrete strength by 23.5%. considering a bag
of cement which weighs 50kg, it means 45 kg cement + 5kg wood ash would be used where a
bag of binder is required and hence saving 5kg of cement and at the same time producing
concrete of very high strength compared to the class of concrete as specified. Where many bags
of cement are to be used, for every 10 bags of cement, 1 more bag will be obtained. This leads to
greater cost saving in building construction which is known to consume a lot of cement,
considering that one bag of cement cost more than 700Ksh currently in Kenyan market.
Wood ash increases the initial and final setting times of the cement paste. This is attributed to
the fact that wood ash contains high content of calcium (15%) which reacts with water to form
calcium hydroxide responsible for increasing the setting time of the paste.
Also, the water to cement ratio increases with percentage increment in replacement of cement
with wood ash. Care must hence be taken to ensure that the water is sufficient to achieve the
specified slump but also it is not in excess so as to cause reduction in concrete final strength.
Generally, increase in wood ash, leads to reduction in concrete compressive strength except for
the 10% replacement.
E25-0170/05 60
CHAPTER8.0: RECOMMENDATIONS
According to the laboratory results obtained, I would like to recommend the use of wood ash in
production of concrete on site with percentage replacement of cement up to 10%. But however
since not so much research has been done on this, I recommend limiting this for only low cost
housing construction.
According to the final report of Kenya vision 2030, ―to adequately provide shelter for the
projected population of 60 million by 2030, and assuming the household size of 5 members per
household, the projected housing demand for the country would be more than 12 million quality
dwelling units by the year 2030. Furthermore, more than 60 per cent of Kenyans will be living in
urban areas by the year 2030‖. To achieve this objective of providing quality houses to Kenyans
by the year 2030, the cost of building materials and construction must first be affordable to all.
Hence the use of wood ash in concrete to partially replace cement would reduce the number of
cement bags required for each building to be constructed. This will help in cost saving
considering that cement is one of the key elements in building and construction industry that
contributes greatly to the high costs of housing.
Considering also that 10% partial replacement of cement with wood ash resulted to increase in
concrete strength by 23.5%, wood ash can also be used as mineral admixture where one is
required. This is a cheaper option of producing concrete of high strength where admixtures are
required and considering that they are also very costly and not readily available to poor people
coming from low class areas.
I will further recommend some more studies regarding the potential use of wood ash in concrete
production both at industrial level during cement manufacture and at the site level when concrete
is to be produced. And in particular, the potential use of ordinary cooking fire place wood ash in
partial replacement of Pozzolanic cement for concrete production. The 10% partial replacement
should be the subject matter of investigation because of the unexpected results delivered of the
improvement in concrete strength by 23.5% instead of the predicted reduction in strength.
This should also be coupled with further research on the long term effect of such partial
replacement of wood ash in concrete.
E25-0170/05 61
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A: CONCRETE MIX DESIGN PROCESS
The concrete mix design process used was based on the procedure given by the Department of
Environment – Transport and Road Research Laboratory, London
Line chart 10: relationship between standard deviation and characteristic strength
Line chart 11: relationship between compressive strength and free-water/ cement ratio
E25-0170/05 62
The margin; Equation C1
The margin may be derived from the calculation below;
= × ……………………………………………..…C1
Where; = The margin.
= A value appropriate to the ‗percentage defectives‘ permitted below the characteristic strength.
= The standard deviation
The target mean strength; Equation C2

= + …………………………………………..….….C2
Where; = The target mean strength
= The specified characteristic strength
= The margin
Cement content; Equation C3

Cement content = – − /
………………………………..…….C3
Total Aggregate content; Equation C4

Total aggregate content (saturated surface – dry) = − − …………………………..C4
Where; = The wet density of concrete (Kg/m3)
= The cement content (Kg/m3)
= The free – water content (Kg/m3)
Fine and coarse aggregates contents; Equation C5

Fine aggregate content = Total aggregate content × Proportion of fines
Coarse aggregate content = Total aggregate content – fine aggregate content ……………….C5
E25-0170/05 63
Line chart 12: estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete
Line chart 13: recommended proportions of fine aggregates according to percentage passing a 600
micro metre sieve
E25-0170/05 64
E25-0170/05 65
Type of Type of Compressive strengths (N/mm2)
cement coarse Age (days)
aggregate 3 7 28 91
Ordinary Crushed 18 27 40 48
Portland
Cement
(OPC) or Uncrushed 23 33 47 55
Sulphate
Resisting
Portland
Cement
(SRPC)
Rapid Crushed 25 34 46 53
Hardening
Portland
Cement Uncrushed 30 40 53 60
(RHPC)
Table 22: approximate compressive strenght (N/mm2) of concrete mixes made with free-water/ cement
ratio of 0.5
Slump (mm) 0 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 60 60 – 80
or V-B (s) >12 6 – 12 3–6 0–3
Max size of Type of
aggregates aggregates
(mm)
10 Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
crushed 180 205 230 250

20 Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
crushed 170 190 210 225

40 Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
crushed 155 175 190 205

Table 23: approximate free-water content (Kg/m3) required to give levels of workability
E25-0170/05 66
Stage Item Reference or values
calculation
1 1.1 characteristic strength Specified 20N/mm2 at 28 days
Proportion of deffective 2.5%
1.2 standard deviation Fig 3 8N/mm2
1.3 Margin C1 (K=1.96) 1.96 x 8= 16 N/mm2
1.4 Target mean strenght C2 20 + 16 = 36 N/mm2
1.5 Cement strenght class Specified 32.5 N/mm2
1.6 Aggregates type:coarse crushed
Aggregate type:fine Uncrushed
1.7 Free-water/cement ratio Table 2, fig4 0.47
1.8 Maximum free-water/cement specified 0.55 using the lower value hence 0.47
ratio
2 2.1 slump or vebe time Specified Slump 30 – 60

2.2 maximum aggregate size Specified 20 mm
2.3 Free water content Table 3 210 kg/m3
3 1.1 cement content C3 210 / 0.47 = 447 kg/m3
1.2 maximum cement content Specified
1.3 minimum cement content Specified 290 kg/m3
Use 3.1 if <= 3.2
Use 3.3 if > 3.1 hence 447 kg/m3
1.4 modified free
water/cement ratio
4 4.1 relative density of 2.7
aggregates (SSD)
4.2 concrete density Fig 5 2400 kg/m3
4.3 total aggregate content C4 2400 – 447 – 210 = 1743 kg/m3
5 5.1 grading of fine aggregate % passing 34.2%

0.6mm seive
5.2 proportion of fine Fig 6 44%
aggregate
5.3 fine aggregate content C5 767 kg/m3
5.4 coarse aggregate content C5 976 kg/m3
quantities Cement (kg) Water (kg or litres) Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates
10mm 20mm 40mm
Per m3 447 210 767 976
Pretrial 22.5 10.5 38.5 49
mix of
0.05m3
Table 24: Concrete mix design form
E25-0170/05 67
APPENDIX B: RAW DATA
1. Sieve analysis of aggregates
Fine aggregates
Tests Weight of Weight sieves weight retained weight % %
sieves sieves +aggregates (g) passing (g) retained passing
(mm)
10 497.0 505 8 1217.5 0.7 99
5 469.5 500 30.5 1187 2.5 96.6
2.36 463.5 490 26.5 1160.5 2.2 94.4
1.2 449.5 729.5 280 880.5 22.8 71.6
0.6 380.5 841 460.5 420 37.5 34.2
0.3 389.0 685.5 296.5 123.5 24.2 10.1
0.15 356.5 457 100.5 23 8.2 1.9
0.75 342.5 361 18.5 4.5 1.6 0.4
pan 304.5 309 4.5
TOTALS 1225.5 100

Table 25: Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997
Coarse aggregates
Tests Weight of Weight sieves weight retained weight passing % %
sieves sieves +aggregates (g) (g) retained passing
(mm)
30 547.5 547.5 0 10927.5 0 100
25 539.0 783.5 244.5 10683 2.3 97.8
20 570.5 5534.5 4964 5719 45.5 52.4
15 570.5 2383.0 1812.5 3906.5 16.6 35.8
10 521.0 3645.0 3124 782.5 28.6 7.2
5 483.0 1190.5 707.5 75 6.5 0.7
2 436.5 496.0 59.5 15.5 0.6 0.2
pan 515.5 531.0 15.5 0 0.2 0
TOTALS 10927.5 100
Table 26: Particle size distribution to BS EN 933 – 1: 1997
E25-0170/05 68
2. Consistency and setting time tests
%cement 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
replacement
with wood
ash
Cement(g) 400.0 360.0 320.0 280.0 240.0
Wood ash (g) 0 20 40 60 80
Water (ml) 165 170 175 180 187
Water/cement 41.30 42.50 43.80 45.0 46.80
ratio (%)
Table 27: Consistency of standard cement paste: BS 12, A.S.T.M: C-187
Table 28: Initial and final setting times of Portland Pozzolanic cement with partial replacement with
wood ash: BS: 12, A.S.T.M: C 197-70
10% wood ash 20% wood ash 30% wood ash 40% wood ash
Time Penetration Time Penetration Time Penetration Time Penetration
(min) readings(from (min) readings(from (min) readings(from (min) readings(from
bottom of bottom of bottom of bottom of
vicat)(mm) vicat)(mm) vicat)(mm) vicat)(mm)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
80 4 65 0 50 0 40 0
90 5 75 0 60 0 50 0
135 16 120 5 105 0 95 0
180 30 135 7 120 1 110 0
210 36 165 11 150 5 140 0
195 18 180 6 170 5
210 25 195 12 185 7
240 33 225 18 215 11
270 36 255 24 245 15
285 30 275 19
315 33 305 23
345 36 335 27
365 31
395 34
E25-0170/05 69
425 36
0% Time (min) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 160

wood Penetration 0 2 3 5 10 12 14 18 24 30 34 36
ash readings(from
bottom of
vicat)(mm)
3. Slump test
BS 1881: Part 102
% cement Cement Fine Coarse Water water to Slump

replacement quantity aggregates aggregates quantity binder (mm)
with wood ash (g) quantity quantity (g) actual
in concrete (g) (g) ratio
0 3636 6181 8000 1818 0.50 32
10 3864 6569 8500 2182 0.56 30
20 3864 6569 8500 2382 0.62 50
30 3864 6569 8500 2208 0.57 40
40 3864 6569 8500 2318 0.60 30
Table 29: slump test results
Note
The batch quantities were done on weight basis and the quantities obtained and used as above
were as a result of concrete mix design based on class 20 concrete.
E25-0170/05 70
4. 7, 14 and 28 day concrete cube crush test
BS 1881: Part 116
weight of wt
Density stress
%cement crash strength specimen average
g/cm3 N/mm2
replaced tonnes g g g
0 32 8200 8247 8223.5 2.5 14
10 38.5 8250 8263 8256.5 2.5 16.8
20 27 8068 8060 8064 2.4 11.8
30 24.5 8250 7800 8025 2.4 10.7
40 20.5 8090 8197 8143.5 2.5 9
weight of wt
Density stress
crash strength specimen average
g/cm3 N/mm2
tonnes g g g
0 43.5 8230 8230 8230 2.5 19
10 52.5 8245 8256 8250.5 2.5 22.9
20 37 8070 8040 8055 2.4 16.2
30 33 8230 7850 8040 2.4 14.4
40 29 8080 8160 8120 2.5 12.7
weight of wt
Density
%cem crash strength specimen average stress N/mm2 average
g/cm3
replaced tonnes tonnes g g g specimen 1 specimen 2
0 46 45.5 8250 8243 8246.5 2.5 20.1 19.9 20
10 57 56 8285 8256.5 8270.75 2.5 24.9 24.5 24.7
20 39.5 40.5 8109.5 8090 8099.75 2.4 17.3 17.7 17.5
30 36 34.5 8243 7726 7984.5 2.4 15.7 15.1 15.4
40 30.5 32.5 8098.5 8191 8144.75 2.5 13.3 14.2 13.75
E25-0170/05 71
REFERENCES
1. Committee E-701, materials for construction, Aggregates For Concrete.
2. DC Teychenne, R E Franklin, H C Erntroy, (1997), Design of normal concrete mixes,
Building Research Establishments Ltd.
3. D.F Orchard,( Fourth edition, 1979) Concrete technology volume 1, pg 3-13, Applied
Science Publishers Ltd London.
4. G F Blackledge, Revised by R A Binns, Concrete practice ,BCA.
5. Head waters resource, fly ash concrete, http//www.flyash.com.
6. John Newman , Ban Seng Choo, Advanced Concrete Technology , Constituent Materials.
7. Kazuhito Sakata, Yoshinobu Oshima2, and Kunitomo Sugiura, Fundamental studies on
ecological housing materials in Kenya
8. Mark Risse, Glen Harris, Extension Engineering and Extension Agronomist, Best
management practices for wood ash used as an agricultural soil amendment.
9. R.N Swamy, Cement replacement materials volume 3, pg171-194, Surrey University
Press.
10. Tarun R. Naik, Wood ash: as a new source of pozzolanic material
E25-0170/05 72

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

ECE 2505: FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

PERFOMANCE OF WOOD ASH AS A PARTIAL

MR. PAUL MULU

Submitted to the department in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Signed_______________ Date ____________

I have read this report and approve it for examination.

Mr. Paul Mulu (project supervisor)

Bar chart 1: comparison of specific gravities ............................................................................................. 41

1.2 Problem statement

1.3.1 General objectives

1.4 Research hypothesis

1.5 Limitations of research

2.1 Chemical properties of Pozzolanic Portland cement

Lime (CaO) 60-70 %

Silica (SiO2) 17-25 %

Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8 %

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6 %

Magnesia (MgO) 0.1-4 %

Sulphure Trioxide (SO3) 1-3 %

Soda and / or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5-1.3 %

Soda and potash: have little or no value

Compound Chemical formula Usual abbreviation

Analysis : % Normal Portland cement

2.2 Pozzolana as used in cement

2.2.1 Clays and shales

Constituents Contents by weight

2.2.2 Volcanic ash

Constituents Contents by weight

Figure 1: Volcano emitting volcanic ash

Processing of volcanic ash

2.2.3 Fly ash

Constituents Contents by weight

Figure 3: fly ash

(a) How Fly Ash Contributes to Concrete Durability and Strength

(b) How Fly Ash Contributes to Concrete Workability

(c) How Fly Ash Protects Concrete

(d) How Fly Ash Reduces Heat of Hydration in Concrete

2.2.4 Rice husk ash

Figure 4: fly ash

2.2.5 Wood ash

Generally, major elements of wood ash are :

Other elements include

Elemental composition of industrial wood ash samples

Hence expected result

3.1 preparation of wood ash

3.1.1 Properties of a good wood ash

2. Cleanliness and deleterious substances

3.2 Laboratory testing of wood ash

3.2.1 Physical test on wood ash

3.2.1.1 Specific gravity test

There are three types of specific gravities

Apparent Specific gravity test

a) Specific gravity bottle – 100ml capacity

a) The wood ash was first oven dried

Specific gravity = [W2-W1] / [(W4-W1)-(W3-W2)]

 W1 = weight of empty flask

An aggregate containing a high proportion of large particles is referred to as being 'coarsely'

Table 9: grading limits for coarse aggregates (from BS 882 : 1992)

Table 10: grading limits for sand (from BS 882 : 1992)

(i). To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates to be used.

1. Record the various masses on a test data sheet.

3.3.3 Aggregate crushing value: BS 812-112

Aggregate Crushing Value

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