FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &

SURVEY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
KAMPALA CAMPUS
FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE TO SULPHATE ATTACK WITH CEMENT

PARTIALLY REPLACED BY WOOD ASH

AKANKWASA RONALD ASIIMWE HERBERT

REG NO: 19/2/328/W/390 REG NO: 19/2/328/W/970

A Project Report Submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of a
Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) in Civil Engineering of Ndejje University

SUPERVISOR: MR. LWANGA VINCENT OOLA

JULY, 2022

I
DECLARATION
We, AKANKWASA RONALD and ASIIMWE HERBERT declare that this report is original
and none of its contents have been presented before either partially or wholly for the award of
any diploma or degree in any university or institution.

Signature……………………
Date…………………………
AKANKWASA RONALD

Signature……………………
Date…………………………
ASIIMWE HERBERT

II
APPROVAL
This work has met the requirements needed by Ndejje University under my supervision and is
ready for submission for examination.

Signature………………………..
Date……………………………..
SUPERVISOR: MR. LWANGA VINCENT OOLA

III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our greatest gratitude goes to the Almighty God for the wisdom, courage and strength that He
bestowed upon us in all our endeavors.

We are deeply indebted to our supervisor Mr Lwanga Vincent Oola for all the technical support
he extended to us during this research project.
Special thanks to all the lecturers of the Civil Engineering Department for the academic
foundation they laid for us.

Lastly we thank our fellow students for the support they offered to us whenever requested during
our academic journey.

IV
ABSTRACT
Concrete is the commonest and mostly used Civil Engineering material. This is attributed to the
availability of its constituent materials and the ease of production. However, like any other Civil
Engineering material, concrete under goes deterioration in presence of harsh environmental
conditions for example sulphate attack. Sulphate attack on concrete structures reduces their
serviceability levels. Concrete attacked by sulphates has a whitish appearance with damages that
start from edges and corners and is followed by cracking and spalling of concrete.

In practice, Sulphate resistant cement (Type V) is used instead of OPC (Type I) to counteract
the attack from sulphates. However, sulphate resistant cement is expensive and not readily
available.

A study was carried out to assess the resistance of concrete with OPC partially replaced by
wood ash to sulphate attack. Wood ash was chosen to partially replace OPC in concrete because
many studies conducted on it classify it as a pozzolan with cementitious substances.

The study involved chemical analysis of wood ash that was obtained from burning wood
between 500OC and 700OC. The major cementitious elements of Silica (SiO2), Iron Oxide
(Fe2O3) and Alumina (Al2O3) were found out to have a combined percentage of 79.08% which is
above the minimum requirement of 70% as stated in ASTM C618 hence characterizing wood ash
as a pozzolan.
Furthermore, the study involved subjecting concrete cubes with OPC partial replacement ratios
of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% with wood ash to water containing sulphate ions for 8
weeks. It was found out that the percentage loss in compressive strength decreased with
increasing wood ash content. 0% OPC replacement had a 41.2% loss compared to 4.3% of 50%
OPC replacement with wood ash. This was attributed to the faster deterioration of C-S-H bonds
by sulphate attack in the 0% OPC replacement with wood ash.
From the study it can be concluded that wood ash blended with OPC reduces the effects of
sulphate attack on concrete. However, a further study to find an optimum amount of wood ash to
replace OPC should be carried out so as to balance the compressive strength requirement with
resistance to sulphate attack.

V
Table of Contents

DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... II
APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................................ III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... IV
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................................. V
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................... VI
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................... IX
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 2
1.4 JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE ................................................................................................................................. 3
1.6 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Chemical Reaction of Cement ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3 Pozzolanic Materials ........................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Mechanism of Sulphate Attack ........................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Protective Measures against Sulphate Attack .............................................................................. 6
2.4.2 Repairs after Sulphate Attack ...................................................................................................... 7
2.5 Concrete Mix Design .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.5.1 Concrete Mix Design Procedures................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 10
3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.1 Cement ....................................................................................................................................... 10

VI
 3.1.2 Wood Ash .................................................................................................................................. 10
3.1.3 Aggregates ................................................................................................................................. 10
3.1.4 Water .......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Characterization of Cement, Wood Ash and Aggregates ................................................................. 11
3.2.1 Chemical Tests on Wood Ash and Cement................................................................................ 11
3.2.2 Sieve Analysis for Coarse Aggregates ....................................................................................... 11
3.2.3 Gradation Test for Fine Aggregates ........................................................................................... 12
3.2.4 Flakiness Index Test................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.5 Aggregate Impact Value ............................................................................................................ 13
3.2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value ......................................................................................................... 14
3.2.7 TEN PERCENT FINES VALUE (TFV) ................................................................................... 15
3.3 Assessing the effect of sulphate attack on concrete with different replacement ratios of wood ash 17
3.3.1 Concrete mix design................................................................................................................... 17
3.3.2 Mix Proportions including wood ash ......................................................................................... 24
3.3.3 Casting of Concrete Test Cubes ................................................................................................. 24
3.3.4 Preparation of Sulphate Solution ............................................................................................... 25
3.4 To assess the residual compressive strength of concrete at different replacement ratios of wood ash
after sulphate attack ................................................................................................................................ 26
3.4.1 Initial compressive strength ....................................................................................................... 26
3.4.2 Residual Compressive Strength ................................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ....................................................... 27
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 27
4.2 Chemical Properties of Wood Ash.................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Chemical Composition of OPC......................................................................................................... 28
4.4 Physical Properties of Fine and Course Aggregates ......................................................................... 29
4.4.1 Sieve Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 29
4.4.2 Other Physical Properties ........................................................................................................... 30
4.5 Effect of Sulphate Attack on Concrete ............................................................................................. 31
4.5.1 Mass Change .............................................................................................................................. 31
4.5.2 Visual Observation..................................................................................................................... 32
4.6 Residual Compressive Strength ........................................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................................ 37

VII
 5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 37
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................. 38
References ................................................................................................................................................... 39
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 40

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3. 1: Relation between standard deviation and characteristic length................................. 17
Figure 3. 2: Relationship between compressive strength and free water cement ratio ................. 20
Figure 3. 3: Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete .................................................. 22
Figure 3. 4: Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing 600
micrometer sieve ........................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 4. 1: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregates ....................................................................... 29

Figure 4. 2: Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregates ........................................................................... 30
Figure 4. 3: Percentage Mass Change of Concrete Cubes due to sulphate attack ........................ 32
Figure 4. 4: Physical Appearance of Concrete Cubes after 6 weeks of sulphate attack ............... 33
Figure 4. 5: Physical Appearance of Concrete Cubes after 8 weeks of sulphate attack ............... 34
Figure 4. 6: Initial and Residual Strength of Concrete Cubes ...................................................... 35

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3. 1: Constants for Percentage of Defectives ...................................................................... 18
Table 3. 2: Approximate Compressive Strengths of Concrete Mixes made with a free water
cement ratio of 0.5 ........................................................................................................................ 19
Table 3. 3: Approximate Free Water Contents Required to give various levels of workability... 20
Table 3. 4: Determined Material proportions for 1 cm3 of concrete ............................................. 23
Table 3. 5: Wood Ash Percentage Replacement Ratios of OPC .................................................. 24
Table 3. 6: Material Proportions for the Different Test Mixes ..................................................... 24

Table 4. 1: Chemical Properties of Wood Ash ............................................................................. 27

Table 4. 2: Chemical Properties of OPC ....................................................................................... 28
Table 4. 3: Results of other Physical Tests of Aggregates ........................................................... 30
Table 4. 4: Weekly Percentage Mass Changes of Concrete Cubes .............................................. 31
Table 4. 5: Percentage loss of Concrete Strength due to Sulphate Attack .................................... 35

VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACI – American Concrete Institute

ACV – Aggregate Crushing

AIV – Aggregate Impact Value
ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials
BRE – British Research Establishment
BS – British Standard
C-S-H – Calcium Silicate Hydrate
EN - European
NWSC – National Water and Sewerage Corporation
OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement
pH – Potential Hydrogen
RFM – Relative Formula Mass
TFV – Ten Percent Fines Value
XRF – X-ray Fluorescence

IX
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily available material. Its cost of production is
low compared with other engineered construction materials like steel and timber. It can be
formed into different desired shapes and sizes right at the construction site.
With regard to composition, concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular
material (the aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder)
that fills the space between the aggregate particles and glues them together in presence of water
through the hydration process. Janotka (2000) affirms that Portland cement is a hydraulic binder
that hardens in presence of water to form a water-resistant compound.
In presence of water, tri-calcium silicate which is a major cementitious component of OPC reacts
to form calcium silicate hydrate which is responsible for binding the other components of
concrete.
2Ca3SiO5 + 6H20 Ca3Si2O7.3H20 + 3Ca(OH)2
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3CH
Despite its versatility, in contact with harsh environmental conditions with sulphate ions,
concrete becomes prone to deterioration hence affecting its durability. According to Hewlett &
Liska (2019), sulphates are often encountered in soils and ground waters and may also be derived
from industrial waste such as mine tailings.
Presence of sulphate ions in solution reacts with calcium hydroxide in hardened concrete to form
calcium sulphate (gypsum corrosion) which causes expansion and cracking of concrete (Neville,
2010).

Newman and Choo (2003) explain that addition of a pozzolana results into low permeability
concrete which is more durable and able to resist ingress of deleterious chemicals.
A pozzolan possesses little or no cementing property, but in a finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties." (Malhotra and Mehta, 1996).

Therefore in this study of resistance of concrete with wood ash to sulphate attack: wood ash will
work as pozzolan.

1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Sulphate attack on concrete structures reduces their serviceability levels. According to Neville
A.M (2010), concrete attacked by sulphates has a whitish appearance with damages that start
from edges and corners and is followed by cracking and spalling of concrete.

In practice, sulphate resistant cement (Type V) is used to overcome the aforementioned

challenge. However, this kind of special cement is not readily available and it costs higher than
ordinary Portland cement which is affordable to many people.

Therefore it is of paramount importance to assess the resistance of concrete with OPC partially
replaced by wood ash to sulphate attack.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE

To assess the resistance of concrete with cement partially replaced by wood ash to sulphate
attack.

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

I. To characterize cement, wood ash and aggregates used in the study.
II. To assess the effect of sulphate attack on concrete with different replacement ratios of
wood ash.
III. To assess the residual compressive strength on concrete at different replacement ratios of
wood ash after being subjected to sulphate attack.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION
Concrete structures are designed to have minimal maintenance levels during their design life
hence low life cycle costs. Sulphate attack on concrete structures requires high levels of
maintenance to prevent further deterioration.

Furthermore, reducing permeability of concrete by lowering the water cement ratio implies high
cement content which is costly. Incorporating cementitious materials like wood ash can improve
permeability and reduce costs on cement. Therefore it’s imperative to study the resistance of
concrete with wood ash to sulphate attack.

2
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE
The research will be of use to the concerned construction agencies who want to use wood ash as
an alternative for increasing the sulphate attack resistance of concrete. It will avail them with
the information on what criteria to follow in the addition of wood ash for construction.

1.6 SCOPE
The study was limited to resistance of concrete with wood ash to sulphate attack.

3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, sand and course and fine aggregate.
Their proportion in the concrete is based on grade of concrete (Dabhade, et al, 2012).

Cement, is a fine material that acts as a binder in the concrete mixture. It gains its strength from
a pozzolanic reaction which takes place when water is added. Cement has two functions, to fill
the voids between aggregate particles and water tightness and to give strength to hardened
concrete.

Aggregates comprise of 70% to 80% of volume of concrete. Aggregates can be fine (sand) or
coarse (crushed stones). They have three main functions, to provide a cheap filler, to provide a
mass of particles for resisting the action of applied loads and to reduce the volume changes
resulting from the settling and hardening process.

Concrete is the most favorite material used in construction industry, because concrete has basic
ingredients that are easy to find, namely cement, coarse and fine aggregate and water. The
maintenance of concrete is also easy to conduct, most economical, good in compression,
durable and good fire resistance compared to other structural materials like steel and timber.

2.2 Chemical Reaction of Cement

Cement is composed primarily of silica and lime. The essential cementing components are
tricalicium silicate and dicalicium silicate. Any variation in silica content affects the strength
characteristics of cement (Neville, 1981). In the cement hydration development upon wetting, the

following reactions occur (Englehardt, 1995);

2(3CaO-SiO2) + 6H20 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O+ 3 Ca(OH)2

2(2CaO.SiO2) + 4H2O 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O+ Ca(OH)2

3CaO.Al2O3 + 31H2O +3CASO4 3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.31H2O

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3+ 10H2O +2 Ca(OH)2 6CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3.12H2O

4
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) or derivatives of it contain calcium silicates and aluminates
which are basic elements of clinker (C3S, C2S, C3A) and to these are added 4-5% of gypsum
(CaS04 .2H 2 O), mainly to control the rate of setting of cement. The chemical process
(hydration) that takes place when water is added to cement involves the release of calcium
hydroxide (saturated lime solution) into the solution. Hydrated silicates in contact with calcium
hydroxide undergo hydrolysis liberating more lime into the solution (Lea, 1970). The released
hydrated lime finds voids in the cement paste and in the presence of atmospheric carbon dioxide
forms calcium carbonates (CaCO3). The deposits of Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 are the causes of
weakness of cement products since they can be easily attacked by sulphates and chlorides (Uppal
et al, 1964; Pallota et al., 1988).

2.3 Pozzolanic Materials

Pozzolanic materials can be divided into artificial and natural pozzolans. The most active natural
pozzolan are clays and siliceous materials of volcanic origin like tuff, which are
characteristically glassy or non-crystalline in structure. Fine grained soils, particularly
montmorillonitic clays, are also capable of reacting with lime in the presence of moisture and can
therefore be classified as pozzolan. On the other hand, ground bricks, pulverized blast furnace
slag and burnt shale, all fall in the category of artificial pozzolans.

Natural materials like volcanic ash are pozzolans in their natural state but materials such as clay,
shale, bauxite waste (artificial pozzolana) have to undergo heat treatment before they become
Pozzolanic. Pulverized burnt clay according to Price (1975), contains a high proportion of silica
content. This can be confirmed through a systematic study on the subject.

A Pozzolanic reaction occurs when a siliceous or aluminous material get in touch with calcium
hydroxide in the presence of humidity to form compounds exhibiting cementitious properties
(Papadakis et al, 2002).

5
2.4 Mechanism of Sulphate Attack
Sulphate ions that lead to deterioration of concrete can be from solutions of magnesium
sulphate, calcium sulphate, sodium sulphate and ammonium sulphate. Magnesium sulphate
presents severe deterioration of concrete with regard to sulphate attack.

According to Hewlett & Liska (2019), two mechanisms are considered to be sulphate attack that
is formation of calcium sulphate (gypsum corrosion) and ettringite (sulfo-aluminate corrosion).

Gypsum corrosion involves the reaction between sulphate ions and calcium hydroxide. This
reaction is accompanied by expansion of concrete hence cracking. Cracking leads to ingress of
more sulphate ions which react directly with the monosulfoaluminate (formed when C3A reacts
with calcium hydroxide)

Sulfo-aluminate corrosion involves formation of ettringite from monosulfoaluminate. The

volume increase due to this reaction generates internal stresses leading to cracking.

Ca4Al2(OH)12.SO4.6H2O + 2CaSO4 + 20H2O Ca6Al2(OH)12.(SO4)3.26H2O

2.4.1 Protective Measures against Sulphate Attack

 One of the most common ways of protecting against sulfate attack is to reduce the alumina
content by limiting the C3A in Portland cement. Historically, Type II Portland Cement (with
C3A between 5 and 8 percent) and Type V Portland Cement (with C3A less than 5 percent)
have been specified for moderate and severe environments respectively.
 The use of slag cement is also an extremely effective way of reducing the potential for
sulfate attack.
 Surface treatment materials like saline repellent, epoxy, bitumen polyurethane, acrylic
polymer resin have also been used as a way of protecting structures against sulphate attack.
 Lowering the permeability of concrete by using low water cement ratio, increasing the
amount of cement and use of well graded aggregates.

6
2.4.2 Repairs after Sulphate Attack
There are several options for remedial action for sulfate-attacked concrete floor slabs and over-
site concrete. The appropriateness of the options depends on the severity of present damage, the
perceived risk of future damage, and the degree of assurance required. They include;
Precautionary periodic inspections, Removal and replacement of just the concrete floor slab or
over-site concrete, Partial removal and replacement of the hardcore and provision of a new
concrete floor slab, Complete removal and replacement of the hardcore and provision of a new
concrete floor slab.

2.5 Concrete Mix Design

Concrete Mix Design is defined as process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative amounts with the aim of producing concrete of a specific workability,
strength and density.
The process of concrete mix design is followed by a concrete trial mix. The purpose of concrete
trial mixes is to enable the mix designer to check the workability, strength, density and other
properties of concrete that have been proposed prior to approval.

2.5.1 Concrete Mix Design Procedures

 Select suitable material sources and test the respective properties of material

Material samples are collected from various sources are collected and respective tests carried to
ascertain if the properties meet the standards or project specifications. The material properties for
coarse aggregates include;

 Aggregate Impact Test

 Aggregate Crushing Value
 10% Fines Value
 Flakiness Index and Elongation Tests
 Sodium Sulphate Soundness
 Water absorption
 Specific Gravity and
 Gradation which differs from project to project depending on the specifications

7
The material properties for fine aggregates include;

 Silt Content
 Organic matter by colour comparison
 Chloride content
 Sulphates content
 Gradation which differs from project to project depending on the specifications.
 Determine the target strength from the characteristic strength required

From BS 5328, Characteristic Strength is defined as the value of strength below which 5% of the
population of all possible strength measurements of the specified concrete is expected to fall.
From the required properties of hardened concrete (characteristic strength) specified by the
designer of the structure, the target strength of concrete can be calculated to be above the
specified characteristic strength (fck) by a certain margin (Ks).
Target Mean Strength (fm) = Characteristic Strength (fck) + Margin (Ks)

Where fm = Target mean strength

Fck = Characteristic strength at 28 days
Ks = Margin
K = Constant derived from the normal distribution.
S = Standard deviation
 Select the water cement ratio for the target mean strength

The water cement material ratio is the mass of water divided by the mass of cement. The lower
the water cement ratio the higher strength of concrete. The water cement ratio can be selected
best based on the trial mixes carried out in the field or laboratory. Furthermore the water cement
ratio is dependent on the type of cement to be used.

 Select the free water content for the workability required

The free water content refers to the amount of water required for the hydration of cement and
workability of concrete. The free water content can be determined based on the shape and
maximum size of coarse aggregates and their absorption rate at the saturated surface dry state.

8
Large coarse aggregate sizes reduce on the surface area to volume ratio hence reduction on the
amount of paste required to coat the aggregates. This in turn reduces the amount of cement hence
the free water content. Furthermore, the shape of aggregates also determines the amount of free
water content to be used.

 Determine the cement content

The cement content is determined from the water cement ratio (W/C) and the free water content
determined. However, the cement content should not be above the predefined maximum amount
of cement content.

 Determine the proportion of fine and coarse aggregates

The proportions for fine and coarse aggregates are determined from the ratio assigned to the sand
and aggregates in the mix design calculation.

 Determine the final concrete mix proportions.

The final mix design proportions are determined after carrying out trial mixes to check if the
workability and strength meet the specified requirements.

A number of different Concrete Mix Designs include but not limited to British Mix Design,
American Concrete Institute (ACI) Mix Design etc. British Mix Design Method was applied in
this research.

9
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
This chapter explains the methods that were used in accomplishing the study. They included
field sampling, laboratory tests and observations as explained under the subsequent headings of
this chapter.

3.1 Materials
The materials used in this study included cement (OPC), wood ash, aggregates (fine and coarse),
and water (NWSC).

3.1.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used in this research study. The OPC used is a product
manufactured by Tororo Cement factory and it is classified as CEM 1 42.5N (EN 197-1:2005).

3.1.2 Wood Ash

The wood ash used in the study was prepared by burning wood in a blast furnace between 500 OC
and 700OC at Uganda Clays Limited in Kajjansi Kampala. The high firing temperatures which
were applied enabled burning of the organic content in the wood.

The wood ash for chemical analysis was then ground in a mortar and pestle to acquire finer
particles which were sieved through a 75 micrometer sieve in order to remove any larger size
particles.

3.1.3 Aggregates
Coarse aggregates used in the study were sourced from Cemeters quarry in Gayaza and Lwera
sand was used for fine aggregates. 20 mm was the maximum size for coarse aggregates while 5
mm was the maximum size for fine aggregates (BS 882:1992).

3.1.4 Water
Water plays a major role in concrete mixing in that it starts the reaction between the ordinary
Portland cement, wood ash and the aggregates.
It also helps in the hydration of the mixture. In this research, the water used was that of National
Water and Sewerage Cooperation which is safe drinking water as specified in the standard (EN
1008, 1997).

10
3.2 Characterization of Cement, Wood Ash and Aggregates

3.2.1 Chemical Tests on Wood Ash and Cement

Secondary information from the cement manufacturer’s certificate was used while chemical
analysis for wood ash was performed at the minerals laboratory for Department of Geology at
Makerere University.

Wood Ash for chemical composition tests was first grounded further into a finer material. Fine
material passing through 150mm BS sieve was used to determine the chemical properties. The
ash sample was grounded to fine powder, from which a pressed pellet was prepared. The pellet
was scanned on the XRF machine.

3.2.2 Sieve Analysis for Coarse Aggregates

Sieve analysis was conducted to confirm that all the aggregates used for mixture meet the
specifications in order to prevent poor variation in the grading from affecting the fresh or
hardened concrete properties. BS 882:1992 was followed to determine the grading of coarse and
fine aggregates. A standard sieve set ranging from 37.5mm to 5mm was used.

3.2.2.1 Sample Preparation

The sample obtained from the stock pile was quartered using rifle boxes to obtain a
representative sample on which to conduct the sieve analysis test.

The test was conducted in accordance with BS 882: 1992 standard.

 Procedures
 The oven dried sample was then weighed (M1) and washed over a 75µm sieve. Washing was
done carefully not to lose any material retained on the test sieve until the water passing the
75µm sieve was clear
 The residues retained were then transferred from the sieve to a metal tray, and the excess free
water removed by careful decantation through the 75µm sieve. The obtained residues were
placed in the oven to dry at 105ºC for 24 hours.
 The oven dried material was then allowed to cool, and weighed (M2). The mass of the fine
material passing the 75µm sieve could be calculated from;

11
 𝑀𝑎 𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑔 75𝜇 𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 = 𝑀1- 𝑀2
 The sieves were then assembled in descending aperture size order going to the bottom, and
the oven dried sample was placed on the top sieve and covered with a lid
 The sieve set up was then agitated vigorously by hand for a sufficient time to separate the
sample into the different size fractions.
 The material retained on each sieve was then weighed and recorded.

3.2.3 Gradation Test for Fine Aggregates

Sand gradation is determined by sieve analysis which is the distribution of particles of granular
materials among various sizes, usually expressed in terms of cumulative percentages smaller
than a series of sizes of sieve openings.

A standard sieve set ranging from 0.15mm to 5mm in accordance with BS 882:1992 test
standard was used.

 Procedures

 A representative sample of sand from the stock pile was divided into four test specimens
using the riffle box. The riffled masses were then put in separate trays and put in the oven
for 24 hours to dry.
 The specimens were removed from the oven, left to cool and their weights measured. Wet
sieving was done using sieve No. 200 (75-µm) to remove the silts, clays and organic
impurities in each specimen until the water coming out was colorless.
 The wet specimens were then put in the oven at a temperature of 105oC for 24 hours.
 The dry washed specimens were removed from the oven and their dry masses taken.
 The dry washed sample was poured on the top sieve. The stacked sieves were shaken
until each particle was retained on a sieve of lesser diameter. Retained mass on each sieve
size was recorded and corresponding cumulative mass retained was calculated.

12
3.2.4 Flakiness Index Test

The Flakiness Index test examines the particle shape of the aggregate mass and it is determined
by the percentage of flaky particles in it. Flaky and elongated aggregates are weak and
breakdown under heavy compressive loads. They also affect the workability of concrete.

The test was carried out with reference to BS 812-105.1: 1989 standard.

 Sample Preparation

To obtain the samples for use in the Flakiness Index test, a 6.3 mm sieve was inserted below the
10 mm sieve during sieve analysis. The aggregates retained on the 6.3 mm sieve were used in the
flakiness index test

 Procedures
 The aggregates retained on the 6.3 mm sieve were quartered and a representative sample
subjected to the test.
 Aggregates were passed through the corresponding gauge size of the flakiness index
gauge. The gauging was by hand such that each particle was gauged.
 Masses passing and retained on each gauge size were recorded respectively.

3.2.5 Aggregate Impact Value

The aggregate impact value is a measure of resistance to sudden impact or shock, which may
differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive load. The aggregate impact test is
carried out to evaluate the resistance of aggregates to impacts.

The Aggregate Impact Value test was carried out in accordance with BS 812-112: 1990 standard.

 Procedures

 A sample of the aggregates was quartered and then sieved through the 14mm. The
retained mass was again sieved through the 10mm sieve to remove the undersize
aggregates.
 The retained sample was divided to produce two test specimens that were subjected to the
impact value test.

13
  The sample aggregates were filled in the AIV mould in three different layers and each
compacted with 25 blows with the help of the tamping rod.
 The excess aggregates on the last layer were removed by rolling the tamping rod above
the cylindrical metal measure such that the compacted sample flashes with the top ends of
the measure.
 The cylindrical metal measure was placed in a metal cup and centred at the base plate of
the testing machine such that the hammer would fall directly on to the aggregates in the
measure.
 The hammer was freely let to fall freely through a vertical distance of about 380mm on
the aggregates up to a maximum of 15 blows.
 The crushed aggregate was carefully poured on to the metal tray by hammering on the
bottom of the measure and the finer particles removed with the help of a brush. The
crushed sample was then weighed and recorded as m1
 The weighed sample was sieved through the 2.36mm sieve until no further particle would
pass through. The retained sample was weighed as m2. The mass that passed was
calculated as (m1-m2).
 The same procedure was repeated for the second test sample and the mean AIV of the
two test samples was calculated.

AIV =

3.2.6 Aggregate Crushing Value

Aggregates used in concrete should be strong enough to resist crushing under compressive
loads. The Aggregate Crushing Value Test gives a relative measure of the resistance of an
aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied load.

The test was conducted in accordance with BS 812-110: 1990 standard.

 Procedure

 A dried oven sample of the aggregates was quartered and then sieved through the 14mm
and 10mm sieve to remove the oversize and undersize aggregates respectively.

14
  The retained sample was divided to produce two test specimens that were subjected to the
crushing value test.
 The sample aggregates were filled in the ACV mould in three different layers and each
compacted with 25 blows with the help of the tamping rod.
 The excess aggregates on the last layer were removed by rolling the tamping rod above
the cylindrical metal measure such that the compacted sample flashes with the top ends of
the measure.
 The cylindrical metal measure was placed in a metal cup and centred at the base plate of
the compressive testing machine such that the upper plate would be applied directly on to
the aggregates in the cylindrical measure.
 With the help of a compressive strength test machine. A uniform force of 400KN was
applied for 10 minutes.
 The crushed aggregate was carefully poured on to the metal tray by hammering on the
bottom of the measure and the finer particles removed with the help of a brush. The
crushed sample was then weighed and recorded as m1
 The weighed sample was sieved through the 2.36mm sieve until no further particle would
pass through. The retained sample was weighed as m2. The mass that passed was
calculated as (m1-m2).
 The same procedure was repeated for the second test sample and the mean ACV of the
two test samples was calculated.

ACV =

3.2.7 TEN PERCENT FINES VALUE (TFV)

Like the Average Crushing Value test, the Ten Percent Fines Value test gives a relative measure
of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradually applied load. The test can be
conducted in both the dry and soaked state.

The 10% Fines Value is obtained by measuring the load required to crush a prepared sample to
give 10% material passing a specified sieve after crushing.

The test was conducted in accordance with BS 812-111: 1990 standard.

15
 Procedures

 For the test in a dried condition, a dried oven sample of the aggregates was quartered and
then sieved through the 14mm and 10mm sieve to remove the oversize and undersize
aggregates respectively.
 For the soaked condition, the sample of aggregates sieved through the 14mm and 10mm
sieves was soaked in water 24 hours after which they were surface dried and the normal
test procedures continued.
 The retained sample was divided to produce two test specimens that were subjected to the
crushing value test.
 The sample aggregates were filled in the cylindrical mould in three different layers and
each compacted with 25 blows with the help of the tamping rod.
 The excess aggregates on the last layer were removed by rolling the tamping rod above
the cylindrical metal measure such that the compacted sample flashes with the top ends of
the measure.
 The cylindrical metal measure was placed in a metal cup with the plunger inserted and
centred at the base plate of the compressive testing machine such that the upper plate
would be applied directly on to the aggregates in the cylindrical measure.
 With the help of a compressive strength test machine. The four specimens were subjected
to compressive loads of 50 KN, 100 KN, 150 KN and 400 KN respectively.
 The crushed aggregate was carefully poured on to the metal tray by hammering on the
bottom of the measure and the finer particles removed with the help of a brush. The
crushed sample was then weighed and recorded as m1
 The weighed sample was sieved through the 2.36mm sieve until no further particle would
pass through. The retained sample was weighed as m2. The mass that passed was
calculated as (m1-m2).
 The same procedure was repeated for the other test specimens and the ACV of the four
test samples was calculated.

ACV =

16
 The Force (F) for 10% Fines Value for each specimen was computed with the formula
below

F= where f is the applied force

A graph of Percent Fines against the Applied Load was plotted with two lines
corresponding to the dry and soft condition. The load corresponding to the 10% fines was
read off for both dry and wet condition.

3.3 Assessing the effect of sulphate attack on concrete with different replacement ratios of
wood ash

3.3.1 Concrete mix design

The British Mix Design method of concrete was followed to design normal strength concrete of
Class 30.

 Selection of Target Strength

Design Strength: 30MPa @ 28 days for 150*150*150mm Concrete Cubes

Cement Class: 42.5

Figure 3. 1: Relation between standard deviation and characteristic length

(Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

17
Table 3. 1: Constants for Percentage of Defectives

DEFECTIVE CONSTANT
1% 2.33%
2.5% 1.96%
5% 1.64%
(Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

Assuming not more than 5% of the test results @ 28 days are not expected to fall below the
characteristic strength

Then from Table 3.1, 5% defectives correspond to K=1.64 and from Figure 3.1, S=8.0 for less
than 20 results.

From

=30 + (1.64 x 8)

=43.12MPa

Sketch of Normal Distribution of Concrete Strength

Characteristic Strength fck (30MPa)

5% defectives

1.64s

fck fm Target Mean Strength (43.12MPa)

18
 Determination of water cement ratio for Target Strength

Table 3. 2: Approximate Compressive Strengths of Concrete Mixes made with a free water cement ratio of 0.5

Cement Type of Compressive Strengths (N/mm2)

Strength Coarse Age (days)
Class Aggregates 3 7 28 91
Uncrushed 22 30 42 49
42.5
Crushed 27 36 49 56
Uncrushed 29 37 48 54
52.5
Crushed 34 43 55 61
(Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

From Table 3.2 above; using cement of 42.5 and crushed aggregates at 28 days for w/c ratio 0.50
is 49.0 MPa. This plotted on Figure 3.2, helped to obtain w/c ratio for the mean target strength of
43.12 MPa. From Figure 3.2, the free water cement ratio obtained was 0.36.

19
Figure 3. 2: Relationship between compressive strength and free water cement ratio
(Source: BRE Mix Design Method)

 Selection of Free Water Content

Table 3. 3: Approximate Free Water Contents Required to give various levels of workability

Slump (mm) 0 – 10 10 - 30 30 - 60 60 - 180

Vebe Time (s) >12 6 – 12 3-6 0-3
Maximum Size of Type of
Free Water Content (Kg/m3)
Aggregate (mm) Aggregate
Uncrushed 150 180 205 225
10
Crushed 180 205 230 250
Uncrushed 135 160 180 195
20
Crushed 170 190 210 225
Uncrushed 115 140 160 175
40
Crushed 155 175 190 205
(Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

Maximum Size of Aggregates (mm): 20

20
Slump Range (mm): 30 to 60

Types of Aggregates considered were crushed for coarse aggregates and uncrushed for fine
aggregates.

Then from Table 3.3; the free water content corresponding to crushed coarse and uncrushed fine
aggregates are 210 Kg/m3 and 180 Kg/m3 respectively.

Coarse and fine aggregates of different sizes were to be used in the mix; therefore effective water
content was estimated basing on the expression below;

Where Wf = free water content appropriate to type of fine aggregate

Wc = free water content appropriate to type of coarse aggregate

Effective Water (Kg/m3):

Kg/m3

 Determination of cement content

From Water Cement ratio = 0.36

But Water, w = 190 Kg/m3

Cement, c =

= 528 Kg/m3

 Determination of Total Aggregate Content

The total aggregate content was used using the expression below.

Total Aggregate Content = D – C – W

Where D = the wet density of concrete (kg/m3)

C = the cement content (kg/m3)

W = the free water content (kg/m3)

21
 (Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

Figure 3. 3: Estimated wet density of fully compacted concrete

From Figure 3.3; to determine the aggregate contents, the wet density of the concrete was
estimated basing on the average relative density of the combined aggregates at a saturated
surface dry state and the free water content. The average relative density of the combined
aggregates was assumed to be 2.7g/cm3 and the free water content was 190 Kg/m3. On plotting
them on the Figure 3.3, a wet density of 2420 Kg/m3 was estimated.

Then total content of aggregates: 2420 - (528+190) = 1702 Kg/m3

To obtain the percentage of the fine aggregates in the total aggregate content, the graphs in
Figure 3.4 were considered.

22
Figure 3. 4: Recommended proportions of fine aggregate according to percentage passing 600 micrometer sieve

(Source: BRE Concrete Mix Design)

With 30.1% of sand passing the 0.600mm sieve, target slump of 30-60mm and a free water
cement ratio of 0.36 gave a proportion of 39% fine aggregate in the mix as shown in Figure 3.4.

Therefore content of fine aggregates = 0.39 x 1702

= 664 Kg/m3

Coarse Aggregates = 1702-664

= 1038 Kg/m3

Table 3. 4: Determined Material proportions for 1 cm3 of concrete

Item Material
Quantity (Kg/m3)
1 Cement 528
2 Water 190
3 Sand 664
4 Coarse 1038

23
3.3.2 Mix Proportions including wood ash
The cement replacement ratios (percentage of wood ash) presented in Table 3.5 was based on the
different uses of concrete like blinding, weight purposes in gravity retaining walls, structural
purposes in foundations, ballast concrete for counter weight.

Table 3. 5: Wood Ash Percentage Replacement Ratios of OPC

Test no Percentage of Wood Ash

I 0%
II 10%
III 20%
IV 30%
V 40%
VI 50%

Four concrete cubes were made for each of the six tests. This implies volume of concrete for
each test was 0.15*0.150*0.150*4 = 0.013 m3 of concrete.

Table 3. 6: Material Proportions for the Different Test Mixes

Test No of Wood Cement Wood Water Sand Coarse

No Cubes Ash (%) (Kg) Ash (Kg) (Kg) Aggregates
(Kg) (Kg)
I 4 0 7.128 0.000 2.565 8.964 14.013
II 4 10 6.415 0.713 2.565 8.964 14.013
III 4 20 5.702 1.426 2.565 8.964 14.013
IV 4 30 4.990 2.138 2.565 8.964 14.013
V 4 40 4.277 2.851 2.565 8.964 14.013
VI 4 50 3.564 3.564 2.565 8.964 14.013

3.3.3 Casting of Concrete Test Cubes

BS 1881: Part 108 of 1983 Method for making of concrete test cubes was adopted. Twenty Four
cubes of 150 x 150 x 150 mm were cast each in 3 layers with each layer compacted with 35
blows using a tapping rod.

24
3.3.3.1 Curing of Test Cubes
After casting the cubes, all specimens were left in the molds for 24 hours at room temperature.
The cubes were then transferred to a plastic curing tank with NWSC water for 28 days.

3.3.4 Preparation of Sulphate Solution

In order to mimic the sulphate ions in the environment mainly the ground, a solution of
concentrated sulphuric acid was diluted and later used to submerge the concrete cubes after
attaining the 28 days compressive strength. A solution with a pH of 1 for a 98% concentrated
sulphuric acid by volume was used.

 Calculation of morality for concentrated sulphuric acid

Relative Formula Mass of H2SO4

Assuming 980g of Sulphuric Acid

Molarity

 Therefore number of moles required to make a solution with a pH of 1

pH = -log[H+]

[H+] = 10-1 = 0.1M

 Volume required to dilute 10M of concentrated acid to 0.1M

Volume = of acid in 1 litre of water

70 litres of water were put in a curing tank

Concentrated sulphuric acid that was added = 70*10ml = 700ml

3.3.4.1 Subjecting the Concrete Cubes to Sulphate Attack

After 28 days of curing, two cubes per replacement ratio were subjected to water with sulphate
ions.

25
Weekly inspection was done by removing the cubes, rinsing them with clean water and leaving
them to dry for one hour after which their weights were taken.

Prior to re-subjecting the cubes to sulphate ions, fresh water with a new solution was used to
replace the old one in order to maintain constant concentration.

To assess the residual compressive strength of concrete at different replacement ratios of wood
ash after sulphate attack

3.4 To assess the residual compressive strength of concrete at different replacement ratios
of wood ash after sulphate attack

3.4.1 Initial compressive strength

To determine the failure test load of the specimens under uniaxial compression, the universal
testing machine was used. Two cubes per replacement ratio were crushed after 28 days and the
maximum failure load obtained.

3.4.2 Residual Compressive Strength

This involved determining the final compressive strength of the cubes after the test period.
The Residual compressive strength = initial compressive strength – final compressive strength

26
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis and discussion of the collected data. The analysis was in form
of tables, graphical representation and text explanations from the physical observations.

4.2 Chemical Properties of Wood Ash

Table 4.1 shows results from the chemical analysis of wood ash compared with the requirements
of ASTM C618:1993.

Table 4. 1: Chemical Properties of Wood Ash

Composition Content (%) ASTM C618:1993

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0.48 Max: 10
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 4.8 Max: 8
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 2.2 Max: 1.5
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.24 Max: 1.5
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.46 Max: 5.5
Silica (SiO2) 78.24 Min: 25
Alumina (Al2O3) 0.38 Max: 7.5
Moisture Content 2.36 Max: 3
Loss Of Ignition (LOI) 3.4 Max: 12
Total Oxide (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) 79.08 Min: 70

The combined percentage of Silica (SiO2), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) and Alumina (Al2O3) is 79.08%
which is the above the minimum requirement of 70% as required by ASTM C618 hence meeting
the specifications.

The presence of Silica, Alumina and Iron Oxide is responsible for the formation of Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H). Therefore it can be concluded that the wood ash contains cementitious
properties hence a pozzolanic material.

27
4.3 Chemical Composition of OPC
Table 4. 2: Chemical Properties of OPC

Composition Content % EN 197-1

CaO 65.94 -
MgO 0.24 Max: 3.0
Al2O3 6.17 Max: 8.0
Fe2O3 3.88 -
Na2O 0.16 -
K2O 0.37 -
SiO2 20.99 -
C3 A 7.94 -
Chloride 0.007 Max: 0.1
LOI @ 960 oC 1.76 Max: 5.0
(Source: Manufacturer’s Test Certificates)

Cement used in the study composed of 20.99% Silica (SiO2) and 65.94% Calcium Oxide (CaO),
6.17% Alumina (Al2O3), and traces of 3.88% Iron Oxide (Fe2O3), 0.24% Magnesium Oxide
(MgO), 0.16% Sodium Oxide (Na2O) and 0.37% Potassium Oxide (K2O) which all conform to
standard specifications and chemical composition of OPC of 42.5 MPa.
It is the hydration of the calcium silicate, aluminate, and alumino ferrite minerals that causes the
hardening, or setting, of cement. The ratio of C3S (Tricalcium silicate) to C2S (Dicalcium
silicate) helps to determine how fast the cement will set, with faster setting occurring with higher
C3S contents. Higher amounts of Tetra calcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) lead to slower hydration.
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) conforming to EN 196-2:2005 standard was obtained and
tested without any additives.
Higher contents of magnesium oxide may retard the soundness of the cement at later stages of
curing. Beyond that limit, the magnesium oxide exists as a periclase. Periclase reacts with water
to form magnesium hydroxide which occupies more space than MgO and can therefore split the
hardened cement paste. Silica dioxide has a range of 20.88-23.0 and therefore the content is
within the recommended range. Calcium oxide (64-68%) and the chemical composition of the
OPC shows that the constituents are within the recommended ranges (Habeeb, 2009).

28
4.4 Physical Properties of Fine and Course Aggregates

4.4.1 Sieve Analysis

The physical properties of both fine and coarse aggregates were obtained by carrying out
physical property tests that included grading and specific gravity tests on both aggregates.
Grading is the particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis using
wire mesh sieves with square openings. Aggregates that are well graded will have fewer voids
due to increased stone to stone contact areas hence higher shearing resistance.

PERCENTAGE PASSING AGAINST SIEVE SIZE

100

90

80
%age Passing by Weight (%)

70

60 Gradation
Curve
50 Lower Limit
40
Upper Limit
30

20

10

0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Sieve Size (mm)

Figure 4. 1: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregates

29
 PERCENTAGE PASSING AGAINST SIEVE SIZE
100

90

80
%age Passing by Weight (%)

70

60 Gradation
Curve
50 Lower Limit

40 Upper Limit
30

20

10

0
1.00 10.00
Sieve Size (mm)
Figure 4. 2: Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregates

4.4.2 Other Physical Properties

The other physical properties carried out on coarse aggregates are as shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4. 3: Results of other Physical Tests of Aggregates

SPECIFICATIONS
TEST RESULT
(CONCRETE)
Flakiness Index 28% 40% Max. (BS 812-105.1 : 1989)
Aggregate Crushing Value 18.4% 25% Max. (BS 812-110 : 1990)
Aggregate Impact Value 21.8% 45% Max. (BS 812-112 : 1990)
10% Fines Value (dry) 207 KN 50 KN Min. (BS 812-111 : 1990)
10% Fines Value (soaked) 180 KN 50 KN Min. (BS 812-111 : 1990)

30
4.5 Effect of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
The effect of sulphate attack on the concrete cubes was assessed through the mass change with
time and visual observations.

4.5.1 Mass Change

Table 4.4 presents the weekly percentage mass changes of the concrete cubes due to sulphate
attack

Table 4. 4: Weekly Percentage Mass Changes of Concrete Cubes

Weeks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0% Wood Ash 0.0 -0.2 -0.3 -0.7 -1.3 -2.1 -2.3 -2.4 -2.9
10% Wood Ash 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.9
20% Wood Ash 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 -0.1 -0.2
30% Wood Ash 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
40% Wood Ash 0.0 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9
50% Wood Ash 0.0 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

31
 2.5
Mass Change of Concrete Cubes with Time
2.0

1.5

1.0
Mass Change (%)

0% Wood Ash
0.5
10% Wood Ash
0.0 20% Wood Ash
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 30% Wood Ash
-0.5
40% Wood Ash
-1.0 50% Wood Ash

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5
Time (Weeks)

Figure 4. 3: Percentage Mass Change of Concrete Cubes due to sulphate attack

From Figure 4.3 it can be observed that there was a drastic decrease in mass of cubes for 0% and
10% wood ash replacement of OPC. This is attributed to the deterioration of the cohesive
strength of the C-S-H products which are responsible for binding concrete constituents in order
to form a solid mass. The failure of C-S-H products is because of the decalcification process
caused by the sulphate attack (Mehta & Monteiro, 1993).

With regard to the 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% wood ash replacement of OPC, there was a sharp
increase in the mass and later a gradual reduction. This was attributed to the limited
decalcification of the C-S-H products brought about by the increase in wood ash. Increasing
wood ash (pozzolan) decreases the permeability of concrete (Melhotra & Mehta, 1996).

4.5.2 Visual Observation

The first visual assessment was made after 6 weeks of subjecting the concrete cubes to water
with sulphate ions. Figure 4.4 shows the extent of attack on the concrete cubes and it can be
observed that the 0% replacement cube was affected more than the 10% replacement cube after 6
weeks. The 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% were an affected by after six weeks.

32
Figure 4. 4: Physical Appearance of Concrete Cubes after 6 weeks of sulphate attack

The second visual assessment was made after 8 weeks of subjecting the concrete cubes to water
with sulphate ions. Figure 4.5 shows the extent of the sulphate attack. It can be observed from
Figure 4.5 that the severity of attack on the 0% replacement cube increased with a much white
substance deposited on the surface and more exposed aggregates compared to other cubes.

The effect on the 10% wood ash replacement of OPC concrete cube also increased after 8 weeks.
The effect on the 20% wood ash replacement of OPC cube was only observed through the
exposure of the aggregates at the edges. The 30%, 40% and 50% wood ash replacement of OPC
cubes remained an affected after 8 weeks of the study.

The severe effect on the 0% and 10% wood ash replacement of OPC concrete cubes is attributed
to the formation of the much white calcium sulphate after reaction of the sulphate ions and the
calcium hydroxide (Hewlett & Lisk, 2019).

With regard to the 30%, 40% and 50% wood ash replacement of OPC cubes, there were no
observed deposits of white calcium sulphate on the surface. This was attributed to the fact that
the increased amount of wood ash which is a pozzolan with silicious elements. According to

33
Papadakis et al (2002), silicious elements in pozzolanic materials react with calcium hydroxide
formed during hydration of OPC to form cementitious substances. Therefore the calcium
hydroxide which was supposed to react with sulphate ions to form calcium sulphate were not
present.

Figure 4. 5: Physical Appearance of Concrete Cubes after 8 weeks of sulphate attack

4.6 Residual Compressive Strength

The initial strength of the concrete cubes after 28 days of normal curing were compared with
residual strength of corresponding concrete cubes after 8 weeks of exposure to sulphate ions and
the loss in strength computed. Table 4.5 shows the loss in strength at different replacement ratios
of OPC with wood ash.

34
Table 4. 5: Percentage loss of Concrete Strength due to Sulphate Attack

Wood
Initial Residual Percentage
Ash
Strength Strength Loss
(%)
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
0 48.61 28.58 41.2
10 41.04 24.91 39.3
20 30.29 24.02 20.7
30 18.67 16.13 13.6
40 9.84 8.56 13.0
50 4.59 4.39 4.3

Initial and Residual Strength

50

45

40
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

35

30
Initial Strength
25
Residual
20 Strength
15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Wood Ash Percentage
Figure 4. 6: Initial and Residual Strength of Concrete Cubes

From Figure 4.6 it can be observed that concrete with 0% and 10% OPC replacement with wood
ash experienced higher percentage losses (of 41.2 and 39.3 respectively) in strength. This was
attributed to the deterioration of the C-S-H binding capability due to sulphate attack which
subsequently led to cohesion and adhesion failure hence higher reduction in strength.
Lower strength losses were noticed in concrete cubes with 30%, 40% and 50% wood ash
replacement of OPC. This can be attributed to the fact that wood ash (pozzolanic material)

35
reduced the Calcium Hydroxide among the hydration products and further increased additional
amounts of C-S-H. This brings about lower porosity and reduced permeability of the hardened
concrete hence limiting the capacity of the sulphate solution to penetrate into deeper regions of
the concrete cubes.

36
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Specific Objective One
The characterization of cement, wood ash and aggregates was found out to be corresponding to
the specified parameters in the respective Test Standards. With emphasis on wood ash, the
combined percentage of Silica (SiO2), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) and Alumina (Al2O3) was found out to
be 79.08% which is the above the minimum requirement of 70% as required by ASTM C618
hence meeting the specifications. Silica, Alumina and Iron Oxide are responsible for the
formation of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H). Therefore it can be concluded that the wood ash
contains cementitious properties hence a pozzolanic material.
Specific Objective Two
With regard to mass change of the concrete cubes, there was a drastic decrease in mass for the
0% OPC replacement with wood ash due to the decalcification of the C-S-H bonds caused by the
sulphate attack. The 50% OPC replacement with wood ash concrete cubes exhibited an increase
in mass up to week 5 and thereafter a gradual reduction in mass attributed to the limited
decalcification.

From the visual observation of the cubes, the 0% OPC replacement with wood ash had
aggregates exposed with a whitish surface after 8 weeks of sulphate attack which was not the
case with the 50% OPC replacement with wood ash. This was due to the formation of Ca2SO4
(Calcium Sulphate) from the reaction between Ca2+ ions and ions.

Specific Objective Three

On assessing the compressive strength, percentage loss in the strength of the concrete cubes
increased with a decrease in the replacement of OPC with wood ash. The 0% OPC replacement
with wood ash had a higher percentage loss in strength of 41.2% compared to 4.3% of 50% OPC
replacement with wood ash. This was attributed to deterioration of C-S-H binding capacity due
to sulphate attack.

37
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
This research recommends the following;
 A similar study to be carried out with concrete cubes buried in the actual environment and
make a comparison with the laboratory induced sulphate attack.
 A study to come up with an optimum OPC replacement with wood ash that balances the
requirements of compressive strength with resistance to sulphate attack.

38
References
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BS 1881, 1983. Part 108:Method for making test cubes from fresh concrete.

BS 1881, 1983. Part 116:Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes.

Dabhade, A.N., Choudhari, S.R., Gajbhiye, A.R. (2012): Performance evaluation of recycled
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EN 196-2, 2002. Methods of testing cement;chemical analysis of cement.

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Janotka, Ivan. (2000); Hydration of the cement paste with sodium carbonate addition. Institute of
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John Newman & Choo B.S; (2003). Advanced Concrete Technology; 1st Edition: Butterworth-
Heinemann; Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington
MA 01803, UK

Mehta, P.K. and Monteiro, P. (1993) Concrete, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill.

Price, W H (1975): Pozzolanas, a Review. ACI, Journal U.S.A.

Zhang M.H & V.M. Malhotra, 1996. High-Performance Concrete Incorporating Rice Husk Ash
as a supplementary Cementing Materials. ACI Materials Journal, 93(6): 629-636.

39
APPENDICES
Particle Size Distribution for Fine Aggregates

BS
Cumm.
Test Percentage Percentage Lower Upper
Percentage
Sieve Retained Passing Limit Limit
Retained
(mm)
10 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
5 11.12 11.12 88.88 89.00 100.00
2.36 25.22 36.34 63.66 60.00 100.00
1.18 17.83 54.17 45.83 30.00 100.00
0.6 15.73 69.90 30.10 15.00 100.00
0.3 16.09 85.99 14.01 5.00 70.00
0.15 7.91 93.90 6.10 0.00 15.00

Particle Size Distribution for Coarse Aggregates

BS
Cumm.
Test Percentage Percentage Lower Upper
Percentage
Sieve Retained Passing Limit Limit
Retained
(mm)
37.5 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
20 1.50 1.50 98.50 90.00 100.00
14 43.00 44.50 55.50 40.00 80.00
10 20.56 65.06 34.94 30.00 60.00
5 25.87 90.93 9.07 0.00 10.00

40
Aggregate Impact Value
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST
Test Condition Dry
Reference Test Method BS 812-112 1990
Fraction Tested 14mm-10mm
Separating Sieve 2.36mm
Sample 1 Sample 2
Crushed Mass m1 (Divided mass) 333.31 329.32

Mass m2 retained on 2.36mm sieve 264.23 253.75

Mass (m1-m2) passing 2.36mm sieve 69.08 75.57

𝐦𝟏 − 𝐦𝟐
𝐀𝐈𝐕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐦𝟏
20.73 22.95
Average AIV 21.8%

Aggregate Crushing Value

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE (BS 812 - 110 : 1990)
Test Number 1 2 3 4

Original Mass of Sample M1 (g) 2922.3 2929.4 2928.1

Mass of sample retained on BS sieve 2.36mm

M2 (g) 2375.8 2396.2 2392.3
after crushing at maximum load 400KN

Mass of sample passing BS sieve 2.36mm M1 - M2 (g) 546.5 533.2 535.8

M1 - M2 x 100
Percentage passing BS sieve 2.36mm (%) 18.7 18.2 18.3
M1

Average Aggregate Crushing Value ACV (%) 18.4

41
Ten Percent Fines Value

TEN PERCENT FINE VALUE TEST FORM: BS 812-111:1990

TEST CONDITION DRY CONDITION SOAKED CONDITION
LOAD APPLIED (f) (KN) 50.0 100.0 150.0 400.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 400.0
Test Number 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Original Mass of Sample M 1 (g) 2540.0 2547.0 2550.0 2513.0 2479.0 2512.0 2531.0 2532.0
Mass of sample retained on BS sieve 2.36mm after
crushing at maximum load (f) M 2 (g) 2506.0 2431 2342.0 2027.0 2427.0 2356.0 2283.0 2017.0
Mass of sample passing BS sieve 2.36mm M 1-M 2 (g) 34.0 116.0 208.0 486.0 52.0 156.0 248.0 515.0
Percentage passing BS sieve 2.36mm at maximum
1.3 4.6 8.2 19.3 2.1 6.2 9.8 20.3
changing f Load (m) 100 (M 1-M 2) /M 1 (%)

Force =(14f)/(M+4) KN 131 164 173 240 115 137 152 230

% Fines
Sample reference Load (KN)
Dry Soaked
1 50.0 1.3 2.1
2 100.0 4.6 6.2
3 150.0 8.2 9.8
4 400.0 19.3 20.3

25.0

Dry

Soaked

20.0 Linear ( Dr y)

Linear ( Soaked)
Percent Fines (%)

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
115

145

175

205

225
235

255

285

315

345

375

405
105

125
135

155
165

185
195

215

245

265
275

295
305

325
335

355
365

385
395
45
55
65
75
85
95

Applied Load (kN)

10% Fines Value (from chart) DRY F 207.0

10% Fines Value (from chart) SOAKED F 180.0

Ratio Dry-Soaked TFV Value % 87.0

42
Flakiness Index

FLAKINESS INDEX (BS 812: Part 105.1 1989)

Passing Weight Individual Reported
FLAKINESS BS Gauge Weight Per Fraction (g) Retained Weight (g)
(g) Flakiness (%) Flakiness (%)
50.0
37.5 0 0 0 0
20.0 664.5 551.1 113.4 17
14.0 714.9 477.3 237.6 33
10.0 520.2 365.0 155.2 30
6.30 586.4 390.6 195.8 33
Total 2486.0 702.0 28

Weekly Concrete Cube Masses

Weeks 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0% Wood Ash 8387 8371 8359 8327 8280 8212 8195 8188 8150
10% Wood
Ash 8191 8181 8177 8167 8176 8152 8142 8135 8120
20% Wood
Ash 7840 7878 7878 7872 7869 7852 7845 7832 7824
30% Wood
Ash 7768 7820 7823 7819 7819 7806 7799 7788 7780
40% Wood
Ash 7790 7837 7871 7879 7881 7878 7870 7868 7859
50% Wood
Ash 7650 7730 7756 7762 7764 7759 7748 7741 7732

43