Work in Progress

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING
Final Year Project [TIE 5009]
Design of a Sub-Terrain Membrane Installation Chisel Implement
MUJINGA LIETO (P0127012G)
Supervisor: Eng.V.Sibanda
BULAWAYO
OCTOBER 2016
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Engineering
(Honours) degree in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering
DECLARATION
I, …………………………………………….. declare that:
1. The research reported in this dissertation, except where otherwise stated, is my original
work.
2. This dissertation has not been submitted for examination for any degree at this or any other
university.
3. This dissertation does not contain other persons’ writing, data, pictures or graphs except
where acknowledged as having been sourced from the other persons. Where written
sources have been used:
i.The words have been paraphrased and the information attributed to the source through
referencing;
ii.With exact words quoted, the writing has been placed in quotation marks and
referenced.
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT
I hereby grant permission to the National University of Science and Technology Library to
reproduce copies of this dissertation and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or
scientific research purposes only.
I reserve other publication rights. No extensive extracts from this dissertation may be printed
in any form or otherwise reproduced without my written permission.
SIGNATURE: …………………………………
PERMANENT ADDRESS: ……………………………………………..
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PLACE NAME
DATE: ..............................................................
MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

DEDICATIONS
This project is dedicated to my family especially my mother and father.It is also dedicated to my
lecturers and fellow collegues in the department for their love and support throughout my studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author woul like to acknowledge the contribution of lecturers and classmates in the
department of Industrial and manufacturing Engineering. Great appreciation goes to my
supervisor Engineer V Sibanda who helped the author throughout the project. Finaly the author
would like to acknowledge the Almighty, who has endowed him the necessary knowledge to
execute this project.

ABSTRACT
Every day, our planet wakes up with more than 200,000 additional mouths to feed and more
farmland lost to erosion, natural calamities and effects of climatic change. Many people who
produce the world‘s food are living in poverty, while biodiversity is disappearing fast. The
economic viability of small-holder farming and its contribution to diversified landscape and
culture is threatened by competitive pressure from globalization and issues related to climatic
changes. Soil water deficits and associated brief and prolonged plant drought comprise the
greatest abiotic hindrance to sustainable plant growth and will remain as such through the next
decades of changing weather conditions.
This project is a design of a mechanical farming implement whose sole purpose is to insert a
water retention plastic film (polymer membrane) below crop root level to retain and reduce the
amount water used for effective crop growth and also reduce the amount of water used in a bid to
aid in sustainable agriculture. It can also be used to convert unproductive land into productive
land by improving soil water holding capacities and increasing plant production beyond irrigated
controls. The impermeable membranes also capture nutrients and agricultural chemicals reducing
deep leaching losses into groundwater.This involves the design of plough discs to loosen the
soil, design of the mechanical digger and the design of the rotary mechanism for inserting plastic
on the dug trenches aswell as transmission system for the implement. To aid the design of the
farm implement,a detailed literature review,research and detailed engineering validation was
done.The obtained literature was to successfully design and size the machine components aswell
as aid in the selection of plastic.The mechanical components of the machine are made from
readily available components.Simulation was carried out to show the mechanical operation of the
recycler.A bill of materials was proposed at the latter of the project stating required components
and their prices.To conclude the project,some recommendations regarding optimum efficiency
and future improvements are presented

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................i
DEDICATIONS..............................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................x
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER........................................................................1
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim........................................................................................................................................4
1.3 Objectives..............................................................................................................................4
1.4 Scope......................................................................................................................................4
1.5 Justification............................................................................................................................5
1.6 Methodology..........................................................................................................................6
1.8 Timeline.................................................................................................................................7
1.9 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................8
2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................8
2.1 Water Retention Technology.................................................................................................8
2.1.1 System Approach to Land Use Sustainability (SALUS) Models.................................12

2.2 Sources of Power.................................................................................................................12
2.2.3 Biogas...........................................................................................................................13
2.3 Actuation Systems...............................................................................................................18
2.3.1 Linear Actuators...............................................................................................................19
2.3.2 Pneumatic System.........................................................................................................19
2.3.3 Hydraulic Systems........................................................................................................21
2.3.4 Solenoid Actuation System...........................................................................................23
2.3.5 Power Screw Actuation System....................................................................................23
2.4 Control Systems...................................................................................................................23
2.4.1 Control Loops...............................................................................................................24
2.4.2 Logic Control....................................................................................................................25
2.5 Soil Types of Southern Africa.............................................................................................29
2.5.1 Zimbabwe Soils............................................................................................................31
2.6 Plastics ................................................................................................................................38
2.6.1 Bio Plastics...................................................................................................................38
2.6.1 Green Plastics...............................................................................................................39
2.6.2 Biodegrable Materials...................................................................................................40
2.6.3 Starch-Based Plastics....................................................................................................41
2.6.4 “Thermoplastic-like Starch” (TPS)...............................................................................42
2.6.5 Starch-based films........................................................................................................42
2.6.7 Polylactic acid (PLA)...................................................................................................42
2.6.8 Biodegradable packaging in agriculture.......................................................................43
2.6.9 Recycling......................................................................................................................46

2.7 Tractors................................................................................................................................47
2.7.1 Power Take-Off (PTO).................................................................................................48
2.8.6 Transmission Shafts......................................................................................................53
2.8.7 Pulley Belt Drive System..............................................................................................53
2.8.8 Springs..........................................................................................................................53
2.8.9 Motion Clutch System..................................................................................................54
2.8.10 Rolling Contact Bearings............................................................................................54
2.8.11 Types Of Mechanical Gears.......................................................................................54
CHAPTER 3. CONCEPT GENERATION...................................................................................55
3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................55
3.1 Conceptual Design...............................................................................................................58
3.2. Identification of Customer Needs...................................................................................58
3.3 Development of Concept One.............................................................................................59
3.3.1 Overall Design of Concept One...............................................................................60
3.3.2 Functionality of Concept One.......................................................................................61
3.3.3 Trench Digger Design...................................................................................................62
3.3.4 Concept One Pros.........................................................................................................62
3.3.5 Concept One Cons........................................................................................................63
3.4 Development of Concept Two.............................................................................................63
3.4.1 Overall Design Of Concept Two..................................................................................65
3.4.2 Trench Digger Design.................................................................................................66q
3.4.3 Trench Profile...............................................................................................................67
3.4.4 Concept two pros..........................................................................................................67

3.4.5 Concept two cons..........................................................................................................68
3.5 Development of Concept Three...........................................................................................68
3.5.1 Concept Three Pros.......................................................................................................69
3.5.2 Concept Three Cons.....................................................................................................69
3.6 Development of Concept Four.............................................................................................70
3.7 Concept Selection................................................................................................................70
3.7.1 Concept Screening........................................................................................................70
3.7.2 Selected Concept..........................................................................................................72
3.7.3 Production Decomposition...........................................................................................72
3.9 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................74
CHAPTER 4. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS...................................................................................75
4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................75
4.1 System Requirements..........................................................................................................75
3.2.4 Water Retention Capacity Per Farrow..........................................................................77
3.2.5 Determining Water Retention Capacity Per Hectare....................................................78
3.2.6 Determining Required Plastic Retention Film Per Hectare..........................................78
3.2.7 Determining Total Operation Time Per Hectare..........................................................78
3.2.8 Determining Cost Of Inserting Water Retention Plastic Film Per Hectare..................79
3.3.5 Determining Water Retention Capacity Per Hectare....................................................80
3.3.6 Determining Required Plastic Retention Film Per Hectare..........................................81
3.3.7 Determining total operation time per hectare...............................................................81
3.3.8 Determining cost of inserting water retention plastic film per hectare........................81

3.4.5 Determining water retention capacity per hectare........................................................82
3.4.6 Determining required plastic retention film per hectare...............................................83
3.4.7 Determining total operation time per hectare...............................................................83
3.4.8 Determining cost of inserting water retention plastic film per hectare........................83
3.2.3 Transmission Shaft Design Calculations......................................................................84

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1: The climatic classification of regions in Zimbabwe (Courtesy of Google Maps).......3

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1: Project Timeline............................................................................................................7

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
1.0 Introduction
Every day, our planet wakes up with more than 200,000 additional mouths to feed and more
farmland lost to erosion, natural calamities and effects of climatic change. Many people who
produce the world‘s food are living in poverty, while biodiversity is disappearing fast, (FAO,
2010). According to The Brundtland Commission (1987) sustainable agriculture is the
production of food, fiber, or other plant or animal products using farming techniques that protect
the environment, public health, human communities, and animal welfare. Sustainable farms
produce crops and raise animals without relying on toxic chemical pesticides, synthetic
fertilizers, genetically modified seeds,or practices that degrade soil, water, or other natural
resources. There is need for farmers today to come up with innovative ideas to cope with the
rapid increase in challenges faced by farmers whilst meeting the food requirements of the world.
This project is a design of a mechanical farming implement whose sole purpose is to insert a
water retention plastic film (polymer membrane) below crop root level to retain and reduce the
amount water used for effective crop growth and also reduce the amount of water used in a bid to
aid in sustainable agriculture. It can also be used to convert unproductive land into productive
land by improving soil water holding capacities and increasing plant production beyond irrigated
controls. The impermeable membranes also capture nutrients and agricultural chemicals reducing
deep leaching losses into groundwater. This chapter focuses on the background surrounding the
problem, the aim of the project as well as the target measures or objectives of the design. The
justification of the project is also included as well as the methodology and expected results,
which the author wishes to achieve upon completion of the project.
1.1 Background
Eighty percent of the farmland in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia is managed by smallholders
(working on up to 10 hectares). While 75 percent of the world’s food is generated from only 12
plants and 5 animal species, making the global food system highly vulnerable to shocks (FAO,
2016). Soil water deficits and associated brief and prolonged plant drought comprise the greatest
abiotic hindrance to sustainable plant growth and will remain as such through the next decades of
changing weather conditions (Clay, 2004). Droughts, limited water supplies, soil erosion,
shortages of agricultural lands for sustainable production of food and cellulosic biomass
combined with increasing nitrogen fertilizer costs need a new long term soil technology that
provides conservation of soil water and nutrients with a focus on marginal soils. Consequently
there is a need on marginal soils to store more water in plant root zones for longer time periods.
Storing water in plant root zones will result in the highest nutrient and water use efficiency, an
essential requirement for a sustainable global food security.
The economic viability of smallholder farming and its contribution to diversified landscape and
culture is threatened by competitive pressure from globalization and issues related to climatic
changes. One of the most critical challenges facing farmers is drought combined with poor soil
characteristics. Most soils are unable to retain water for long periods and water seeps into the soil
rapidly due to soil drainage characteristics and gravity. Increasing frequencies of drought
coupled with increasing populations are requiring additional water that is better managed for
irrigated agriculture. As global populations approach 9 billion by 2050, even more water will be
required to produce an estimated 60% to 70% more food (McKenna, 2012). Production of these
greater quantities of food requires, at current water use efficiency rates, 50% more water (Clay,
2004). During this last century, global freshwater withdrawal increased more than six-fold, from
579 to 3,750 km3 y–1 (900 mi3 yr–1), due to increasing industrialization, human and animal
populations, and irrigated agriculture (Clay, 2004). Consequently, the growing demand for food
and fibre combined with diminishing water supplies (in terms of both quantity and quality)
available for agricultural irrigation requires new soil technologies that conserve irrigation water.
Zimbabwe rainfall patterns are a clear indication of how the climatic changes are affecting
farmers in the country. The 2013/2014 season was marked by very serious flooding in the
Tokwe-Mukosi area and quite a number of places including Harare witnessed some flash
flooding which was followed by a heavy climate induced drought in the 2015/2016 season
known as the El Nino disaster.
Rains came early and they were in abundance then they disappeared before crops had matured,
which had not been anticipated, leaving a lot of crops to die, a poor harvest for the season and a
trail of untold suffering and hunger. Irrigation schemes were implemented but they were also
limited to the constraints of the availability of water. Figure 1.1 shown below shows the
classification of all regions in Zimbabwe according to climate.
Figure 1. 1: The climatic classification of regions in Zimbabwe (Courtesy of Google Maps)
Over the past 35 years the lowest rainfall in Zimbabwe was recorded in 1991/92 rainfall season
and the average for the country was 392mm (Muchetu, 2015). The highest average rainfall for
the country over the same period was received during the 1999/00 rainfall season with the
average rainfall for the country pegged at 986mm. The 35 year average rainfall for Zimbabwe is
708mm. The season 1999/00 was a La Nina year but what contributed the most to the rainfall
was Cyclone Eline. For the 1991/92 rainfall season, it was an El Nino year (Muchetu,
2015).Substantial areas of soils could benefit from increased water-retention. There is a growing
fundamental global imperative to convert some of these marginal droughty soils into productive
agricultural lands by increasing their longer-term internal water-holding capacities (Smucker and
Basso, 2014). These conversions of highly permeable coarse-textured soils will contribute to
food and biomass production needs associated with growing global populations and renewable
energy resources. In addition, these conversions will sequester more carbon, improve soil
quality, and reduce groundwater contamination.
1.2 Aim
To design a mobile farm implement which inserts a water retention polymer membrane
material underneath farming land space.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this project are as follows:
1. Design of a conical bottom shaped mechanical digger with a depth threshold ranging
from 17 cm to 38 cm.
2. Design of a rotary mechanism for inserting plastic on the dug trenches
3. Design of a transmission system for driving the implement as an add-on for existing
tractor designs.
4. Simulation using Autodesk inventor
1.4 Scope
The project focuses on the mechanical design of the digging mechanism and a rotary mechanism
for inserting the plastic film. The driving mechanism connection, is to be designed for the
existing tractor designs. A water retention plastic material is to be selected based on eco-
friendliness, strength and availability locally of the material. The cost of implementing the
project as well as the payback period is also to be determined during the execution of the project.
Financial benefits of implementing the system will also be calculated and recommendations
made and highlighted. A virtual prototype model shall be generated for the purpose of testing
both usability and durability of the concept using Autodesk Inventor Design Environment. The
virtual prototype shall then be used for the fabrication of a physical working model which shall
be pilot tested on a farm.
1.5 Justification
Rapid cv+limatic changes in Sub-Saharan Africa and the world at large have resulted in droughts
and low rainfall in other areas. Crop production has diminished and a lot of productive land is
being turned into unproductive land due to droughts. These droughts, limited water supplies, soil
erosion, leaching of nutrients shortages of agricultural lands for sustainable production of food
and cellulosic biomass combined with increasing nitrogen fertilizer costs present a problem that
even irrigation technologies cannot solve. Increasing frequencies of drought coupled with
increasing populations are requiring additional water that is better managed for irrigated
agriculture. Due to the unavailability of this water there is need to manage it effectively.
Zimbabwe’s food insecure population at the current peak of the hunger season has increased
from 1.5 million people to 2.8 million people based on the results of a rapid assessment that was
conducted by ZimVac, a division of UNICEF .The 2015/16 national outlook seasonal forecast
pointed to prospects of normal to below normal rainfall. The 2015/16 cropping season started
late throughout the country. As of February 2016, the peak of the rainfall season, over 95% of
the country had received less than 75% of what they would have normally received. The least
amounts received are in Binga, Lupane, Tsholotsho (Matabeleland North) Zaka and Buffalo
Range in Masvingo.
Studies carried out by the Department of Water Development found that the mean annual run-off
for the whole of Zimbabwe is 19910 million m3, with current shortage at 5831 million m3,
indicating that there is still room for storing more water. Current utilisation is only 22% of mean
annual run-off. The aim of the project is to develop a mobile vehicle for inserting a thin plastic
film underneath the soil below soil root level with the consideration of soil aeration so as to store
water at a level accessible by the plant roots and limit the amount of seepage of water to
inaccessible water tables. Smallholder farmers face food insecurity due to limited access to water
sources, markets and services. Small holder farmers are largely dependent on rainwater, making
their choices constrained concerning the type of crops that they produce. (FAO, 2016).
This project seeks to empower small holder farmers with a tool to reduce the negative impact of
climatic changes. Substantial areas of soils could benefit from increased water-holding and
retention capabilities. There is a growing fundamental global imperative to convert some of these
marginal droughty soils into productive agricultural lands by increasing their longer-term
internal water-holding capacities (Smucker and Basso, 2014). These conversions of highly
permeable coarse-textured soils will contribute to food and biomass production needs associated
with growing global populations and renewable energy resources. In addition, these conversions
will sequester more carbon, improve soil quality, and reduce groundwater contamination.
increase water and fertilizer use efficiencies for maximum plant growth, while reducing deep
leaching of plant nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals, salts, and other toxic substances on large
and smallholder farms located in arid and semiarid regions. The design will also aid soil to retain
precipitation and irrigation water volumes required for maximum plant production.
1.6 Methodology
The design and development will be carried out using the following tools:
 Extensive research from existing journals in the field of hydrology, soil structure and
crop anatomy in the agriculture sector.
 An investigation through questionnaires to determine efficiency of the traditional farming
system without a water retention film compared to the proposed farming system.
 Literature review on the different systems and concepts relating to the design and which
shall be used to come up with the final design. Such concepts will include (linear,
hydraulic and pneumatic actuators, gears and transmission systems, plastics and plastic
polymers etc.).Concepts will be generated before locking into a detailed design.
 Engineering validation and detail design - This will involve carrying out detailed design
calculations obtained from the literature review by the designer. CAD software mainly
Autodesk Inventor and Solidworks shall also be used to model the various components
and generate assembly drawings.
1.8 Timeline
A summary of the projected timeframe taken to achieve the project aim and objectives is shown
in Table 1.1 below. Outlined in the table are the key milestones and estimated start and
completion dates.
Table 1. 1: Project Timeline
Project Task Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
2016
2016
Project Proposal
Background Research
Chapter 1
(Introduction)
Literature review
System Modelling
System development
Results
Conclusions and
Recommendations
Project Documentation
1.9 Chapter Summary
This proposal seeks to address the design and prototyping of a farm implement for inserting a
water retention material underneath farming land space with the purpose of water retention. This
chapter gives an insight on the project Aim, objectives, scope, methodology, justification and
expected results. The benefits of implementation of the proposed project are clearly iterated
throughout the whole literature.
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
In order to prepare for the future it is vital to understand the past. A review of prior, relevant
literature is an essential feature of any academic project. An effective review creates a firm
foundation for advancing knowledge. It facilitates theory development, closes areas where a
plethora of research exists, and uncovers areas where research is, (Webster, et al., 2001). This
chapter will give an insight on the use of water retention technology and literature behind the
design of the subterrain water retention material inserting machine. To assist with the completion
of this project, a comprehensive literature review of the topics and concepts that are essential to
the development of the machine were conducted.Focus areas of research review
included,existing water retention technologies,limitations of existing technology, types of power
systems to drive the machine, control systems, soil types in southern Africa, plastics and plastic
polymers aswell as materials for mechanical design.The review will also focus on the
architecture of the implement that is,the components that make up the machine,and the material
joining methods used in building it.
2.1 Water Retention Technology
Thousands of years ago, farmers in Northern Africa and Iran established additional water
retention systems in irrigated soils (Stein, 1998). These attempts included burying porous clay
containers below the root zones of cultivated crops. This slow leakage provided additional water
for prolonged periods of excessive evaporative transpiration. Some more industrious farmers
removed surface soils and installed layers of various organic and inorganic materials to reduce
soil water losses from plant root zones. More recently, longer-lasting asphalt and polymer films
have been placed at various depths below plant root zones in continuous layers that doubled or
even saturated soil water-holding capacities with significant increases in sustainable production
of grain, fruits, vegetables, and cellulosic biomass for conversion into liquid biofuels (Smucker
et al., 2014).
Substantial areas of soils underfoot that require increased water-holding capacities are
encountered
in agricultural fields, athletic fields, golf courses, parks, home lawns, and gardens, as well as
many natural ecosystems. There is a growing fundamental global imperative to convert some of
these marginal droughty soils into productive agricultural lands by increasing their longer-term
internal water-holding capacities. These conversions of highly permeable coarse-textured soils
will contribute to food and biomass production needs associated with growing global populations
and
renewable energy resources. The processes of plugging a plethora of continuously connected
macropores within sandy soils have been occurring for the past 4 decades. Accumulations of thin
clay-enriched layers, located at 45–65 cm depths, cause the sandy soils located above these
layers to hold more water. Consequently, a few sandy soils are able to retain adequate soil water
and nutrient contents, enabling them to produce more grain and biomass.
With climate change predicted to increase the severity and frequency of drought events in many
parts of the world, water conservation has become a growing concern. water retention
technology could help quench the thirst of parched crops while using less water, not only
enabling crops to better deal with drought, but also improving crop yields in marginal areas.
Coarse, sandy soils found in semi-arid and arid regions have large pores that absorb large
quantities of rainfall. However, they retain less than 20 percent of the water in the root zone that
sits between the surface and depths of 60 to 70 centimeters (24 to 27 inches), leaching losses of
nutrients and other chemicals into ground water as the water drains away.
As these new technologies enhance natural fine-textured layers in the soils by disrupting draining
macropores at soil depths below the soil surface, our living standards will improve
Figure 2. 1:water retention membranes(Smucker et al.,2014)
Polymer membranes must have functional integrities for long periods of time lasting for at least
40 years with modeled projections of up to 300 years when buried beneath the soil surface.
Long-term water-saving membranes, accurately control the retention of optimal quantities of
soil water for both irrigated and non-irrigated agriculture, even if there are major changes in local
and regional climates.
Figure 2. 2 Excavated polymer membrane with an aspect (width-to-depth) ratio of

2:1(courtesy of google images).
The goal of water-saving membrane conversion of marginal soils into sustainable agricultural
production lands is to incorporate an environmentally safe polymer technology into soils in a
manner that blurs the distinction between them and natural clay layers at strategic depths within
highly permeable sands. Sustainable plant production on these modified sandy soils will continue
to improve as more water, nutrients, and soil organic carbon are retained in plant root zones for
prolonged periods of time. Additionally, water-saving membranes are designed to overflow
during excessive rainfall events, yet they intercept and retain up to nearly 100% of reduced
irrigation Essential supplemental irrigation without water conservation practices is expensive,
time consuming, and requires additional training. Regional and national surface water reservoirs
and irrigation canals are costly, politically vulnerable, and promote the production of mosquito
vectors of malaria, elephantitis, and sleeping sickness, and tsetse flies that transmit
trypanosomosis in cattle. Expansion of surface and subsurface drip irrigation in arid regions of
the world has the potential for substantially increasing agricultural production in every part of the
globe. Reducing deep percolation losses of root zone soil water is becoming a major research
focus among agricultural and hydropedological scientists and engineers (Graham and Lin, 2012).
In Michigan, cabbage and cucumber yields

were doubled and potato yields rose 50 percent on earlier subsurface water retention technology‐treated
soils. These extraordinary yield increases for vegetables enabled farmers to recover the full cost of
water retention membrane installation during the first year of production following installation.
 The long‐term investment of this zero‐maintenance water conservation technology promises high return on
investment for growers using irrigation and/or rain‐fed agriculture along with improved soil quality and other
ecological benefits.
2.1.1 System Approach to Land Use Sustainability (SALUS) Models
SALUS models are used to predict field crop production responses to the membrane
enhancement of crop growth by protecting plant health from the negative influences of
heterogeneous soil types and changing climate conditions (Basso et al., 2007) were used.To date
Basso’s SALUS model has predicted production increases of 283% for nonirrigated maize and
68% for nonirrigated wheat grown on sand soils equipped with water-retaining membranes. Soil
water matric potential in the plant root zone can be modified by natural and anthropogenic
modifications of soil pore discontinuity. Occasionally the soil water retention of highly
permeable coarse textured sands exhibit greater water holding capacity, due primarily to the
presence of accumulated thin layers of alluvial clay greatly reducing saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Guber, et al., 2015).When these clay layers are present at depths less than 60 cm,
volumetric water contents (VWC) are doubled in plant root zones, converting heterogeneously
distributed regions of sand soils into sustainable agricultural production lands.
2.2 Primary Soil Tillage

Primary tillage is the first soil tillage after the last harvest. It is normally conducted when
the soil is wet enough to allow plowing and strong enough to give reasonable levels of
traction. This can be immediately after the crop harvest or at the beginning of the next wet
season. When there is sufficient power available some soil types are ploughed dry. The
objective of conservation tillage is to provide a means of profitable crop production while
minimizing soil erosion due to wind and/or water. The emphasis is on soil conservation,
but conserving soil moisture, energy, labor, and even equipment provides additional
benefits. To be considered conservation tillage, the system must provide conditions that
resist erosion by wind, rain, and flowing water(Simmons & Nafziger 1985)
According to (Simmons & Nafziger 1985)The objectives of primary tillage are:

 to attain a reasonable depth (10-15 cm) of soft soil with varying clod sizes;
 kill weeds by burying or cutting and exposing the roots
 soil aeration and water accumulation; depending on the soil type and the plough
the soil will normally be inverted aerating the deep layers and trapping water
during a rainfall event
 chop and incorporate crop residues
The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops. The ploughing depth varies with
effective root zone of the crop. The depth of ploughing is 10-20 cm for shallow rooted crops and
15-30 cm for deep rooted crops.
2.2.1 Flair Mower
A flail mower is a type of powered garden/agricultural equipment, which is used to deal with heavier
grass/scrub which a normal lawn mower could not cope with. Some smaller models are self-
powered, but many are PTO driven implements, which can attach to the three-point hitches found on
the rear of most tractors. This type of mower is best used to provide a rough cut to taller grass where
contact with loose debris may be possible such as roadsides ( Trimax Mowing Systems, 2004,).It is used
to prepare land before plowing.
Flair Mower (Courtesy of google images)
2.2.2 Mouldboard Plough
The mouldboard plough is the most common tillage implement used by smallholder farmers in
Zimbabwe. It is used for primary and secondary tillage. The plough is used for a number of
different field operations that include ploughing, row-marking (for crop establishment), ridging
and weeding. During ploughing, the plough cuts, breaks, loosens, inverts the soil and buries
weeds, crop residues and manure.
a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or
planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by working animals such as
horses or cattle, but in modern times are drawn by tractors. Inverts soil in a plow layer ❖ Breaks
up turf ❖ Incorporates cover crops ❖ Buries crop residues ❖ Can cause a tillage pan
Moldboard Plow ❖ In clay soil, till above the clay line (depth of around 4 inches)
The three furrow mounted moldboard plow with

365 mm Furrow width.
2.2.3 Chisel Plough
Chisel ploughs are used to break through and shatter compacted or otherwise impermeable soil
layers. Deep tillage shatters compacted sub soil layers and aids in better infiltration and storage
of rainwater in the crop root zone. The improved soil structure also results in better development
of root system and the yield of crops and their drought tolerance is also improved. The functional
component of the unit include reversible share, tyne (chisel), beam, cross shaft and top link
connection. Chisels or rippers are sharply pointed, metal tines that can be attached to the
ordinary plough beam (Moeller, 1997). Usually, farmers who want to avoid ploughing in
minimum or reduced land preparation activities use chisels.
Fractures the soil ❖ Does not invert soil ❖ Mixes soil and surface residue ❖ Not effective for
weed control.
The chisel plow with five shanks mounted on one

toolbar. The soil engaging tools were 50 mm wide
straight chisels spaced at 445 mm. (T. Friedrich)
2.2.4 Disc Plough
It is a plough, which cuts, turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately
mounted large steel discs. A disc plough is designed with a view of reduce friction by making a
rolling plough bottom instead of sliding plough bottom. A disc plough works well in the
conditions where mould board plough does not work satisfactorily.
dvantages of disc plough ♦ A disc plough can be forced to penetrate into the soil which is too
hard and dry for working with a mould board plough. ♦ It works well in sticky soil in which a
mould board plough does not scour. ♦ It is more useful for deep ploughing. ♦ It can be used
safely in stony and stumpy soil without much danger of breakage. ♦ A disc plough works well
even after a considerable part of the disc is worn off in abrasive soil. ♦ It works in loose soil also
(such as peat) without much clogging. Disadvantages of disc plough ♦ It is not suitable for
covering surface trash and weeds as effectively as mouldboard plough does. ♦ Comparatively,
the disc plough leaves the soil in rough and more cloddy condition than that of mouldboard
plough. ♦ Disc plough is much heavier than mouldboard plough for equal capacities because
penetration of this plough is affected largely by its weight rather than suction. There is one
significant difference between mouldboard plough and disc plough i.e. mouldboard plough is
forced into the ground by the suction of the plough, while the disc plough is forced into the
ground by its own weight.
Inverts the soil ❖ Breaks up large clumps ❖ Levels the surface(T. Friedrich)
(T. Friedrich)
Advantages:•Only partial inversion of the soil so that plant residue is left on the surface,
thus reducing the erosion risk and water losses by evaporation. •Mixing action on loose
soils.•Rolls over obstacles so that hardly any breakage occurs.•Lower risk of choking, e.g.
for sugarcane, cotton, maize.•Fewer problems with sticky soils.•Hardly any smearing of the
furrow bottom, as compared to the smearing caused by the landside heel of the
mouldboard.•The wear is spread over the entire circumference of the disc.•The discs are
self-sharpening.Disadvantages:•Penetration is difficult in hard soils.•Heavy weight and
hence higher prices.•Greater lifting capacity required for tractor's hydraulic system.•Furrow
wheel is needed for controlling depth and lateral movement.•Not usually suitable for slopes
owing to the strong lateral forces.•The ploughs weight may cause compaction of the furrow
bottom.•Less efficient weed control because of only partial inversion of the furrow
slice.•Soil surface is not as level after ploughing, which is especially important in irrigated
fields
2.2.5 Subsoiler
Subsoilers are deep rippers used to break up hard or compacted soil layers, with the aim to
improve water infiltration and root penetration. The point of the subsoiler is brought right under
the compacted layer, which would be typically at soil depths of 25-60cm. Disadvantages include:
/ very high power requirements / the soil must be at crumbling point or dryer up to the depth of
intervention / point can break easily when used incorrectly and worn points reduce the effect /
when not used correctly water infiltration rates are not improved a lot Pl (T. Friedrich)
2.2.6 Disc Harrow
The disk harrow consisted of two gangs tractor and implement to reach steady state ground speed
and concave disks angled in opposite directions. Disk and implement depth. Stake lines at either
end of the plot spacing on the gangs was 200 mm. There was provision provided a visual cue for
the data logger operator to for adding ballast weights to the implement; start and stop the tractor
data logger at either end of the consequently, the maximum operating depth of the disks plot. The
implements were periodically unhitched from was about 100 mm by the weight of the
implement,
the dynamometer and next implement was hitched.
ballast weights and the soil conditions.
The implements were mounted on the dynamometer three-point
The disk harrow consisted with two gangs of 400

mm dia. Disk spacing on the gangs was 200 mm.
2.2.7 Field cultivator

The field cultivator with nine shanks mounted in a staggered arrangement on two gangs. The soil
engaging tools were 100 mm wide twisted chisels
spaced at 245 mm.
Subsoiler
Used to break up hard pans ❖ Fractures the soil but does not invert soil ❖ Can reach depths of
12 to 24 inches
2.3 Actuation Systems
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the
output of a microcontrollers or microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on
machine or device. Figure 2.5 shown below shows the actuation system structure.
Figure 2. 3:Actuation system architecture
2.3.1 Linear Actuators
A linear actuator moves a load, which can be an assembly, components, or a finished product, in
a straight line. It converts energy into a motion or force and can be powered by pressurized fluid
or air, as well as electricity.
2.3.2 Pneumatic System
A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy.
Pneumatic systems are used in controlling train doors, automatic production lines, mechanical
clamps, etc.Pneumatic linear actuators consist of a piston inside a hollow cylinder. Pressure from
an external compressor or manual pump moves the piston inside the cylinder. As pressure
increases, the cylinder moves along the axis of the piston, creating a linear force. The piston
returns to its original position by either a spring-back force or fluid being supplied to the other
side of the piston(Elliott,2006).
The advantages of pneumatic systems Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society,
especially in the industrial sectors for the driving of automatic machines. Pneumatic systems
have a lot of advantages.These include:
(i) High effectiveness - Many factories have equipped their production lines with
compressed air supplies and movable compressors. There is an unlimited supply of
air in our atmosphere to produce compressed air. Moreover, the use of compressed air
is not restricted by distance, as it can easily be transported through pipes. After use,
compressed air can be released directly into the atmosphere without the need of
processing.
(ii) High durability and reliability - Pneumatic components are extremely durable and
can not be damaged easily. Compared to electromotive components, pneumatic
components are more durable and reliable.
(iii) Simple design - The designs of pneumatic components are relatively simple. They are
thus more suitable for use in simple automatic control systems.
(iv) High adaptability to harsh environment - Compared to the elements of other
systems, compressed air is less affected by high temperature, dust, corrosion, etc.
(v) Safety - Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems because they can
work in inflammable environment without causing fire or explosion. Apart from that,
overloading in pneumatic system will only lead to sliding or cessation of operation.
Unlike electromotive components, pneumatic components do not burn or get
overheated when overloaded.
(vi) Easy selection of speed and pressure - The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating
movement of pneumatic systems are easy to adjust and subject to few limitations. The
pressure and the volume of air can easily be adjusted by a pressure regulator.
(vii) Environmental friendly - The operation of pneumatic systems do not produce
pollutants. The air released is also processed in special ways. Therefore, pneumatic
systems can work in environments that demand high level of cleanliness. One
example is the production lines of integrated circuits.
(viii) Economical - As pneumatic components are not expensive, the costs of pneumatic
systems are quite low. Moreover, as pneumatic systems are very durable, the cost of
repair is significantly lower than that of other systems. (b) Limitations of pneumatic
systems
Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject to many
limitations.These include:
(i) Relatively low accuracy - As pneumatic systems are powered by the force provided
by compressed air, their operation is subject to the volume of the compressed air. As
the volume of air may change when compressed or heated, the supply of air to the
system may not be accurate, causing a decrease in the overall accuracy of the system.
(ii) Low loading - As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very large, a
pneumatic system cannot drive loads that are too heavy.
(iii) Processing required before use - Compressed air must be processed before use to
ensure the absence of water vapour or dust. Otherwise, the moving parts of the
pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to friction.
(iv) Uneven moving speed - As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of the
pistons are relatively uneven.
(v) Noise - Noise will be produced when compressed air is released from the pneumatic
components.
2.3.3 Hydraulic Systems
A hydraulic drive system is a drive or transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic

fluid to power hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from
flow and pressure, not from the kinetic energy of the flow. It consists of three parts: The
generator (e.g. a hydraulic pump), driven by an electric motor, a combustion engine or
a windmill; valves, filters, piping etc. (to guide and control the system); and the actuator (e.g.
a hydraulic motor or hydraulic cylinder) to drive the machinery (Mistry,2013). Hydraulic linear
actuators operate similarly to pneumatic actuators, but an incompressible liquid from a pump
rather than pressurized air moves the cylinder. A hydraulic system circulates the same fluid
repeatedly from a fixed reservoir that is part of the prime mover. Force that is applied at one
point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is an almost non-
compressible liquid, so the actuators it drives can be controlled to very accurate positions,
speeds, or forces. Most hydraulic systems use mineral oil for the operating media but other fluids
such as water, ethylene glycol, or synthetic types are not uncommon. Hydraulic systems usually
have a dedicated power unit for each machine. Rubber-molding plants depart from this scheme.
They usually have a central power unit with pipes running to and from the presses out in the
plant. Because these presses require no flow during their long closing times, a single large pump
can operate several of them. These hydraulic systems operate more like a compressed-air
installation because the power source is in one location (Elliott,2006).
Figure 2. 4:A hydraulic actuation system for an excavator (courtesy of google images)
2.3.3.1 Applications of Hydraulic Systems

The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main applications
of hydraulic system can be classified in five categories:
Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal extraction
applications, automated production lines, machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders,
crushes, textile machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.
Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material handling
equipment, commercial vehicles, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and
construction machineries and drilling rigs etc.
Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system, wind
shield, lift and cleaning etc.
Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel equipment.
Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems used for rudder control, landing gear,
breaks, flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and spaceships.
2.3.4 Solenoid Actuation System
Figure 2.7: Block diagram of a solenoid actuation system
Figure 2.8: Image showing a solenoid actuator in action
2.3.5 Power Screw Actuation System
Figure 2.9: Block diagram of a Power screw actuation system
Figure 2.10: Image showing a power screw in action
2.4 Control Systems
By global Automation systems pamphlet (2008) “sensors and Actuators” a control framework is
an arrangement of gadgets, order, co-ordinates that are used to manage the conduct of different
gadgets or framworks. A control system manages, commands, directs or regulates the behaviour
of other devices or systems. It can range from a home heating controller using
a thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large industrial control systems which are used for
controlling processes or machines.In the most common form, the feedback control system it is
desired to control a process, called the plant, so its output follows a control signal, which may be
a fixed or changing value. The control system compares the output of the plant to the control
signal, and applies the difference as an error signal to bring the output of the plant closer to the
control signal.
2.4.1 Control Loops
There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control systems, and closed loop
control systems.
Open-loop
In an open loop control system, the control action from the controller is independent of the
"process output".This simply means there is no direct feedback from the controlled condition or
environment .A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so
that heat is applied for a constant time, regardless of the temperature of the building. (The control
action is the switching on/off of the boiler. The process output is the building temperature).
INPUT CONTROLLER ACTUATOR PROCESS
OUTPUT
Figure 2. 5:Open loop control system block diagram
The controller indipendanty calculates the exact voltage or current needed by the actuator to do
the job and sends it to the controller.With this approach the controller never knows if the actuator
did what it was supposed to do because there is no feedback.the system absolutely depends on
the controller knowing the operating characteristics of the actuator
Closed-Loop Control
In a closed loop control system, the control action from the controller is dependent on the desired
and actual process output values. In the case of the boiler analogy this would utilise a thermostat
to monitor the building temperature, and thereby feed back a signal to ensure the controller
output maintains the building temperature to that set on the thermostat.
A closed loop controller therefore has a feedback loop which ensures the controller exerts a
control action to give a process output the same as the "Reference input" or "set point". The
output of the process or controlled variable is constantly monitored by a sensor,as shown by the
block diagram below
2.4.2 Logic Control
Logic control systems for industrial and commercial machinery were historically implemented
at mains voltage using interconnected relays, designed using ladder logic. Today, most such
systems are constructed with programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or microcontrollers. The
notation of ladder logic is still in use as a programming idiom for PLCs.Logic controllers may
respond to switches, light sensors, pressure switches, etc., and can cause the machinery to start
and stop various operations. Logic systems are used to sequence mechanical operations in many
applications. PLC software can be written in many different ways – ladder diagrams, SFC –
sequential function charts or in language terms known as statement lists , (Brady,2011).
2.4.2.1 Micro - Controller
A microcontroller (or mcu,short for microcontroller unit)is a small computer (soc) on a single
intergrated circuit containing a processor core,memory,and programmable input/output
peripherals(Brian, 2007). Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and
devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other .Microcontrollers usually must
have low-power requirements (~. 05 - 1 W as opposed to ~10 - 50 W for general purpose desktop
CPUs) since many devices they control are battery-operated.
Figure 2.12:Micro-controller structure
2.4.2.2 Microprocessor
A microprocessor - also known as a CPU or central processing unit - is a complete computation

engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced
in 1971. The 4004 was not very powerful - all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only
do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip. Prior to the 4004,
engineers built computers either from collections of chips or from discrete components
(Transistors and such). The 4004 powered one of the first portable electronic calculators,
(Brian,2007).
Figure 2. 6:Basic structure of a microprocessor
2.4.2.3 Raspberry Pi
Figure 2. 7:Raspberry pi architecture(Brian,2007)
2.4.2.4 Arduino
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started (Bryan,2007).
Figure 2. 8:Arduino architecture
It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 14 can be used as PWM outputs),16 analog inputs, 4
UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an
ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller;
simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or
battery to get started. The Mega is compatible with most shields designed for the Arduino
Duemilanove or Diecimila.
2.4.2.5 Programmable Logic Controllers
A programmable logic controller, PLC, or programmable controller is a digital computer used

for automation of typically industrial electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery
on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are used in many machines,
in many industries.
Figure 2. 9:PLC architecture
2.5 Soil Types of Southern Africa
Africa covers an area of about 3,010 * 106 hectares (ha) of which about 230 * 106 is water
(FAO,1978).The continent has a wide range of soils and climatic conditions.Soils range from
stony and shallow with poor life sustsaining capabilities to deeply weathered soils thatrecycle
and support large amounts of biomass (Smalling,1995).African soils have an inherently poor
fertility because they are very old and lack volcanic rejuvenation.Inappropriate land use,poor
management and lack of inputs have led to a decline in productivity,soil erosion,salinization,and
loss of vegetation.More thah half of all African people are affected by land degradation,making it
one of the continents urgent development issues with significant costs (FAO,2002). Africa is
burdened with a US $9.3 billion annual cost of desertification. An estimated US$42 billion in
income and 6 million ha of reductive land are lost evry year due to land degradation and
declining agricultural productivity.
About 16% of Africa’s land is considered high quality,1 % as medium quality,16% of low
potential,whereas 55% of the land is unsuitable for cultivated agriculture but supports nomadic
grazing (Esweran et al..,1996).These are largely the deserts,which include salt flats,dunes and
rock lands and the steep to very steep lands.About 30% of the population (or about 250 million)
is living or dependant on these land resources.About 900 million ha of high and medium quality
soils support 400 million people or abot 45% of the African population; about 30% of the
population (or about 250 million) are living or are dependant on the low potential land
resources.Numerous studies have shown that soil nutrient balances of most African soils are
negative indicating that farmers continue to mine the soil
During the last 30 years,soil fertility depletion has been estimated at an average f 660kg
N/ha,75kg/ha and 450 kg K/ha from about 200 million ha of cultivated land in 37 African
countries.Africa loses $4 billion perr year due to oil nutrient mining (Smalling,1993).Between
1994 and 1995 farmers in Africa used only nearly 3.5 million tons of plant nutrients on nearly
170 million ha of arable land.Only 4 countries (Egypt,South Africa ,Swaziland and Zimbabwe)
used more than 50kg/ha,and 31 countries used less than 10kg/ha (IFDC,1996)Although not a
bio-climatic region as those described in the preceding pages, the soils of southern Africa
deserve a special mention. This region, which includes roughly South Africa, Lesotho,
Swaziland, a large part of Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and the southern parts of Angola
and Zambia, is underlain by a some of the oldest rocks on Earth. Fourteen soil groups have been
created (Fey 2010) with the guiding principle being the identification of a diagnostic horizon, as
defined by the Soil Classification Working Group (1991), so as to construct an eliminative key.
The climate is typically sub-tropical bi-modal with a rainy season starting around
October/November and lasting until March/ April. Temperatures are between 20°C and 25°C
during daytime,dropping to around 15°C during the night; at higher elevations it may freeze
during the nights in June and July. Humidity is relatively low apart from at the onset of the rainy
season. The extreme south-west of South Africa experiences a Mediterranean climate with
winter rains and summer dryness. Topography is generally smooth to undulating, except for
some isolated mountain ranges such as the Drakenberg Mountains in South Africa, hill ranges
comprising volcanic dykes (e.g. in Zimbabwe) and deep valleys such as the Zambezi Gorge on
the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Quite typical is the occurrence of many kopjes
(exfoliated large granite boulders) scattered over the landscape.
The large variety of parent material, the long period of soil formation under relatively stable
tectonic conditions, and historical climatic variations (e.g. a long dry period during the Upper
Pleistocene) causing considerable changes in vegetation have resulted in a vast array of soils;
almost any soil type imaginable can be found. However, the uplands are dominated by sandy
soils due to the influence of the Kalahari sands, and soils with a pronounced increase of clay with
depth, locally known as Sandveldt soils. Depressions or vleis are often filled with cracking clays,
whereas non- to weaklydeveloped soils prevail on slopes.( African Soils: a geographical perspective |
Soil Atlas of Africa).The main soil types of this region are Acrisols, Arenosols,Cambisols,
Leptosols, Lixisols, Luvisols, Nitisols, Phaeozems,Regosols and Vertisols. Subdominant soils
are Alisols, Calcisols, Gleysols, Ferralsols, Fluvisols, Planosols and Solonetz, while rarer soils
include Chernozems, Histosols, Kastanozems, Podzols and Umbrisols. Many soil types exist in
southern Africa but because the pilot project shall be done in Zimbabwe more focuses will be on
soils that are available in Zimbabwe
2.5.1 Zimbabwe Soils
70% of Zimbabwe soils are sandy & inherently infertile (low in SOM, prone to leaching).N and
P are the most limiting.Low pH in high rainfall and fertilized areas..limited effectiveness of
applied fertiliser (e.g. P). Multiple nutrient deficiencies in degraded soils (inc. Ca, Mg, Zn,B).
Limit NPKS fertilizer effectiveness (Zingore et al., 2008).Soil erosion in high population density
areas from cropping and overgrazing. Majority (ca. 75%) of smallholder areas located on sandy
soils in semi arid areas. These farmers have limited resources (inputs, knowledge).Limited
experience of newly resettled farmers (Mhaka & Chkwari ,2006). The Zimbabwe National Soil
Classification System is based on parent material and physico-chemical properties of the soil.
The following table presents the soil classes of Zimbabwe.
Table 2. 1:Soil classes of Zimbabwe:(Dhliwayo,2006)
ORDER DESCRIPTION GROUP TYPICAL SOIL

FAMILIES
1.AMORMIC Little or no horizon 1.Regosol - Deep 1K(Deep sands
sands derived from
2.Lithosol - 2E(derived from
Extremely mafic rocks)
shallow
CALCIMOPHIC Unleached soils 3. Vertisols - Very 3B(derived from
generally acidic basalt)
with large reserves of clay 4PE(derived from
weatherable minerals: 4.Siallitic - Active mafic gneiss)
high clay
base saturation.
KAOLINITIC Moderately to strongly 5.Fersiallitic mixed 5G(coarse grained
leached soils; clay sandy soils
appreciable 6.Paraferrallitic inert derived from granite)
amounts of free clay 6G
7.Orthoferrallitic sesquioxides of iron
and
aluminum.
7G
NATRIC Dominated by 8.Sodic 8n
appreciable Weakly sodic 8N
amounts of sodium as Strongly sodic 8h
the Saline sodic
exchangeable ion
Figure 2. 10:Agro-ecological soils of Zimbabwe(courtesy of Zimbabwe Atlas)
2.5.1.1 Land‐use and Agro‐ecological Zones

the Land‐use (needs and priorities) depends on:
 the soil type
 agro‐ecological zone in which that particular soil class
 falls in.
 e.g. Region I (high rainfall), most soils are acidic and
 highly leached (Acrisols).
 This means that proper lime and fertiliser management
 is essential for optimal crop production
2.5.1.2 Lithosols (WRB, 2006: Leptosols)
limitation of depth by continuous rock within 25 cm of the soil surface,Steep slopes
susceptible to erosion.Most common land use is Game reserves and national parks.Mostly
found in the Northern and North‐western part of the country on slopy areas
2.5.1.3 Regosol (WRB,2006: Arenosol)

Thick sand profiles,Shows little or no horizon development Usually found on flat or on
gently undulating topography,Used for National Parks, Game Reserves, Forests and some
smallholder farming areas.Found mainly in the western part of the country i.e. Hwange,
Lupane and Nkayi
Figure 2. 11:Arenosol from South Africa(ISRIC,2006)
2.5.1.4 Vertisols (WRB, 2006: Vertisols)

Seasonal cracking,High clay content consisting of mainly expansive clay,high moisture‐
holding capacity is their clay content,Sugarcane, cotton and citrus tree plantations are the
mainly land of the vertisols in Zimbabwe.Mostly found in the semi‐arid regions of
Zimbabwe.
Figure 2. 12:Vertisol from Morocco (Soil Atlas,2010)
2.5.1.5 Siallitic (Luvisols, Gleysols, Cambisols)

Clay soils comprising of both 2:1 clay minerals.Profile mostly shallow to relatively
shallow.High agricultural potential soils but are limited by aridity of the environment
where they occur.Used for irrigated sugarcane and wheat production in the South‐eastern
lowveld.Used for ranging of cattle and wild life in the North‐western part of the
country.These soils are found in the North‐western part of the Country.
Figure 2. 13:Luvic Phaeozem from South Africa(Soil Atlas,2010)
2.5.1.6 Fersiallitic(Nitisols, Luvisols)

Appreciable amounts of free sesquioxides have moderate phosphate sorption
capacity,Fersiallitic soils are the most extensive soil group in Zimbabwe.They are the most
in crop production.Most of Zimbabwe’s maize belt lies within the area covered by these
soils.most extensive soil group in Zimbabwe.
Figure 2.16 below shows a red (chromic) Luvisol from South Africa. Luvisols display clay
accumulations in the subsoil.
Figure 2. 14:Red (chromic) Luvisol
2.5.1.7 Paraferrallitic (Lixisol, Acrisol)

Highly leached soils found in high rainfall zone.They occur on the uplands of the central
plateau at relatively high altitudes.Occur in high rainfall potential areas of
Zimbabwe.They are the best for tobacco production.Maize production is also
practiced.these occur in high rainfall potential areas of Zimbabwe
2.5.1.8 Orthoferralltic (Acrisols, Ferralsols )

Moderately deep soils.Very fine weakly developed crumb structure,Very high
porosity.Orthoferrallitic Soils have a relatively poor nutrient status and they are mostly
covered by Forestry Plantations crops e.g. coffee and tea.Occurs in the eastern
highlands,the Bikita – Ndanga highlands in the south‐east of the country
2.5.1.9 Sodic (Solonetz, Solonchaks) Soils

Sodic soils high concentration of Na (E.S.P ≥ 15).These are not suitable for most cropping
activities.Used to grow crops tolerant to high Na and high pH, e.g. cotton, sorghum,
millet.
These soils are found in the Zambezi and Save(on thesouth eastern part of the country)
valleys
2.6 Plastics
Plastics belong to a group of molecules called polymers, which are large molecules made of
repeating units called monomers. Most plastics contain between 500 and 20,000 or more
repeating units. Plastics can be produced by bonding together monomers in a reaction called
polymerization. For example, a plastic called polyethylene, which is commonly used in gro- cery
bags and packaging, is formed by adding together molecules of ethylene (Washam ,2010). Most
plastics are made from crude oil. Molecules present in crude oil undergo chemical reactions that
create monomers, which are assembled together to make polymers that can be processed into
plastics. This process is very common, but it produces pollutants, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
which contribute to climate change. Also, crude oil is in great demand throughout the world
2.6.1 Bio Plastics

Bioplastics are made by converting the sugar present in plants into plastic.Most countries use
sugar cane Other countries use sugar cane,sugar beets, wheat, or potatoes.This makes bioplastics
renewable and better for the environment than conventional plastics.Two types of bioplastics are
now produced in large quantities.They are called polylactide-acid (PLA) and
polyhydroxyalkanoate(PHA).
Figure 2.17 below shows the prooduction of poly-lactic acid(PLA) from a chemical perspective.
Figure 2. 15:Production of poly-lactic acid (n and m are large numbers)
According to (Wool,2010)A number of bioplastics, including thosemade with PLA, are

“compostable”: Give them enough heat, moisture, and hungry microbes, and the microbes will
break themdown into plant material, carbon dioxide, and water. It is the carbon dioxide that
concerns some environmentalists.This carbon dioxide gas goes back into the atmosphere
2.6.1 Green Plastics

Plastics are referred “green” if they exhibit one or more of the following properties: source
renewability, biodegradability/compostability after end of the life and environmentally friendly
processing(Tokiwa,2009). Bioplastics could be biodegradable plastics (one which degrades) or
bio-based plastics (synthesized from renewable biomass) . All biodegradable plastics are not
bioplastics (some oil based plastics are biodegradable) and not all bio based plastics are not
biodegradable. Biodegradability of a material mostly depends on its chemical structure. Plastics
being a polymer, most of the oil based plastics have a strong carbon-carbon single bond which is
difficult to break and hence making it non- degradable( Stevens,2003) Based on the definition of
green plastics Stevens classifies modern day green plastics into three categories :
(i) Polymers extracted directly from biomasses (plants or animals)
(ii) Polymers processed directly by microorganisms through large scale fermentation process.
(iii) Polymers obtained from resins (monomers) produced with renewable and naturally
occurring raw materials.
2.6.2 Biodegrable Materials

Guilbert (2000) defines three types of biodegradable materials:
 Agricultural polymers used alone or blended with biodegradable synthetic poly-mers;
 Microbial polymers, produced from the fermentation of agricultural products used as
substract.
Averous (2002) identifies within this class the Polyhydroxy Alkanoates, or PHA. Its most
widely known representative is the PHBV (Polyhydroxybutyrate covalerate). Monomers or
oligomers polymerized by means of conventional chemical processes and obtained from the
fermentation of agricultural raw materials used as substract. The most well known material
within this category is the PLA.
Averous (2002) includes a fourth class to the above-mentioned ones:
Derivatives by means of synthesis, obtained from the petrochemical industry by the classic
synthetic via. The latter one is represented by several polymers and subgroups:
• The polycaprolactones: PCL;
• The polyesteramide: PEA;
• The aliphatic copolyester or Polybutylene Succinate Adipate: PBSA
• The aromatic copolyester, such as the Polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate: PBAT.
PCL and PLA are the polymers most used in the market, except for starch derivatives (Averous,
2002).
Figure 2. 16: Different families of biodegradable polymers and their raw materials(Adapted
from Averous (2002) and Weber (2000))
2.6.3 Starch-Based Plastics

The use of starch in the manufacturing of bioplastics began in the 70’s (Curvelo et al., 2001).
Among its advantages, the starch is cheap, abundant and renewable. Besides, it is found in
several forms due to the origin of its raw material (Lawter and Fischer, 2000).In the granular
state, it has been used as filling agent for polyolefin and as a component in synthetic polymers
blends. According to Lawter and Fischer (2000), starches have also been modified by means of
“grafting” with vinyl monomers (e.g., methyl acr- ylate), originating materials for injection in
molds or extrusion. It is possible to produce starch films through the grafting of polymers, such
as Polyethylene (PE). Only the starch is biodegradable and these films are practically no longer
used (Lawter and Fischer, 2000). According to Kaplan (1998), a silane with a general formula of
CH3-Si-O-(R1,R2,R3) can be added to a blend of PE to improve the compatibility of these two
materials.
2.6.4 “Thermoplastic-like Starch” (TPS)
The TPS is a relatively new concept and, today, it is one of the main research hints for the
manufacturing of biodegradable materials (Curvelo et al., 2001). The starch is not a real
thermoplastic, but, in the presence of a plasticizer (water, glycerin, sorbitol, etc.), high
temperatures (90 – 180°C) and shearing, it melts and fluidizes, enabling its use in injection,
extrusion and blowing equipment, such as those for synthetic plastics. So as to obtain a
thermoplastic starch, it is necessary that the starch maintains its semi-crystal granular structure
and that it behaves in a way similar to that of a melted thermoplastic, obtained through a mono-
or twin-screw extrusion with the use of mechanical and thermal energy (Lourdin et al., 1999).
2.6.5 Starch-based films

Starch-based films found in the market are made mainly from starch complected with
thermoplastic polyesters, such as poly-epsilon caprolactone (PCL), to form biodegradable and
compostable products (Bastioli, 2000). When used for the manufacturing of bags for the
recycling of organic waste (composting), packagings, hygienic items and agriculture, the
properties of these films are similar to those of LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene)
2.6.7 Polylactic acid (PLA)

PLA is an aliphatic polyester, with glassy transition temperature (Tg) of 55°C and fusion point at
170°C. A low breaking deformation value limits the use of PLA (Martin and Averous, 2001). To
deal with this problem, many researchers added platicizing elements, such as citrate ester
(produced by SIGMA), PLA oligomer (OLA), glycol polyethylene (PEG) (also produced by
SIGMA), monoester glycose and partial esters from fatty acids. PLA properties depend on the
type of polyester, with conformation L or D (Weber, 2000). The use of 100% of PLA-L results in
a product with high fusion temperature and high crystallinity. The use of an equivalent blend of
L and D drops Tg to 60°C, a temperature that may be considered too low for some uses. The
main PLA is NatureWorks produced by Cargill / Dow Polymers (Dumoulin, 2001). This PLA is
derived from corn starch or sugar beet (other types of starches or sugars may also be used), and
its biodegradation takes from 4 to 6 weeks in pilot composting equipment. It can be used to make
films for agriculture, yogurt plastic bottles, diapers or textiles and hygienic products (together
with cotton). Nonwovens, with DÉPOSA and Galactic, a Belgium organization specialized in
lactic acid and lactate production but which invested in PLA production, are included among the
competitors of Cargill / Dow (Dumoulin, 2001). PLA production requires from 20 to 50% less
fossil fuels than petrol plastics, never- theless the energy consumption in the production is higher
than that in most of the petrochemical processes (Gerngross and Slater, 2000). According to the
authors, this consumption is 50% higher than the necessary for the polyethylene (PET), but it is
40% lower than that for nylon, another PLA competitor.PLA seems to be the only plastic from
vegetal source with chances to be commercial- ized, due to its low consumption of energy and
high conversion rate, which is of about 80% of each kilo of sugar.Production, use and properties
of starch biopolymers.Among TPS, Averous (2002) describes products such as Biopac, made of
starch molded for manufacturing packaging (Mac Donald, IKEA, DO and CO), BIOTEC for
manufacturing garbage plastic bags (FARDEM), Eco-Foam (National Starch and Chemi-cal)
and FLUPIS (PSP) for gluing (Projet Agromat, 2001). Under the brand Mater-Bi, Novamont
produces 4 types of biodegradable materials, all of them based on starch blended with other
synthetic component (Bastioli, 1996). These products can be classified as:
Class A – Biodegradable non-compostable materials (degradation within 2 years in liquid
medium). Products made from starch and vinylic ethylene alcohol copolymers.
Class Z –Biodegradable compostable materials, mainly for manufacturing films and sheets
(biodegration within 20-45 days in composting conditions). Material made from starch and PCL,
in 50% ratio.
Class V – Biodegradable compostable and soluble materials, as substitutes for EPS packagings
(biodegradation faster than Z). Starch content in these products is over 85%.
Class Y – Biodegradable compostable materials, for injection molded, rigid and dimensionally
stable products. Materials made of entirely natural raw materials, such as those derived from
cellulose.
2.6.8 Biodegradable packaging in agriculture

According to Dumoulin (2001), the use of plastic materials is a common component of modern
life. With plastic consumption increasing by 149% from 1985 to 1999, agriculture has followed
the same trend. In 1970 the designation of mulched cultivation was created, and since then the
use of plastic materials has been showing a steady growth.Among the major plastics in use are
PE, PP, EVA (Ethylene vinyl acetate) and PVC. Photodegradable polyethylene films can be
used, but they are only fragmented and not totally degradable (Halley et al., 2000). According to
Jouët (mentioned by Dumoulin, 2001), worldwide consumption of agricultural plastics is
estimated to be 2,847,000 tons, distributed as follows:
 Greenhouses and large tunnels: 450,000 t
 Small tunnels: 168,000 t t
 Mulching: 650,000
 Canvases: 40,000 t
 Microirrigation and hydroponics: 645,000 t
 Silage : 540,000 t
 Others : 354,000 t
Figure 2. 17: Mulching in China for tomato production(Dumoulin,2001)
Dumoulin (2001) describes the characteristics of these polymers:

PE: thick films (150 µm to 180 µm) are used for silage, mulching of greenhousesand livestock
facilities. Thin films (25 µm) are used for straw and hay packaging or mulching (17 a 50 µm).
They can also de found in macro perforated flat canvases,nets, windbreaks, films for protection
against hailstorm and for shadow.
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA): Covering of tubular greenhouses.
PP: production of strings, non-woven flat canvases, glasses and big-bags envelopes.
PVC: draining and irrigation pipes, semi-rigid sheets for greenhouse covering, small
tubular greenhouses.
Other materials: EPS is used for isolation plates, polyurethan foam (PU) is used as substrate for
hydroponic culture and as isolator. Polycarbonates and methyl polymetacrylates serve as division
walls and greenhouse walls, saturated polyesters (or PE tereftalate) for water tanks and
greenhouse walls. Polyamids are used in the manufacture of nets.The success of plastic is
explained by its qualities (Dumoulin, 2001):
Lightness: density close to 1. One m² of P.E film. (180 µm) weighs 165 g.
Resistance: a P.E film. (180 µm) is twice as resistant as the glass used in horticulture, a string of
PE is hard to split.
Inalterability: resistance to corrosion, to chemical and biological agents.
Harmlessness: no danger for plants and animals.
Impermeability or selective permeability.
However, there are also technical use restrictions, such as sensitivity to tearing, in- flammability,
dilatation, aging, etc.
2.6.9 Recycling
Plastics recycling fall into two categories: pre-consumer and post-consumer . Pre- consumer one
involves recycling of waste generated while manufacturing the product such as trim wastes after
thermoforming or runner and sprue waste from post injection molding. Most manufacturers are
focused on recycling the pre-consumer waste at the source itself. The problem arises with post
consumer recycling of bioplastics after its end use. Recycling post- consumer waste is a tedious
and expensive process as it involves considerable amount of cleaning and sorting activities.
Within the petroleum based plastics it is not easy to determine the difference between similar
plastics such as PE or PP. One of the major hurdles in recycling is that these different polymers
are not mixable. Mixing of bioplastics with petroleum based plastics could contaminate the oil
based plastic feed generated from recycling. A Within the petroleum based plastics it is not easy
to determine the difference between similar plastics such as PE or PP. One of the major hurdles
in recycling is that these different polymers are not mixable. Mixing of bioplastics with
petroleum based plastics could contaminate the oil based plastic feed generated from recycling.
A mixture could result in inferior properties leading to an unusable recycled plastic for many
processes. This is very likely to happen as the consumers may not differentiate between different
plastic types. Therefore bioplastics should be from identifiable sources that will allow for
sorting. Currently in the United States, very less infrastructure exist to collect bioplastics in
sufficient quantities and consumers do not have a clear picture on its recyclability. Another
option of dealing with post-consumer plastics is composting. It should be noted that one of the
biggest myths about landfills is that they are giant compost pits which not true. In fact anything
that goes into a landfill (bioplastics or oil based plastics) will not decompose properly because or
the lack of sunlight and air. Therefore composting bioplastics needs additional infrastructure and
setting to handle the volume. Commercial bioplastics such as PLA would compost only in
municipal and industrial compost settings Therefore the composting sector has to expand to
accommodate the growing waste generated ,(Kuruppalil & Ph 2011).
2.7 Tractors
Tractors can be divided into 3 categories: 2-wheel drive, front-wheel assist or unequal 4-wheel
drive, and equal 4-wheel drive tractors(Sumner & Williams 2007). Each one of these tractors has
different tire configurations and different ballast requirements.
Two-Wheel Drive Tractors (2WD) are most commonly used in dry or upland farming
situations and for transportation. They range in size from 5 HP - 200 HP and need 80% of the
weight distributed over the rear axle to maximize traction. The biggest advantages of this type of
tractor over other 4-wheel tractors are smaller turning circle, simplicity of design, fewer
mechanical parts and lower purchase price. However, a 2WD tractor does not work at all well in
wet, hilly and muddy conditions.
Front Wheel Assist (FWA) is commonly known as 4WD or unequal 4-wheel drive. It is the
most popular 4-wheel tractor in many parts of the United States and worldwide. These tractors
range in size from 5 HP - 240 HP and are capable of delivering between 50-55% of the rated
power at the drawbar. Typically, between 75% and 85% of the rated engine HP is delivered to a
rear PTO (Power Take-Off) on any diesel tractor. On a FWA tractor the front drive tires are
smaller than the rear tires. These tractors require 40% of theweight distributed over the front axle
and 60% over the rear axle. The major advantage in using this type of tractor is that it can deliver
10% more power to the ground at all 4 tires for the same fuel consumption, and thus has much
better traction and flotation capabilities than 2-wheel tractors of the same size. FWA tractors
normally cost about 15-35% more than the same horsepower two wheel drive tractor. Equal
Four-Wheel Drive (4WD) tractors have all four tires of equal size and range in size from 35 HP
(Sumner & Williams 2007)
600 HP. This tractor type has the greatest power to weight ratio and can deliver between 55-60%
of power at the drawbar. It is challenging to maneuver and often the size and expense makes
these tractors impractical.
2.7.1 Power Take-Off (PTO)

The power take-off (PTO) shaft, or Implement Input Driveline (IID), is an efficient means of
transferring mechanical power between farm tractors and implements.(Harshman et al. 2013)
Figure 2.18 is a diagram of component parts of an implement PTO to better understand PTO
hazards, guarding, and injuries. The upper drawing is of a PTO system involving a pedestal
connection as found on many types of pulled machinery (e.g., hay balers, forage choppers, large
rotary mowers, etc.). The bottom drawing is of a PTO system where the implement’s input
driveline connects directly to the tractor PTO stub. Examples of this type of connection include
three-point hitch mounted equipment (e.g., post hole diggers, small rotary mowers, etc.) and
augers. The flexible universal joint or “U joint” makes the connection from the tractor to the
implement. U Joints are connected by a square rigid shaft which turns inside another shaft
Figure 2. 18:Main comonents of a PTO system(Harshman et al. 2013)
PTO Speeds - designed to rotate at 540 rpm or 1,000 rpm. Dual speed PTO’s may reach 630-
1,170 rpm.
PTO Splines — by counting the number of splines or teeth, the operator can identify the speed
of the PTO in rpm’s.
PTO Sizes — PTO stub shaft diameter for 540 rpm shaft is 1 3/8 inch and the 1,000 rpm stub
shaft with 21 teeth is 1 3/8 inch
2.7.1.1 Power Take-Off (PTO) Stub

The tractor’s stub shaft, often called the PTO, transfers power from the tractor to the PTO-driven
machine or implement. Power transfer is accomplished by connecting a drive shaft from the
machinery to the tractor’s PTO stub shaft. The PTO and drive shaft rotate at 540 rpm (9
times/second) or 1,000 rpm (16.6 times/second) when operating at full recommended speed. At
all speeds, they rotate in proportion to the speed of the tractor engine. Note: 1000 rpm speed
PTO shafts have more splines on the shaft.Most incidents involving PTO stubs result from
clothing
caught by an engaged but unguarded PTO stub. The reasons a PTO stub may be left engaged
include: the operator forgetting or not being aware of the PTO clutch is engaged; seeing the PTO
stub spinning but not considering it dangerous enough to disengage; or, the operator is involved
in a work activity requiring PTO operation. Boot laces, pant legs, overalls and coveralls, and
sweatshirts are clothing items that can become caught and wrapped around a spinning PTO stub
shaft. In addition to clothing, additional items that can become caught in the PTO include
jewelry and long hair.
2.7.1.2 Power Take-Off (PTO) Drivelines
The power take-off is a rotating stub shaft at the rear of the tractor. The power take-off and its
attachments are a series of high speed shafts that move in a circle 88mm from the centre of a
shaft revolving at 540 RPM at a speed of 5 linear metres per second.Figure 2.19 shows an image
of a driveshaft and PTO connection for a Ford 7700 tractor
Figure 2. 19:Driveshaft and PTOconnection for a Ford 7700 tractor(courtesy of google

images)
2.7.1.3 Tractor hitching
Several agricultural implements are ground-driven (the power comes from the wheels turning on
the ground). Use of the PTO is unnecessary. If you stop moving forward with these
implements,the machine stops operating. The tractor drawbar is used to connect a load to a
tractor. Ideally the hitch higher should be below the drawbar so that all pulling forces stay below
the tractor’s center of gravity. For most operations, the drawbar should be placed midpoint
between the rear tires to maximize pulling power. Hillside operations may require a drawbar
adjustment to one side to balance the pulling forces.((Harshman et al. 2013)
Figure 2. 20:Drawbar Connection(Harshman et al. 2013)
Tractor drawbars are designed at the correct height from the ground to keep the pull forces below
the center of gravity. The tractor power take-off and drawbar position are designed with specific
measurements for the size and horsepower rating of the tractor. The operator should not make
changes to these design standards by changing the hitch point. Table 2.3. lists the measurements
and relationships at points A, B, C, and D above for each range of tractor size ((Dennis 2014).
Table 2. 2:Drawbar Sizing and Positioning Standards (ASAE S482)
2.7.1.3.1 The 3 Point Hitch
Figure 2. 21:Parts of a 3 Point Hitch
A. Top Link B,C. Draft Arms D. Anti-sway bar or chain E. Lift Arm F. Lift Rod
2.8.5.3 Keys And Coupling
2.8.6 Transmission Shafts
2.8.7 Pulley Belt Drive System
2.8.8 Springs
2.8.9 Motion Clutch System
2.8.10 Rolling Contact Bearings
2.8.11 Types Of Mechanical Gears
2.8.11.1 Spur Gears
2.8.11.2 Helical Gears
2.8.11.3 Bevel Gears
2.8.11.4 Worm Gears

CHAPTER 3. CONCEPT GENERATION
3.0 Introduction
Conceptualization is breaking and converting research ideas into common meanings to develop
an agreement among the users .This process eventually leads to evaluating and scoring the
concepts inorder to frame a meaningful concept which ultimately leads to the final design. It is a
process of identifying customer and technical requirements, generating conceptual designs based
on the requirements, concept selection, testing and evaluation of the designed component. This
chapter seeks to identify the customer requirements, technical requirements, the methods and
steps taken in acquiring them and the various concepts generated in a bid to solve the identified
problem through the development of the farming implement. The concept screening and
selection procedure is also outlined and lastly a structural decomposition of the chosen esign
concept will be done that will eventually lead to detaildesign to follow in the next chapter.
3.1 Methodology
Using the Pahl and Beitz research design procedure, the design process will executed. The
methodology is composed of four primary phases:
i. Clarification of the task

ii. Conceptual design
iii. Embodiment design
iv. Detailed design
3.1.1 Clarification of the task
Clarification of the task is a process whereby relevant information concerning the requirements
in a solution are collected in neutral form, with the corresponding requirements list generated
from constraints and design desires during this phase.
3.1.2 Conceptual Design
Conceptual design is a phase which establishes the core function structures, the search for
suitable solution principles and as well as their combination into various concepts. This is a
process that involves generating design concepts.It is is the process of generating new ideas. It is
supposed to be synthetic rather than analytical. The purpose is not to judge the feasibility of
solutions but instead to keep coming up with ideas regardless of practicality. These solutions
represent an approximate description of form, working principles and product features.The
concepts are accompanied by industrial design models and experimental prototypes that help in
making final selections.
3.1.3 Embodiment Design
During the embodiment phase, a concept is developed into a technology system in line with
design criteria.
3.1.4 Detail Design
Arrangements, forms, dimensions and surface finish properties of the individual parts are finally
laid down, the materials specified, with materials specified and feasibility assessed. Design
requirements are the measures of the product’s functions. The customer needs are divided
between production and engineering needs. These needs are based on minimizing cost of design
and possible modifications to existing designs,
3.1.5 Production needs
The primary function of the design is the insertion of a water retention plastic film underneath
the land in short period of time per hectare.
3.2 Concept Generation for Overall design layout

This is a two staged process, which starts off with concept screening and concept scoring. Each
is supported by a decision matrix which will be used in rating and selection of the best concept.
This process helps to manage the complexity of evaluating dozens of product concepts.
Concept screening is a fast approximate evaluation aimed at generating viable alternatives, while
scoring is an analysis of the concepts in order to choose the final concept most likely to lead to
product success. Throughout this process, several iterations may be performed, with new
alternatives being generated from the combination of the features of several concepts. Concept
screening and concept scoring both follow a six-step process which will lead the author through
the concept selection activity. The steps are as follows:
i. Preparation of Selection Matrix

 Concepts and criteria are entered into a matrix
 The current concept is selected as a reference concept according to
industry standard and current existing product, with the
performance being rated with 0’s
ii. Rating the concepts
 Concepts are rated in ‘+’s and ‘ - ’s according to their
performance
 Concepts that are found to perform similarly compared to the
reference are rated with 0’s
 Concepts that perform worse than the reference are rted with ‘ - ’s
iii. Rank the Concepts
 Terminologies such as “same as” and “worse than” and the sum is
entered for each category in the lower rows of the matrix.
 The net score is calculated by subtracting he number of “worse
than” from the number of “better than”
iv. Combining and improving the Concepts
v. Select one or more Concepts
vi. Reflect on the results an process
3.1 Conceptual Design
The stages in concept development undertaken in this project are as follows:
Figure 3. 1:Concept development process
3.2. Identification of Customer Needs
Questionnaires (Appendix 1) were used to get user needs and usage data on agricultural water.
The results of this activity are the input into into the needs/benefits section of the Quality
Function Deployment technique. Completed Questionnaires are shown in Appendix 8.
3.3 Development of Concept One
Figure
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3.3.1 Overall Design of Concept One

The water retention technology concept one, consists of a front digger, which creates the trough
profile where the plastic film is laid. The front digger is specially with curvature at its bottom.
Whilst the cross section of the trough profile is semi-circle in shape, the diameter of the
curvature is 450 mm. The connectors allow the farm implement to be mounted on to the back of
a tractor, in such a way that the during operation, the tractor can set the water retention
technology on to the ground and as well as raise the farm implement from the ground after
operation. The front digger design is such that it creates the trough at depth of 30 cm below
surface. A pair of inverted diggers, are designed to be installed at a distance apart of 20 cm from
either side of the front digger. Plastic film roll is mounted between the front digger and inverted
digger, creating a smooth operation whereby the front digger, digs up the trench, plastic film
unrolls from the plastic roll and the inverted diggers, bury the plastic film using the dug soil.
3.3.2 Functionality of Concept One

Figure 3. 4: Image showing the plastic film after insertion
underneath the surface
The dug trench profile for the water retention plastic film, has a depth of 55 mm, with a span of
470 mm. A separation span of 500 mm is maintained between the trenches. This is so as to create
drainage, if water content in the soil is too high.
3.3.3 Trench Digger Design
Figure 3. 5:Image showing trench digger design

The front trench digger is designed with double metal sheet cheeks. This allows the digger throw
the dug soil from either sides of the trench digger. This creates a clear trench, with dug soil on
either side of the trough. The bottom section of the trench digger is specially designed with
curvature. The curvature design allows the digger to create the trench with a curved floor. The
curved floor, created an underground water catchment which allows the water to settle into the
underground reservoir. The span of curvature is 450 mm wide.
3.3.4 Concept One Pros
Concept one combines the required three stages required for inserting the plastic film underneath
the ground. The farm implement is designed such that required mechanisms are combined on a
single framework with each stage arranged according to operation.
 Concept one is designed such that it can be easily mounted on to a tractor.

 Design of the front digger, creates a clean trench profile, thus for easy laying of the
plastic film
 Design of the inverted diggers allows the dug soil to be ploughed back, as the farm
implement progresses forward.
3.3.5 Concept One Cons
 Due to the digger sub-units installed on the framework, hence the farming implement
tends to be heavy.
 The design can only perform a single trench at a time, has overall operation time on a
hectare is generally longer.
 On uncultivated land, the farm implement will tend to increase the load experienced by
the tractor attached to the implement, hence it is not energy efficient.
3.4 Development of Concept Two
Concept two is a reverse engineered version of previous concept one. In the latter design, the
digging and burying functions of the water retention farming implement are combined into one
unit. The aim in the design of concept two is to reduce the time take to insert the plastic film per
hectare, hence concept two is designed with a cultivator discs that loosen the soil, prior to
digging. Loosening the soil is essential so as to reduce the resistance of the digger by the soil.
This feature is meant to help to reduce the traction load acting on the tractor mounted with the
water retention farming implement, hence reduce fuel usage.
Figure 3. 6 Image showing the 3D model of concept 2 of the water retention
farming implement
3.4.1 Overall Design Of Concept Two
Figure 3. 7: Image showing the labelled diagram of concept 2 of the water retention
farming implement
Concept 2 consists of a rotary cultivator which loosens the soil, prior to digging. The rotary
digger is designed using rotary discs that are mounted on an axle that is supported to the
framework of the farming implement. Unlike concept one, the second concept of the farming
implement is not connected to the rotary transmission shaft from the tractor that is mounted with
the mechanism. This is due to the change in the installation design of the insertion of the plastic
film. On concept 2, the plastic is manually dug underneath the soil surface, at the start of the
trench. During traction, the plastic film unwinds, with the plastic film roll pivoted on to the
framework of the farming implement.
3.4.2 Trench Digger Design
Figure 3. 8: Image showing the diagram of concept 2 of the water retention
farming implement
The trench digger design for concept 2, is a 7mm sheet, that is first blanked to produce a curved
from digging head. The Digger is bent with a radius of 270 mm, with a depth of 55 mm. The
design eliminated the inverted side diggers used for covering the plastic film with the dug soil.
The digger is designed such that the dug soil, raises through farrow shaped form of the digger, to
cover the inserted plastic film.
3.4.3 Trench Profile
Figure 3. 9: Image showing front- view of the concept two trench profile
The trench profile produced by concept two digger design, is a curvature with a span of 470 mm,
with a depth of 110 mm. Compared to concept one trench profile, concept two profile differs has
an increased depth of 15 mm, increasing the water retention capacity of the subterranean
reservoir by 15 mm.
3.4.4 Concept two pros
 Reduced exerted traction load due to the cultivator discs, designed to loosen the soil prior
to digging
 Lower production cost of the farm implement due to the reduced parts that designed on
the concept.
 Concept two is simplified hence the increase in the ease of manufacture
 The concept 2 digger is capable of penentrating soils that are more difficult to till due to
the discs
3.4.5 Concept two cons
 The design is limited to digging one trench at a time, hence overall operation
time per hectare is relatively long.
 Plastic retention film, has to be manually dug on the ground at the start of the
trench.
 Concept two is not integrated storage for additional plastic film rolls, hence after
insertion there is loss in operation time, as the operator has to physically carry the
new plastic rolls to the farming implement.
3.5 Development of Concept Three
Figure 3. 10: 3-Dimensional view of concept three of the water retention farming
implement
Concept three is designed with triple action of inserting the plastic film in the subterranean level.
The goal of concept three is to increase the number of dug trenches at a time, hence reducing the
total operation time per hectare. The reason behind the reduction in operation time is due to the
modular assembly design of combining singular modules in a parallel design.. The diggers are
installed parallel to each other at a spacing of 50 cm. the 50cm spacing is so as to create drainage
between the water retention trenches, such that during water logging excess water can easily
percolate underground.The trench digger for concept 3 is similar to that of concept 2
3.5.1 Concept Three Pros
 Increased number of water retention trenches hence reduced operation time per hectare
 Due to the increased number of dug trenches, energy used by tractor is reduced hence
concept three is energy efficient compared to the prior concepts one and two.
3.5.2 Concept Three Cons
 A repository for unused retention plastic rolls, affects operation time, since operator has
to manually replace the replace the emptied roll on the farm implement
3.6 Development of Concept Four
Figure 3. 11:Concept 4 of Wate Retention technology
Concept four is an advanced design of concept three, integrated with a smart repository unit for
plastic rolls. The mechanism is designed such that when the plastic roll is emptied after being
laid on the trench, the farm implement is able to automatically replace the emptied plastic roll
with a unused plastic roll from its repository. This feature eliminates the need to manually
replace the emptied rolls, hence the tractor operator does not have to halt activities hence reduced
operation time per hectare. Concept four is designed such that the plastic rolls do not have to be
manually inserted to the ground at the start of the trench. A specially designed unwinding
mechanism, driven by the propeller connected to the tractor, automatically unwinds the plastic
rolls on to the dug trench, without the need of the tractor operator to manually unwind the plastic
rolls.
3.7 Concept Selection
3.7.1 Concept Screening
During concept screening the author will evaluate, relative to a common reference, by applying
the screening matrix, rough initial concepts.
Table 3. 1:Concept Rating symbols
Concept rating Comments
0 Concept X is similar to Y for the given screening criteria
+ Concept X is better than Y for the given screening criteria
- Concept X is worse than Y for the given screening criteria
Table 3. 2: Concept Screening Matrix
Selection Criteria Reference Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4
Manufacturing cost 0 - + + +
Material cost 0 - + - -
Ease of manufacture 0 - + + +
Ease of assembly 0 + + + +
Durability 0 - + 0 +
Ease of maintenance 0 + + + +
Ease of operation 0 - - 0 +
Total operation time/ 0 - - + +

hectare
Energy consumption 0 - - + +
Sum +’s 0 2 6 6 8
Sum 0’s 9 0 0 2 0
Sum –‘s 0 7 3 1 1
Net score 0 -5 +3 +5 +7
Rank 5 4 3 2 1
Continue? No No Revise Revise Yes
Using the concept screening process, the author found out that concept 3 can be developed whilst
concept 2 and 1 are to be eliminated.
3.7.2 Selected Concept
The author after going through the concept screening and concept scoring phases, selected
concept 4 for further development.Concept 4 combines the descripancies of al the other
concepts.
3.7.3 Production Decomposition
The overall design was carried out to breakdown the selected concept into its sub-units.
Table 3. 3: Selected Concept Breakdown
System Description
1. Repository unit (Plastic rolls storage) Functions as a storage bin for the unused
plastic film rolls.
2. Repository outlet controller Functions as a control mechanism to

regulate the release of the plastic rolls
from the repository unit, allowing only
one plastic roll to be released at a time.
3. Plastic roll support tongs A mechanism designed to support the

plastic rolls during operation. The unit is
driven by a geared motor such that it tilts
to release the empty roll and restores itself
to its default position.
4. Unwinding mechanism It is connected to the tractor’s propeller

via a chain-drive system. It functions such
that during operation it rotates the plastic
rolls to release the plastic film to the dug
trench.
5. Dynamo unit Connected to the propeller unit through a

gearbox for increasing speed. It functions
as power generator for the actuators that
is the geared motors.
6. Digger A specially designed digger, that

combines the digging and burying
operation of the plastic film.
7. Cultivator discs It is installed at the front section of the

water retention implement such that it
loosens the soil, prior to the digging
section.
3.9 Conclusion
This chapter focused on the conceptual design stage of the membrane installation farm
implement.Various criterion were use in narrowing down an evaluating 4 alternative
desiggnconcepts,leaing o the generation of the selecte concept.The author applied Pugh’s matrix
in the cconcept screening and scoring process.The final concept was developed from a
combination of 2 alternative concepts,combining relative advantages.
When you have generated concepts, you rate them using a conept selection matrix and get the
best out of all the concepts. Develop that concept by applyining engineering design principles.
You seem to be just adding irrelevant information that has nothing to do with concept rating and
selection.
CHAPTER 4. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Introduction
All knowledge which ends in words will die as quickly as it came to life,with the exception of
the written word:which is its mechanical part (Leornado da Vinci). In this chapter, the design of
the concepts selected in chapter four will be done inorder to come up with the farm implement.
This chapter develops the objectives of the project. The detailed design stage involves
calculations for the mechanical components, process simulation and comp aided modelling based
on the literature reviewed in chapter 2 of the document. The author used Autodesk Inventor
(2013) for modelling mechanical designs and Finite Element Analysis (FEA). AutoCad 2013
shall be used for mechanical assembly drawings.
The following criteria was used for developing the machine:
 Design calculations and material selection.

 Generation of 2D drawings and 3D Solid-Works using AUTOCAD 2000, 2007 and 2012
softwares.
 Standards analysis of drawings and calculations of complete designs before fabrication.
4.1 System Requirements

The main frame supports the entire weight of the machine The total weights carried by the main
frame are for the:
 Discs and Disc arms
 Rollers and Roller Shafts
 Wheels and Wheel Arms
 Plastic Film
 The Transmission System and its Components
 Springs
 Bearings.
 Weight of Frame
4.2 Design of Discs
Discs on a disc plough implements are used for primary tillage in hard and dry, trashy, stony or
stumpy land conditions and in soil where scoring is a major problem.
4.2.1 Assumptions and Design Parameters
The following assumptions were made during the design stage of discs:
1. The disc forward velocity (V f ¿ is equivalent to the tractor speed = 2.5m/s (Sommer et al.,
1983).
2. The discs are assumed to operate on maximum conditions (very heavy clay soils).
3. A furrow depth of 300mm is chosen.
4. The plough uses 3 discs (3 furrow openings/turn) with conventional spherical disc geometry.
5. The disc is assumed to translate horizontally with a disc angle as well as an inclination angle.
4.2.2 Disc Calculations
The various disc calculations were done below:

Disc face circle diameter (D)
According to Gill et al. (1979), disc diameters (D) range from 400mm to 800mm.
∴ D of 500mm (0.5m) is selected
Disc Angle (∅ )
The disc angle, (∅ ) is obtained from the relationship:
c
V =
cos ∅
where V = forward Travel speed (2.5m/s)

c = disc circumference and ∅ = disc angle
c
∴ ∅ = Cos-1( )
V
Circumference, c = πD
= π *0.5
= 1.57 m
1.57
∴ ∅ = Cos-1( ) = 51.070
2.5
Tilt angle
Figure 4. 1 :Angles of disc plough
The standard tilt angle (θ ) for discs falls in the range: 150<θ < 250
A twist angle of 150 is selected for this design
Linear Circumferential Speed (V 1 ¿ ¿

The linear circumferential speed is given by:
V 1 = VCos∅
Where V = Forward travel speed (2.5m/s), and ∅ = disc angle (200)

∴ V 1 = 2.5*Cos51.07 0
=1.57m/s
Disc Angular Velocity (ω)
The angular velocity of rotation of each disc is given by:
2V cos ∅
ω=
D
Where D = diameter of disc (m)
2∗1.57∗cos 51.07
∴ω=
0.5
= 3.95rad/s
Disc Depth Factor ( f ¿
The depth factor shows the relationship between depth and diameter of disc.
d
∴f = (Singh et. al,1978)
D
Where D = disc diameter, and d = disc depth
300
∴f =
500
= 0.6
Kinematic parameter ( γ ¿
The kinematic parameter ( γ ¿ shows the effect of the disc design on the soil types of a given area
in relation to the disc speed. It is given by the relationship between rotational and forward
velocity:
Vc
γ=
Vf
where V c = rotational velocity of disc (m/s) and V f = forward velocity of disc (2.5m/s).
But V c = ω*r
where ω = angular velocity (3.95rad/s from angular velocity calculation above) and r is the
radius of the disc (0.25m)
∴ V c = 3.95*0.25 = 0.9875m/s
0.9875
Hence γ =
2.5
= 0.395
Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature of the disc is the radius of the sphere. The edge of the disc is therefore a
circle and the diameter of this circle is called the diameter of the disc.
Width of Cut (W)
In operation, a particular setting of disc implement is fixed by the disc angle (∅ ), tilt angle (θ )
and the depth of cut (d). These variables have a significant influence on the width of cut
performed by a disc at a particular setting (Alarm, 1989). The relation between the above
mentioned variables is given by:
2cos ∅
W =
Cosθ
√ d ( DCosθ−d )
Where D = disc diameter (m)

2cos 51.07
∴W =
cos 15
√ 0.3(0.5 cos 15−0.3)
= 0.31m
Linear Distance (S)
The linear distance (S) covered by the disc rotation was calculated as:
πD
S= (E-1)
4
Where D = disc diameter and E = is the number of event marks.
Assumption
The disc plough operates in a 1 hectare square field (10 000m2) with dimensions 100m*100m
The distance covered by 1 disc on the ploughs is given by:

Width of field (W f ) 100
D= = = 33.33m
Number of discs(n) 3
= 34m
Number of turns ( N)
and E, the number of events = Width of cut( W )
34
= 0.31
= 109.67marks
≈ 110marks
π∗0.5
Hence S = (109.67-1)
4
= 42.68m
≈ 43m
Total width of ploughing (W T )
W T = W*n
Where W = width of cut/disc and n = number of discs
∴ W T = 0.31*3
= 0.93m/turn
Total Draft Force (F)
Draft is the horizontal component force of the tractor pulling action, parallel to the line of motion
of the disc. The Force exerted on 1 disc is given by:
= Ko *A (Dransfield et al., 1965)
where Df = Draft force of 1 disc (Kgf), Ko = Specific Soil Resistance = 0.25 kg/cm 2 (Table 4.1),
assuming the disc plough operates on a very heavy clay soil), A = Furrow cross sectional area
(cm2). Taking Ko = 3 times higher as a factor of safety
Table 4. 1 Soil types and their resistance offer values(Marode et al., 2013)
But A = W*d
Where = width of furrow opener (cm) and d = depth of opener (cm).
∴ A = 31*30 = 930cm3
D = 3*0.25*930
= 697.5Kgf
∴ F = n* Df
Where n = number of discs and D f = Draft force of 1 disc (Kgf)
∴ F = 3*697.5
= 2092.5 Kgf
Disc thickness (t ¿
The formular for hemi-spherical shells is applied to calculate disc thickness. According to
…, it is given by:
p∗D
t=
4S
Where D = diameter of disc, P = Pressure (N/mm2), S = safe tensile stress (N/mm2)
Assumption: A safe working stress of 50N/mm2 is allowable (Khurmi and Gupta, 2005).
But
force acting on disc
Pressure, p = Disc Area
Df
=
πr 2
5175
=
π∗2252
= 0.033N/mm2
0.033∗450
∴t =
4∗50
¿ 0.07422 mm2
Horsepower (HP)
The formula for estimating the required horsepower measured at the power take-off (PTO) is:
F∗V f
HP =
75
Where F = Total force (kgf) and V f = travel speed of the disc plough
2092.5∗2.5
∴ HP =
75
= 69.75HP
≈ 70HP
Therefore an 80Hp tractor is needed to draw the implement

Disc plough Coverage
The following assumptions were made:

1. The disc plough operates 8 hours/day
2. Time lost in turning is 10%.
3. Speed of implement = 2.5m/s (9km/hr)
Therefore, the area of land tilled by the 3 discs per day is given by:
A L = AT - T L
Where A L = area of land tilled/day, AT = Total area excluding time losses
T L = time losses
3∗31
Area covered per hectare = *9*1000
100
= 8370m2
⇒ AT = 8370∗8
=66 960 m2
= 66960
10 000
= 6.696ha
6.696∗10
TL = = 0.6696ha
100
∴ A L = 6.696-0.6696
= 6.03ha
Height of Disc (H) under tilted conditions
The height of disc (H) when the disc is at a maximum depth of cut (d) of 30cm is given by the
following consideration:
Figure 4. 2:Height of Disc
From the diagram AB is the disc diameter = 500mm
Using the sine rule:
BC AB
=
sin ∅ sin 90
The height of disc (H) is represented by BC
AB sin ∅
∴ BC =
sin 90
∅ = 90- tilt angle

= 90-15
= 75o
BC =H
500sin 75
=
sin 90
= 482.96mm
≈ 483mm
Contact Line ( Lc )
The contact line, Lc is the horizontal distance of the length of the disc on its contact with the soil
surface at the full depth of 300m as shown in Figure below:
Figure 4. 3: Contact line
In the diagram above, contact length ois represented by AD
∴ AD = AE + ED (but AE =ED)
Using Pythagoras theorem

⇒ AD = 2*√ AO 2−OE 2
AO = radius of the disc under tilted conditions
H 483
∴ AO = =
2 2
= 241.5mm≈ 242mm.
OE = depth of cut - radius of the disc under tilted conditions
= 300-242 =58mm
∴ AD = 2*√ 2422−582
= 469.89mm
Therefore the contact line ( Lc ) = 469.89mm
Horizontal Force
Vertical Forces
Rake angle
4.3 Wheel Design
The purpose of the wheels on the disc plough are to transmit rotational motion to the roller with
the aid of chain drives (sprockets-chain mechanisms). Each of the 3 Discs has its own wheel
located behind the disc, roller and chain dive system.
4.3.1 Assumptions
1. The disc ploughs will use 3 identical wheels.
2. The disc wheel’s actual velocity¿) during operation is equivalent to the tractor speed =
2.5m/s (Sommer et al., 1983).
3. Select an overall tyre diameter (d o ¿ of 200mm
4. The weight of each wheel = 4kg
4.3.2 Wheel Calculations
Wheel calculations are shown below:
Angular Velocity (ω)
The theoretical velocity of the wheel is given by:
V t = ω∗r
V t 2.5
∴ω= = 0.1
r
= 25rad/sec
Number of Revolutions Per Minute ( N ¿
The relationship between N and ω is:
2 πN
ω=
60
60 ω 60∗25
∴N= = 2π
2π
= 238.73rpm
2.1 Power Transmitted by the Wheel ( P )
The power transmitted by the wheel is given by the relationship between Torque (T) and
revolutions per minute ( N ):
2 πN
P = T*
60
where T = Torque (Nm)
But
T = F*r
Where F = Force (N) and r = static loaded rolling radius of wheel (m)
2 πN
∴ P = F*r *
60
F = m∗a
Where m = mass (kg) and a = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
F = 4∗9.81 =
39.24N
2 π∗238.73
∴ P = 39.24*0.1 *
60
= 98.1W
Energy Developed Per Revolution ( E )
The work done by the wheel in 1 complete turn is given by:
P∗60
E=
N
98.1∗60
= 238.73
= 24.66J
Thickness of Wheel Rim (t )
The thickness of the wheel rim (t ) is given by the relationship between width (b ) and Rim cross
sectional Area ( A ):
A = b *t
But
b = 2t
∴ A = 2 t2
The mass, m = A* π∗d o* ρ

Where d o = outer diameter of wheel (0.2m) and ρ = density of hard rubber material used for the
tyre (1185kg/m3).
Substituting A for 2 t 2
we have m = 2 t 2 * π∗d o* ρ
∴t =
√ m
2∗π∗d o∗ρ
=
√ 4
2∗π∗0.2∗1185
= 51.8mm
Width of wheel (b )
The width is twice the thickness:
∴ Width of wheel, b = 2*51.8
= 103.65mm
Torque Produced By the Wheel (T ¿
The mean Torque produced by the wheel is:
P∗60
T mean =
2 πN
98.1∗60
=
2 π∗238.73
= 3924Nmm
The maximum Torque produced by the wheel is:
T max = 2*T mean
= 2*3924
= 7848Nmm
Wheel axle diameter (d axle ¿
The axle diameter (d axle ¿ is given by the relationship:
π
T max = *τ *d 3axle
16
Where τ = allowable shear stress of axle material (40N/mm2)
∴ d axle = 3
√ 16 T max
πτ
=
√ 3 16∗7848
π∗40
= 9.99mm (select a 12mm diameter)

Wheel axle Length ( Laxle ¿
The shaft length for each wheel is determined by introducing an allowance factor of 100mm that
introduces a space for installation of the sprocket:
Laxle = Width of wheel (b ) +100
= 103.65 +100 = 203.65
≈ 204mm
Diameter of Hub (Dhub)
( Dhub) = 2*d axle
= 2*9.99
=19.99mm≈ 20mm
Length of Hub ( Lhub)
rim width = b
= 103.65mm
Tyre Deflection (σ )
The tyre deflection of the wheel is calculated as:
do
σ= - ri
2
Where σ = tyre deflection (m)
d o = outside diameter of wheel (m)
r i = static loaded radius of wheel (m)
0.2
∴σ = – 0.1 =
2
Aspect Ratio (r A )
The aspect ratio gives the relationship between tyre section height and section width:
section height
rA =
section width
Assuming a section height of 0.5m, and knowing that the section width is he width of the wheel(
b¿
0.05
∴ rA =
103.65
= 0.00048
Nominal rim diameter for the wheel (d nri )
The nominal rim diameter for the wheel (d nri )in inches is determined from the relationship:
d o−25.4∗d nri
hi =
4
Where hi = wheel section height (0.05m),d o = outside diameter of wheel (mm),d nri = nominal rim
diameter for the wheel (inch).
d o−2 hi
∴ d nri =
25.4
200−2∗0.05
=
25.4
= 7.87inches= 199.9mm
Table 4. 2:The common tractor wheels specifications
Wheel slip (S)

When a tractor pulls a load, there is a reduction in distance travelled and/or speed that occurs
because of flexing of the tractive device and shear within the soil. Slip occurs any time a wheel
or traction device develops pull (net traction) (Kumar et al., 2012). It is expressed as the ratio of
the decrease in the actual speed to the theoretical speed and is given by:
V t−V a
S= *100
Vt
Where V a = actual travel speed (m/s) and V t = theoretical travel speed (m/s)
Assuming that the theoretical travel velocity (V t ) of the disc wheel when the disc plough is
disengaged is 3m/s:
3−2.5
S (%) = - ∗100
3
= 16.67%
Rolling Resistance (RR)
Rolling Resistance (RR) is the force necessary to propel a vehicle over a particular surface.
RR = GIW*C π
Where GIW= Gross Implement Weight (N), C π = surface friction (value from Table 4.3).
Assuming an implement mass of 200kg;
=200*9.81
= 1962N
A surface friction for mud conditions is selected for tillage operations.
Table 4. 3:Surface Friction
∴ RR = 1962*0.37
=725.94N
Motion resistance ratio (MRR)
Coefficient of motion resistance or motion resistance ratio (MRR) is defined as the ratio of
rolling resistance to the dynamic weight on the wheel. It is given by:
RR
MRR =
GIW
725.94
=
1962
= 0.37
Gross Traction Ratio (GTR)
The gross traction ratio is the ratio of the gross thrust developed by the disc plough to the
dynamic weight on the traction wheels. (Brixius,1987) developed the following expressions for
GTR:
GTR = 0.888(1-e−0.1 B ) (1-e−7.55) + 0.04

n
Where Bn = mobility number
But Bn is determined from the relationship:
1
MRR = + 0.04
Bn
1
∴ Bn =
MRR−0.04
1
Bn =
0.37−0.04
= 3.03≈ 3
∴ GTR = 0.888(1-e−0.1∗3 ) (1-e−7.55) + 0.04

= 2.2
Net Traction Ratio (NTR)
This is the difference between the gross traction ration and the Motion resistance ratio:
NTR = GTR- MRR
= 2.2-0.37
=1.82
Tractive Efficiency (TE)
Tractive Efficiency of the disc wheel affected by both velocity losses and pull losses (Frank and
Zoz, 2003).Therefore:
( GTR )∗( V )
NTR Va
TE =
t
= ( 1.82
2.2 )∗(
3 )
2.5
= 0.69
≈ 69%
4.3.3 Material Selection and tyre geometry
Material used for the disc wheels is rubber tyre and steel for the rim. Rubber was chosen as it is
more flexible and absorbs shock on rough terrain and maintains stability on steep slopes than the
use of metal wheels. R1 type agricultural tyre design is selected.
4.5 Roller and Roller Shaft Design
The roller is designed to accommodate polythene plastic layer during forward movement of the
tractor and the disc plough so that laying occurs easily with the aid of chain/sprocket mechanism
with minimum crippling or sticking of the plastic. The roller is suspended on a roller frame
attached to the main disc plough frame by means of plumber block bearings on each side of the
roller shaft.
4.3.1 Assumptions and design parameters

1. A 0.3mm thick polythene plastic material is used.
2. Each laying operation is done on a 100m*100m field (1ha).
3. A roller overall diameter of 500mm is selected.
4. The roller shaft is solid and subjected to torsion and bending with little or no axial loading.
5. Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to:
Bending Moment (Kb), is suddenly applied load (minor shock) on rotating shaft = 2.
Torsional Moment (Kt), is suddenly applied load (minor shock) on rotating shaft = 1.5
(Khurmi and Gupta, 2005).
Table 4. 4 Recommended Values for km and kt
6. The material for the shaft is high carbon commercial steel with an allowable shear stresses ( τ
) of 55N/mm2.
7. Theoretical Shaft diameter = 16mm.
4.3.2 Roller Calculations
Roller calculations are shown below:
Plastic Arrangement
The plastics should leave a gap of 100mm between furrows for water retention. The plastic
should be inserted at right edge of each furrow in order to leave the 100mm gap between the
furrows F 1, F 2 and F 3 .this is shown in Figure 5.4 on the next Page:
Figure 4. 5:Plastic Layout
Width of plastic and roller
The width of plastic layer is given by the difference between furrow width and Drainage gap:
Plastic width = width of roller = furrow width – drainage gap
= (310-100) mm
= 210mm
Total Length of plastic for each disc
Each disc makes 110turns (from Section 4.2.2)

1 turn = 100m = furrow.
∴ 110turns = 110*100
= 11000m
Therefore length of plastic required for 1 disc to cover the 34m width is 11000m
The plastics are designed so that at the end of 1 turn, a plastic layer separates from the main roll
that is at every 100m.Therefore the 11000m is cut into 100mx0.21m sections.
Frequency of Plastic loading
The roller is designed to have a diameter of 500mm on a 16mm diameter shaft. The frequency of
loading the plastic per disc in order to cover 1ha is given by the following relationships:
Total plastic length required by each disc

Loading frequency =
plastic length for the500 mm diameter roller
Plastic length for the 500mm diameter roller is determined from the following iterations:
The roller takes the shape of an Archimedes spiral and increases in diameter from the shaft to the
outer diameter of the roller (500mm). This is shown in Figure 4.6 on the next page:
Figure 4. 6:Roller and Plastic Cross-Section
Since the plastic layer has a thickness of 0.3mm.and the roller shaft diameter is 16mm, therefore
the circumference (C 0) of the shaft is given by:
C 0 = π d0
Where d = shaft diameter (mm)
The total length of the plastic is determined by applying Arithmetic Progression (AP) by
summation of the circumference of each increase in thickness and diameter. Each diameter
increases by 0.6mm. that is 0.3mm on each side of the circular plastic roller. Plastic thickness
starts on C 3 and ends on C n which is the last term which gives the 500mm diameter.
∴ C 1 = π d1
⇒ π (16+0.6)
= 16.6 π
C2 = π d2
⇒ π (16.6+0.6)
= 17.2 π
Cn = π dn
⇒ π (49.94+0.6)
= 500 π
∴ C n = a + (n−1)d
where a = first term and d = common difference
Taking C n as the last term,a = 16.6 π and d as:
d = C 3 -C 2
= 17.2 π -16.6 π
= 0.6 π
The number of circumferences (n) covered by the plastic are given by the relationship:
500 π
= 16.6 π + (n-1) 0.6 π
500 π −16.6 π
∴n= +1
0.6 π
= 806.67circumferences≈ 807 circumferences
The total length of plastic (T pL) accommodated by a 500mm diameter roller is:
807
T pL= ∑ C 1 + C 2 +… ..+C 807
n =1
Applying the following Arithmetic Progression formular to find summations for each
circumference (Genda, 2001):
n
T pL=Sn = [ a+l ]
2
Where Sn = total plastic length (mm) a = first term (mm) and l =last term (mm)
807
T pL=Sn = [ 16.6 π +500 π ]
2
= 654588.5285mm≈ 654.59m
The 500mm diameter roller has a plastic length (T pL) of 654.59m
Hence
Total plasticlength required by each disc

Loading frequency =
plastic length for the500 mm diameter roller (T ¿¿ pL)¿
Total plastic required by each disc = 11000m
11000
∴ Loading frequency/roller=
654.59
= 16.8≈ 17 times
Therefore for the 1ha field which is 100m*100m, the roller for each disc plough needs to be
loaded 17times.
Length of roller Shaft ( LR )
The length of the roller shaft is determined by:
LR = a+ b+c +d +e + f
Where a = shaft overlap from disc wheel on right side to accommodate bearing (50mm)
b = roller width (210mm)
c = drainage section width (100mm)
d = allowance to prevent wheel from rolling inside the furrow (50mm)

e = width of wheel (103.65mm, from section 4.3.2)
f = shaft overlap from left side to accommodate sprockets, bearing and safety guards (120mm)
LR = 50+210+100+50+ 103.65 + 150
= 633.6mm≈ 634mm
Figure 4. 7:Roller Layout

Bending Moment/Shear Force Diagrams for the Roller Shaft
Assumptions and design parameters
1. The roller shaft is solid and subjected to torsion and bending with little or no axial
loading.
2. The material for the shaft is High Carbon commercial steel with an allowable shear
stresses (τ ) of 55N/mm2.
3. Shaft diameter = 16mm.
Weight of Roller (W)

In Figure 4.8 below shows the arrangement of the roller on the shaft with bearings suspending
the shaft on both ends. The initial weight of the roller when the plastic is loaded is given by the
following:
Roller shaft
bearing
plastic roller
Figure 4. 8:Roller Shaft and Bearings

The section modulus of a circular shaft,
π d3
Z=
32
= 0.0982d 3
= 0.0982*163
= 402.23mm3
The maximum bending moment at the right end where the roller weight is subjected is:
W∗L
M= 4
Where W = weight of roller (N), and L = centre to centre distance of the bearings
L = 359 +145
= 504mm
From the above diagram distance from fixed end to the centre of the roller where all load is
354mm
W∗504
∴M=
4
= 126W
M =126W(i)
knowing that bending stress,
M
σb =
Z
M
⇒ 50 =
Z
M = 50Z(ii)
Substituting equation (i) into (ii) we have:
50Z = 126W
50 Z
∴W=
126
50∗402.23
=
126
= 159.62N ≈ 16.27Kg
Therefore the weight of the roller is 16kg
Determination of the Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
The total weight of the roller follows the property of a uniformly distributed load of 159.62N.
But for a UDL, the weight must act per mm and 159.62N acts on a distance of 210mm which is
the roller width.
159.62
∴ UDL =
210
= 0.76N/mm
Free Body Diagram for Combined Concentrated and Uniformly Distributed Loads
Considering that the shaft is a beam loaded with a combination of concentrated loads and UDLs
and taking moments about Ra:
Roller shaft plastic roller

0.76N/mm
Ra Rb
Figure 4. 9:Free body diagram for Combined Concentrated and Uniformly Distributed Loads
Ra *(254 + 210) = 0.76*210*254
0.76∗210∗254
∴ Ra =
254+210
= 87.36724138N ≈ 87.37N (Shear Force, S.F at A).
Rc
Ra Rb
Figure
From 4. 10:Free
the above Body
diagram: RaDiagram
+ Rb = Rc
Rc = 159.62N which is the weight of roller
∴ Rb = Rc - Ra
= 159.62 - 87.37
= 72.25N
Shear Force diagram and Bending Moment diagram
The Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams are shown in Figure below. From the left-hand
side (LHS), it is possible to construct the S.F. diagram by following the direction arrows of the
loads. In the case of a UDL, the S.F. diagram will decrease gradually by the amount of total load
until the end of the UDL. Where there is no UDL, the S.F. diagram remains horizontal. The line
moves vertically by 87.34N (Concentrated load).and moves horizontally for a distance of
254mm. From that point the graph has reached a UDL condition and it gradually decreases at a
rate of 0.76*210 = 159.62N.
∴ Minimum point of UDL = 87.37-159.62
= -72.25N
In order to plot the B.M. Diagram the following values must be determined:
B.M. at A = 0.
B.M. at B = (87.37 * 105) – (0.76* 0.5)
= 9173.47N.mm (Maximum BM)
B.M. at D = [-72.25*(105+40)]
= -10476.25N.mm (working from RHS).
B.M at E = 0
Figure 4. 11Shear Force and Bending Moment diagram

Design of Shaft diameter
The actual shaft diameter is determined by the ASME code equation for a solid shaft having little
or no axial loading:
16
d3 = √ ¿ ¿ (ASME 1995).
πσs
where, d = shaft diameter (mm), M t = torsional moment (Nmm), M b = bending moment, (Nmm),
Kb = combined shock and fatigue factor applied to bending moment, and K t = combined shock
and fatigue factor applied to torsional moment.
∴ d= 3
√ 16
σs π
√¿¿¿
Torsional Moment (Mt)
The torsional moment of the shaft (Mt) is given by:
9 550 x kW
Mt = (Loewenthal, 1984).
N
where kW = power delivered by the roller shaft and N = speed in rpm
9 550 x 4.24
=
2880
∴ Mt = 14.05972222Nm ≈ 14 059.72222Nmm
Power delivered by the roller shaft = Wheel shaft power = 98.1W (determined from the wheel
design section 4.3.2)
Roller shaft speed = wheel shaft speed = 238.73rpm
9 550 x 981
∴ Mt = = 392243.29Nmm
238.73
Knowing that M b = 9173.47N.mm
√
∴ d = 3 16 √ ¿¿ ¿
40 π
= 19.88mm
Therefore the actual design roller shaft diameter is:20mm
4.6 Design of Plastic Roller Power Transmission (Sprocket and Chain Drive)
The power transmission devices used to drive the plastic film roller is the sprocket and chain
mechanism (chain drives). Three main types of sprockets are simplex, duplex and triplex
(Khurmi and Gupta, 2005).
4.6.1 Assumptions
1. Speed of driving sprocket (wheel sprocket/pinion), N1 is equivalent to the wheel speed =
238.73rpm.
2. Speed of driven sprocket (roller sprocket), N2 must be slightly less than half the driving
sprocket speed to reduce high speeds and allow uniform rolling of the plastic with
minimum jamming or crippling.
3. The machine operates 12 hours/day.
4. Uniform load was selected as the Service Classification (See Appendix A1).
Figure 4. 12:Components of the Chain Drivee Mechanism (Source:Khumi and

Gupta,2005)
4.6.2 Chain and Sprocket calculations
Velocity ratio of Chain drive
The velocity ratio of the chain drive, V.R is given by:
( N ¿ ¿1) 238.73
VR = speed of driving machine ¿ =
speed of driven machine ( N ¿¿ 2)¿ 100
∴V.R = 2.3 ≈ 2
Minimum number of teeth on Smaller Sprocket
The minimum number of teeth on smaller sprocket was determined from table below using the
calculated V.R:
Table 4. 5:Number of Teeth on smaller sprocket (Khurmi and Gupta,2005)
∴ The minimum number of teeth, T1 at a V.R of 2 is 27 teeth
Number of Teeth on larger Sprocket (T2)
N1 number of teeth of driving machine T2

VR = N = number of teeth of driven machine = T
2 1
N 1∗T 1 238.73∗27
∴ T2 = =
N2 100
= 64teeth
Design Power
The design power is determined by:
Design power = rated power x service factor
The service factor (KS ) is the product of various factors K1, K2 and K3. The values of these
factors are taken as follows:
Load factor (K1) for variable load with heavy shock = 1.5
Lubrication factor (K2) for drop lubrication= 1
Rating factor (K3) for 12 hr/day = 1.25
∴ service factor, KS = K1.K2.K3 = 1.5 × 1 × 1.25 = 1.875
Rated power = 0.0981 kW (from Section under wheel design under the heading Power
transmitted by the wheel (4.3.2)
∴ Design power = 0.0981 x 1.5 = 0.15kW (0.2HP)

Design and selection of Chain
From Table 4.4 below, corresponding to a pinion speed of 238 r.p.m (choose 300rpm), the type
of chain required for a power of 0.15kW is chain number (06B) of simple type (simplex)
mechanism with two strands.
Table 4. 6: Power rating in kW of Simple roller chain drives (Khurmi and Gupta, 2005).
Using Table 4.6 above, the parameters corresponding to 06B type chain are:
Pitch of the pinion, p = 9.525mm, Roller diameter, d1 = 6.35mm, Minimum width of roller, b1 =
5.72 mm, Minimum Breaking Load, Wb (kN) = 8.9kN.
Table 4. 7: Characteristics of roller chains according to IS: 2403-1991. ( Khurmi and Gupta,
2005)
Pitch Circle Diameter (D)
Pitch Circle Diameter of smallest sprocket/pinion (D1):
180
D1= pcosec ( ¿
T1
180
= 9.525cosec ( ¿
27
= 82.05mm.
Pitch Circle Diameter of larger sprocket/pinion (D2):
180
D2 = pcosec ( ¿
T2
180
= 9.525cosec ( ¿
64
= 194.12mm.
Outer Sprocket Diameter (Do)
The sprocket outside diameter (Do), for satisfactory operation is given by:
Do = D + 0.8 d1
Therefore outer diameter of pinion
= 82.05 + 0.81*6.35
= 87mm
Outer diameter of large sprocket
= 194.12 + 0.81*6.35
= 199mm
Pitch Line Velocity of smaller sprocket (v1)
Pitch line velocity of smaller pocket is given by:
π D1 N 1
v1 =
60
π∗0.082∗238,73
=
60
= 1. 03m/s
Load on Chain (W)
The load on chain is given by:
Rated Power
W=
Pitch line velocity
0.0981
=
1.03
= 0.1N
Centre Distance
The centre distance is the linear distance between the centers of the shafts for the wheel sprocket
and the roller sprocket.
Assumptions and Design Parameters

1. The roller radius = 250mm
2. Wheel radius = 100mm
Inclination angle (∅ ) and Centre Distance (AB)
The inclination angle (∅ ) is the angle formed by the Centre distance (AB) between the wheel
shaft and the roller shaft as shown below:
Figure 4. 13:Centre-Distance Between Roller Shaft and Wheel Shaft

The distance from the ground to the base of the roller (a) = 300mm
The distance from the ground to the centre of roller shaft (d) = 300mm + roller radius = 300 +
250 = 550mm
The gap distance separating the wheel and roller (b) = 50mm
Figure 4. 14:Pythagoras Pepresentation of the Shaft and Roller

Centre Relationship
The horizontal distance (AC) between the wheel shaft centre (A) and roller shaft centre (B) =
Wheel radius + b + roller radius = 100 + 50 + 250 = 400mm
Therefore, the Centre Distance (AB) is obtained using Pythagoras Theorem:
AB = c = √ AC 2+ BC 2
AC =400mm
BC = The distance from the ground to the centre of roller shaft (d) – wheel radius
= 550 – 100 = 450mm

∴ The centre distance, AB = √ 4002 + 4502 = 602.08mm
Hence the inclination angle (∅ ) is determined by the relationship:
BC AB
⇒ =
sin ∅ sin 90
BC 450
∴ ∅ = Sin-1( ) = Sin -1
( )
AB 602.08
= 48.40 ≈ 480
Therefore the inclination angle (∅ ) is 480
Length of chain (L)
The length of the chain (L) is the product of the number of chain links (K) and the pitch of the
chain (p) given by:
L = Kp
Figure 4. 15 :Total Length of chain (Khurmi and Gupta,2005
Given that:
2
T 1 +T 2 2 x T 2−T 1 p
K= + +[ ]
2 p 2π x
And:
T1 = 27, T2 =64, p =9.525, x = 602
27+64 2∗602 64−27 2 9.525 ¿

¿ + +( )(
2 9.525 2π 602
K =172.09
Length of Chain
L=Kp
¿ 172.09∗9.525
1639.16 mm
1.64 m
Safety Guards
Safety guards are fitted to cover rotating parts in order to prevent various hazards, malfunctions
and accidents. Exposed chain drives are prone to seizure due to accumulation of hygroscopic
materials, can cause dangers to the operator due to entanglement and expose the drive to mud
particles thereby lowering drive efficiency. The safety guards are made from 3mm MS sheet
since it is less prone to vibration than 1 or 2mm MS sheets. See Appendix B7 and B8 for design
drawings of sprockets, chain and safety guard.
4.7 Design of Arms for the wheel
The wheel is connected to the arms for structural support and stability during discing. It also
consists of a spring mechanism which allows the up and down movement of the wheel in
response to terrain fluctuations, thereby absorbing shock.
Length of arms
The wheel is supported by 2 arms.
The length of the arm = centre distance + allowance overlap factor
Assuming an overlap distance of 50mm from the shaft centre of roller and wheel
And centre distance = 602mm (calculated above).
∴ Length of the arm = 602 + 79 = 681mm
4.8 Spring Design
4.8.1 Assumptions
1. A squared ground end compression helical spring is used for each wheel as shown in
Figure below.
2. Spring wire thickness (diameter,d ) = 10mm.
3. Spring outside diameter ( Do ) = 60mm.
4. Permissible shear stress (τ ) = 350 MPa.
5. Modulus of rigidity (G ) = 84 kN/mm2.
6. Service load ranges from 1000N to 2500N
7. Spring deflection (δ ) under conditions in part 6 (above) = 8mm
8. Assume a spring index (C ) = 5.
Figure 4. 16:Geometry of Squared and Ground End Springs (Khurmi and

Gupta,2005)
4.8.2 Spring Calculations
Mean diameter ( Dmean)
Dmean = spring index * spring wire diameter = C*d
= 5d
But the spring wire diameter (d ) is obtained as follows:
Twisting moment on the spring:
Dmean
T = W*
2
W = 2500 -1000
= 1500N
5d
= 1500* =
2
3750d
Also
π
T= *τ d 3
16
π
∴ 3750d = *τ d 3
16
π
= *350∗d 3
16
= 68.72d 3
2 3750
d = = 54.57mm
68.72
⇒ d = 7.38mm
From Table 4.8 below, a standard wire of size SWG 3/0 having diameter (d) = 7.620 mm is
selected.
Table 4. 8:Standard Wire gauge (SWG) number and corresponding diameter of Spring Wire
∴ Mean diameter of the spring coil, Mean diameter ( Dmean) :
D = 5d =5*7.620
= 38.1mm
Outer ( D O) and inner diameter ( D i)
DO = D + d
= 38.1+ 7.620
= 45.77mm
Di = D - d
= 38.1 - 7.620
= 30.48mm
Number of turns in coil(n )
The deflection for the spring,
8∗W ∗C 3∗n
δ=
Gd
=
where W = load exerted on the spring (N), C = spring factor (5)
n = number of spring turns, G = Modulus of Rigidity (84kN/mm 2) and d = spring wire diameter
(7.620mm).δ is given as 8mm.
Gd δ
∴n = 8∗W ∗C
3
84 000∗7.620∗8
= 8∗1500∗5
3
= 3.4 turns≈ 4 turns

For squared and ground ends, the total number of turns,
n' = 10 + 3.4 =13.4turns

≈ 14 turns
Spring Length
Spring length design consists of Solid Length and Free length as shown below:
Figure 4. 17:Compression Spring Nomenclature (Khurmi and Gupta,2005)

Free length ( LF )
The free length of a compression spring, as shown above is the length of the spring in the free or
unloaded condition. Since the compression produced under 1500 N is 8 mm, therefore maximum
compression (σ max) produced under the maximum load of 2500N is:
8
(σ max) = * 2500
1500
= 13.33mm
∴ LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + clearance between adjacent coils
= n' *d + σ max + 0.15σ max
= 14*7.620 + 13.33 + 0.15*13.333
= 122mm (choose 150mm)
∴ = 150mm
Pitch of the coil
The pitch of the coil
Free length 150
=
'
n −1 14−1
= 11.54mm.
Surge in the spring
The natural frequency ( f n) for springs clamped between the wheel arm and the disc plough
frame due to wave of compression of the wheel when it reaches an uneven surface in the field
during tillage is given by:
fn = d
2
2π D n √
6∗G∗g
ρ
cycles/sec
where d = diameter of wire, D = mean diameter of spring

n = number of active turns, G = modulus of rigidity, g =acceleration due to gravity and ρ =
density of the spring material (7850Kg/m3)
∴f n = 7.620
2
2 π ¿ 38.1 ∗14 √
6∗84000∗9.81
7850
cycles/sec
=0.0015cycles/sec
The Table below shows the summary for the arm and spring
Table 4. 9: Design Dimensions for wheel arms and Spring Mechanism
Parameter Dimension Parameter Dimension

(mm)
Arms Spring
Length 652mm Length 150mm
Width 40mm Mean Diameter 38.1mm
Thickness 6mm Wire diameter 7.62mm

(thickness)
Inclination angle 480 Outer diameter 45.77mm

from wheel shaft
Inner diameter 30.48mm

4.9 Design of Disc Legs
The disc legs are designed to support the discs by linking them to the main disc plough
frame by means of bolts and nuts and a roller bearing.
Table 4. 10:Design Parameters
Design parameters Dimension
Tilt angle of Disc 150
Tilt angle of Leg 150
Material Solid MS rod
Height 553mm
Leg rod diameter 80mm
The leg geometry is represented in Figure 4.18 below:
Figure 4. 18:Disc Leg Geometry

Length of Disc leg (BC)
Length of leg BC is the hypotenuse side
Using Sine rule

BC BD
⇒ =
sin D sin C
BD = AD – AB = 553-100
= 453mm
Angle
C = 90-15 = 750
453∗sin 90
∴ BC =
sin 75
= 469mm
4.10 Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the design aspect of the project. Material selection for each of the
components was also carried out based on functional and/or regulatory requirements The sections
are to be linked to form the model for the farm implement. All design parameters concerning the
project were calculated in this chapter and all the crucial assumptions and design considerations were
stated. Drawings also form an important part of this chapter as they help visualise how the parts are
linked together Components designed include; the discs, roller and roller shaft, wheels, the
transmission system, arms for the wheel, springs and hydraulic system for lifting the implement
when it is not in use. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was done on the frame to simulate the various
stresses and loading limits it can withstand before failing The author designed the disc wheels in such
a manner that the first one opens a furrow whilst the 2 nd one closes the furrow, between these 2
separate events, plastic films will be layed but with a 10cm gap in betweeen them to cater for roots
that extend beyond 30cm and also for excess water to sip into the soil. A comprehensive list of
equipment needed will be included in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND COSTING
5.0Introduction
The success of any project is dependant on how well the triple constraint is managed.That is the
interdependency between the cost/resources available or money,the time or actual time required to
produce a deliverable and the tasks available which is the scope and affects the quality and
integrity of the project. This chapter shows the reults and findings from the design and analysis
chapter.Design Parameters of machine parts calculated will be discussed and evaluated.Trends
and patterns followed by the parts designed will aso form a bigger part of this chapter.Some of
the results fr critical parts will come from AutoDesk Inventor proffessiona simulation. Costing of
th entire project shall also be done and an analysis to determine the project’s payback period.
5.1 Disc Results
The discs wil be responsible for opening furrows and closing furrows. The required system design
parameters are tabulated in Table 5.1
Parameter/Specification Symbol Value
Disc Face Diameter
Disc Face Angle
Twist angle
Linear circumferential speed
Disc angular velocity
Disc depth factor
Kinematic Parameter
Width of cut
Linear Distance
Total width of ploughing
Total draft Force
Disc thickness
Horse Power
Disc plough coverage
Height of Disc
Contact Line
5.2 Wheel Results
The wheels on the disc plough serve the purpose of transmitting rotational motion to the roller
with the aid of chain drives (sprockets-chain mechanisms). The results of the parameters for the
design are tabulated in Table 5.2
Parameter Symbol Value
Angular Velocity
Number of Revs per minute
Power transmitted by the wheel
Energy developed per revolution

Thickness of wheel rim
Width of wheel
Mean torque produced by the wheel
Maximum torque produced by the wheel
Wheel axle diameter
Wheel axle length
Diameter of hub
Length of hub
Tyre deflection
Aspect ratio
Nominal rim diameter for wheel
Wheel slip
Rolling resistance
Motion resistance ratio
Gross Traction Ratio
Net traction ratio
Tractive efficiency
5.3 Roller and Roller Shaft Results
The results of the Rollers and roller shafts will be discussed in this section.
Width of Plastic and roller
Total length of Plastic for each disc
Frequency of loading (100*100m) field
Length of Roller Shaft
Weight of Roller
Centre to centre distance of bearings
Uniformly distributed load
Minimun point of UDL
Maximum bending moment
Roller shaft diameter
Torsional moment of shaft
5.4 Roller Power Transmission System (Chain and Sprocket) Results

The results for the roller power transmission system are tabulated in Table 5.4. Various component
parameters were calculated for the required design.

Velocity Ratio
Number of teeth on larger sprocket
Design Power
Pitch of pinion
Roller diameter
Minimum width of roller
Minimum breaking load
Pitch circle diameter
Pitch circle diameter of larger sprocket
Outer Sprocket diameter
Outer diameter of Pinion
Pitch line velocity of smaller sprocket
Load on chain
Inclination angle
Centre distance
Length of chain
5.5 Wheel Arm results

The results of the required parameters for the wheel arm together with its components are tabulated
in Table 5.5
Length
Width of arms
Centre distance between wheel and sprocket
Thickness
Inclination angle from wheel shaft
5.6 Spring Design
The spring mechanism allows the up and down movement of the wheel in response to terrain
fluctuations, thereby absorbing shock.The table below shows the results of the design
considerations made when designing the springs.
Mean diameter of spring wire
Mean diameter of spring coil
Outer diameter
Inner diameter
Number of turns in coil
Deflection of spring
Free length
Maximum compression
Pitch of coil
Surge in Spring
5.7 Disc Leg Results
The table below shows the results of the disc legs as they are captured from chapter four of this
document.
Tilt angle of leg
Material
Height
Leg rod diameter
Length of leg
5.8 Materials
Table 5.8 below has brief details about the type of materials to be used to manufacture
parts,detailed information is in the previous chapter
Item Type of material
Discs 6mm Hardened Mild Steel
Wheel and axle Hardened Mild Steel
Tyres (R1 agricultural tyre) Hardened Rubber
Roller shaft Hardened Mild Steel
Plastic membrane 0.3mm HDPE (Shelf life?)
Springs squared ground end compression helical

spring
Chains chain number (06B) of simple type (simplex)

mechanism with two strands.
Sprockets
Rollers
Frame 50*50 mm square-tube

APPENDIX B:
WORKING DRAWINGS
APPENDIX B1: DISC ORIENTATION & LAYOUT
APPENDIX B2: WHEEL & AXLE (SHAFT) DESIGN
APPENDIX B3: ROLLER & ROLLER SHAFT DESIGN
APPENDIX B4: WHEEL ARM & SPRING DESIGN
APPENDIX B5: CHAIN DRIVE & SAFETY GUARD DESIGN
APPENDIX B6: LEG DESIGN
APPENDIX A1: SERVICE CLASSIFICATION FOR VARIOUS COMPONENTS
PTO shaft calculations
Disc wheels and arms
 Lights—added for nighttime operation, repair work, and warning signals on public
roadway transport
 Electrical Sensors—measure equipment operation functions
 Monitors—signal operator when machine function is disrupted
 Warning Devices—activated when reverse gear sounds alarm. Horns and lights
warn bystanders of actions
 Convenience Outlets—using wiring harness, permit connection to trailer or wagon

for proper lighting on public roads
4.1 Design of disc assembly

The forces acting on the disc blade are shown in Figure 4.2(Kepner et al 1978).The magnitude of
these forces were calculated as follows:
Theoretical draft =n∗w∗d∗s
Where
n – number of discs
w – width of cut,cm
d – depth of cut,cm
s – specific soil resistance ,kg/cm2
the furrow section was determined by knowing the width nd depth of cut by a disc bottom.
Reffering the Fig 3.2 ,the effective diameter (Dc) of the isc for a disc angle of 30o and max depth
of cut of 15cm.
Considering the specific soil resistance for medium 0.60 kg/cm2 (Bernali et al,1972) max depth
of operation as 15cm ,number of plough bottoms as 9 and subsistuting the values in equation
Draft of implement = 7 * 26.26 * 15 * 0.60
=1655.02k (16.22kN)
From Fig 3.1 the Force Rh (Resultant of L & S) was found as
L
Rh = cosα
Where,
L –horizontal component of R which lies in the direction of travel of the tool i.e draft.
α =¿ angle,total soil resistance R made with line of motion in horizontal plane a varies between
15o and 20o for all the soil conditions.(Bernachi et al ,1972)
Adopting thhe value of α as 20o and substituting it in equation (3.3) , the Rh is given as:
Rh = 1761.22 kgf (17.26kN)
The side force (s) acting perpendicular to the draft (L) was obtained as :
S = Rh sinα
= 1761.22 sin 200
= 602.37kgf (5.90kN)
The radial force (M) was calculated as:
M = Rh cos (α +θo)
= 1761.22 cos (20° + 30°)
= 1132.09kgf (11.09kN)
The thrust force (Tf) acting parallel to the axis of the plough gang was obtained as:
Tf = Rh sin (α +θo ¿..
=1761.22 sin(20° + 30°)
=1132.09kgf (11.09kN)
The resultant of all useful force (R) acting on the disc was obtained as:
Rh
R= Cosθ
where
θ - is the angle of resultant off all useful force R make with horizontal in vertical plane and
varies between 15o and 20o (Barnacki et al,1972) adopted as 150 for design.Substituting the
value in equation (3.7) R is obtained as:
R=¿ 1823.35 kgf (17.87kN)
The vertical force (V) acting on the disc blade was obtained as :
V = Rsinθ
= 1823.35 sin 15o
=471.92 kgf (4.62kN)
Design of Power Transmission System

The power transmission system of th power vertical disc plough was designed for input
power of 45Hp (33.57kw)
Torque to be transmitte by PTO shaft of the tractor
HP∗4500
Tpto = 2∗π∗N
45∗4500
= 2∗3.14∗540
= 59.71Kgf-m(585.78N-m)
Where,
N-PTO speed of tractor,taking standard PTO speed as 540rpm for
design
Design of Cardan Shaft

The cardan shaft was required to transmit the PTO torque 585.78N-m (say 590N-m) to input
shaft of bevel gear.Therefore,cardan shaft was designed purely for torsion.The torque
transmitting capacity of carbon shaft spline is given by:
Mt = Pm *A *Rm
Where,
Mt - Transmitted torque ,(N-mm)
Pm - Permissible pressures on splines ,(N-mm2)
A – Total Area of splines,(mm2)
Rm – Mear radius of spline (mm)
The area is given by this equation:

1
A= (D-d) *l*n
2
Where,
D- Major diameter of splines ,(mm)
d – Minor diameter of splines,(mm)
l –length of hub,(mm)
n – Number of splines
mean radius of spline (Rm) is :

D+ d
Rm = 4
Substitute these values in equation 3.15

1 2 2
Mt = 8
∗Pm∗l∗n (D −d )
The permissible pressure on the sliding spline is limited to 6.5 N/mm2

1
590 000 = 8 * 6.5 * 100 *10 * (1042 – d2)
D = 100.44 mm
So the standard size of 100mm minor diameter was selected
Recommendations and considerations
Originally it was tried to keep all moving parts out of the device
because it was going to work in a dusty, dirty environment but the film handling required
expanded
designs for best delivery. Ultimately we designed the membrane handling through a series of
roller
and framing devices which formed the polymer film into the desired aspect ratio to be filled with
soil
on some sort of wheel assembly before transitioning it to the final shaper. This along with
maintaining proper tension on the polymer film resulted in a successful fail safe delivery of
SWRT
membranes by the current MIC used to install current SWRT membranes in sand soils despite
various ground conditions (Personal communication with Mike Ross).

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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING

Final Year Project [TIE 5009]

Design of a Sub-Terrain Membrane Installation Chisel Implement

MUJINGA LIETO (P0127012G)

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER........................................................................1

1.9 Chapter Summary..................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................8

2.1 Water Retention Technology.................................................................................................8

2.1.1 System Approach to Land Use Sustainability (SALUS) Models.................................12

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

2.2 Sources of Power.................................................................................................................12

2.3 Actuation Systems...............................................................................................................18

2.3.1 Linear Actuators...............................................................................................................19

2.3.2 Pneumatic System.........................................................................................................19

2.3.3 Hydraulic Systems........................................................................................................21

2.3.4 Solenoid Actuation System...........................................................................................23

2.3.5 Power Screw Actuation System....................................................................................23

2.4 Control Systems...................................................................................................................23

2.4.1 Control Loops...............................................................................................................24

2.4.2 Logic Control....................................................................................................................25

2.5 Soil Types of Southern Africa.............................................................................................29

2.5.1 Zimbabwe Soils............................................................................................................31

2.6 Plastics ................................................................................................................................38

2.6.1 Bio Plastics...................................................................................................................38

2.6.1 Green Plastics...............................................................................................................39

2.6.2 Biodegrable Materials...................................................................................................40

2.6.3 Starch-Based Plastics....................................................................................................41

2.6.4 “Thermoplastic-like Starch” (TPS)...............................................................................42

2.6.5 Starch-based films........................................................................................................42

2.6.7 Polylactic acid (PLA)...................................................................................................42

2.6.8 Biodegradable packaging in agriculture.......................................................................43

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

2.7.1 Power Take-Off (PTO).................................................................................................48

2.8.6 Transmission Shafts......................................................................................................53

2.8.7 Pulley Belt Drive System..............................................................................................53

2.8.9 Motion Clutch System..................................................................................................54

2.8.10 Rolling Contact Bearings............................................................................................54

2.8.11 Types Of Mechanical Gears.......................................................................................54

CHAPTER 3. CONCEPT GENERATION...................................................................................55

3.1 Conceptual Design...............................................................................................................58

3.2. Identification of Customer Needs...................................................................................58

3.3 Development of Concept One.............................................................................................59

3.3.1 Overall Design of Concept One...............................................................................60

3.3.2 Functionality of Concept One.......................................................................................61

3.3.3 Trench Digger Design...................................................................................................62

3.3.4 Concept One Pros.........................................................................................................62

3.3.5 Concept One Cons........................................................................................................63

3.4 Development of Concept Two.............................................................................................63

3.4.1 Overall Design Of Concept Two..................................................................................65

3.4.2 Trench Digger Design.................................................................................................66q

3.4.3 Trench Profile...............................................................................................................67

3.4.4 Concept two pros..........................................................................................................67

MUJINGA L.R.T.R IME 2016/17

3.4.5 Concept two cons..........................................................................................................68

3.5 Development of Concept Three...........................................................................................68

3.5.1 Concept Three Pros.......................................................................................................69

3.5.2 Concept Three Cons.....................................................................................................69