A Study of Electricians Preferences of PVC and Alternative Condu

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Theses and Dissertations
2009-11-30
A Study of Electricians' Preferences of PVC and Alternative

Conduit Materials in the State of Utah
Robert Andrus
Brigham Young University - Provo
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A Study of Electricians’ Preferences of PVC
and Alternative Conduit Materials
in the State of Utah
Robert M. Andrus
A thesis submitted to the faculty of

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Jay S. Newitt, Chair

Jay P. Christofferson
Kevin Burr
School of Technology
December 2009
ABSTRACT
A Study of Electricians’ Preferences of PVC
and Alternative Conduit Materials
in the State of Utah
Robert M. Andrus
School of Technology
Master of Science
Polyvinyl Chloride, commonly known as PVC is a common and effective construction

material. PVC is also one of the most common types of plastic. In 2008, global production and
consumption of PVC was approximately 34.5 million tons. The construction industry is
responsible for about 70% of the world’s consumption of PVC. The largest construction use of
PVC is for pipe and conduit. Modern construction, especially structures built for data services
depend heavily upon PVC conduit for underground pathways to distribute electricity and data.
PVC is also at the center of a fierce effort by environmental groups who would like to see it
eliminated completely.
If environmentalists are successful in their efforts to eliminate PVC; builders will be left
without a material that is crucial for many applications. Seven alternative conduit materials have
been identified as potential replacements for PVC electrical conduit.
PVC electrical conduit is commonly used in commercial, industrial, and civil

construction. This thesis undertook to study the four major electrical contractors in the state of
Utah which employ more than one hundred electricians. Because major electrical contractors
use large quantities of PVC conduit, electricians working for these contractors were surveyed to
determine their preferences of alternative materials. A questionnaire was distributed and
received 112 responses, which represent 6.5% of the total population.
This study found that PVC was the most used, most preferred, easiest to install and was
perceived as the least expensive conduit material. Polypropylene and High Density Polyethylene
were rated next highest, but were also the least commonly used of the alternative materials. The
other materials, which include: Nylon, Fiberglass, Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy, Polyurethane
Coated Steel, and Galvanized Steel were also examined. Many of the respondents expressed
displeasure by the effort to eliminate PVC and the vast majority felt that green certification for
construction did not justify elimination. These responses indicate that more needs to be done to
introduce alternative conduit materials to users of PVC and educate them about the value of the
alternatives. This study represents an important step in evaluating the value of PVC conduit and
its alternatives.
Keywords: Robert Andrus, PVC, polyvinylchloride, conduit, electrician, conduit alternatives,

green conduit, green building, green materials, electrician preference.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Construction Management Program at
Brigham Young University for the opportunity to study in a unique and challenging
environment. Especially, to my committee chair Dr. Jay Newitt for his direction and guidance. I
feel blessed to have had this opportunity. I’d like to thank Skanska and all the team at project
Topaz for the field education and exposure to PVC conduit and to all those who participated in
the study. I’m grateful to my dad, emeritus professor Dr. Ray Andrus, for his proofreading, his
insights, his example in education, and his example in all things. Lastly, I would like to thank
my wife, Anna, who was willing to put life on hold for the completion of this degree. I’m
grateful for her love, beauty, intelligence, formatting skills and endurance.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………….. ix
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………… xi
1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.1 Problem and Background ………………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………. 4
1.3 Need for the Study ………………………………………………………………. 5
1.4 Statement of Research …………………………………………………………… 5
1.5 Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………….. 5
1.6 Uniqueness of the Study ………………………………………………………… 5
1.7 Limitations ....……………………………………………………………………. 6
1.8 Assumptions ……………………………………………………………………... 6
1.9 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………........ 7
2 Review of Literature ………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.2 The Construction Industry ……………………………………………………... 12
2.3 Government Regulation of the Construction Industry …………………………. 13
2.4 Environmental Regulation of the Construction Industry ………………………. 14
2.5 Green Building, the Green Movement and its Influence on

Construction ……………………………………………………………………. 16
2.6 PVC: A Controversial Chemical ……………………………………………….. 19
2.7 Green Building Organizations and Their Call for the

Elimination of PVC …………………………………………………………….. 22
v
2.7.1 Greenpeace ……………………………………………………………... 22
2.7.2 Bans on PVC …………………………………………………………… 23
2.7.3 International Actions Concerning PVC ………………………………... 24
2.7.4 U.S. Green Building Council and the Leadership in Energy

and Environmental Design ……………………………………………... 26
2.7.5 Cascadia Region Green Building Council and the Living

Building Challenge …………………………………………………….. 29
2.7.6 Healthy Building Network ……………………………………………... 31
2.8 Alternatives for PVC Conduit ………………………………………………….. 32
2.8.1 High Density Polyethylene …………………………………………….. 32
2.8.2 Polypropylene ………………………………………………………….. 33
2.8.3 Galvanized Steel ……………………………………………………….. 33
2.8.4 Fiberglass ………………………………………………………………. 34
2.8.5 Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy …………………………………………... 34
2.8.6 Nylon …………………………………………………………………… 34
2.8.7 Polyurethane Coated Steel ……………………………………………... 35
2.9 Summary ……………………………………………………………………….. 35
3 Methodology …………………………………………………………………………... 39
3.1 Gathering Background Information ……………………………………………. 39
3.2 Research Design ………………………………………………………………... 42
3.3 Questionnaire Development ……………………………………………………. 43
3.4 The Final Survey Instrument …………………………………………………... 44
3.5 Survey Distribution …………………………………………………………….. 45
3.6 Response Rate ………………………………………………………………….. 46
vi
3.7 Data Entry and Analysis ……………………………………………………….. 47
4 Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………………….. 49
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….……. 49
4.2 Profile of the Respondents ……………………………………………………... 50
4.2.1 Years of Experience as an Electrician …………………………………. 50
4.2.2 Current Position Occupied by Each Respondent ………………………. 51
4.2.3 Respondents Who Make Purchasing Decisions ………………………... 52
4.3 Material Use, Preference, Ease of Installation and Cost ……………………….. 53
4.3.1 Respondents Who Have Used Each Material ………………………….. 54
4.3.2 Respondents Stated Preference of Materials …………………………… 55
4.3.3 Ease of Installation ……………………………………………………... 56
4.3.4 Cost of Materials ……………………………………………………….. 57
4.3.5 Overall Preference for Each Conduit Material ………………………… 58
4.3.6 Overall Preference verses Respondents Who Have Used

Each Material …………………………………………………………... 60
4.3.7 Respondents’ Awareness of Alternative Conduit Materials …………… 62
4.4 Respondents’ Concerns About the Use of

PVC Conduit …………………………………………………………………… 63
4.5 Respondents’ Opinions About the Possible Elimination of

PVC Conduit …………………………………………………………………… 63
4.6 Did Respondents Feel that a Green Certification Justifies the

Elimination of PVC Conduit …………………………………………………… 64
4.7 Specific Conclusions …………………………………………………………… 65
4.8 Summary…………………………………………………………………………67
vii
5 Conclusions, Recommendations, Further Study and Summary …………………... 69
5.1 Overview ……………………………………………………………………….. 69
5.2 Recommendations for Major Electrical Contractors ……………………………70
5.3 Recommendations for Groups Seeking to Eliminate PVC ……………….……..71
5.4 Recommendations for Further Study ……………………………………………72
5.5 Summary ………………………………………………………………………...73
References ………………....……………………………………………………………………75
Appendix A ……………….……………….…………….……………………………………...79
Appendix B ...………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
Appendix C ……………….………………………………………………………………..….. 83
Appendix D ……………………………………………………………………………...…...... 85
Appendix E ….……………………...………………….……………………………………… 87
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.6.1 Percentage of Population Surveyed ……………………………………………. 46
Table 3.6.2 Responses Collected From Topaz Data Center ………………………………... 47
ix
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Underground Electrical Conduit in Data Center Construction …………………..1
Figure 2.1 Construction Workers at Lunch …………………………………………………11
Figure 3.1.1 Underground Electrical Conduit in Data Center Construction ….………………40
Figure 3.1.2 Underground Electrical Conduit in Data Center Construction ….………………41
Figure 4.2.1 Respondent’s Years of Experience as an Electrician…………………………….51
Figure 4.2.2 Position Occupied by Each Respondent………………………………................51
Figure 4.2.3 Percentage of Respondents who Make Purchasing Decisions...…………………53
Figure 4.3.1 Percentage of Respondent’s who have used Each Conduit Material...…….…….55
Figure 4.3.2 Stated Preference of Conduit Materials…………………………………….…....56
Figure 4.3.3 Ease of Installation of Conduit Material...……………………………….………57
Figure 4.3.4 Cost of Conduit Materials………………………………………………………..58
Figure 4.3.5.1 Stated Preference, Ease of Installation and Cost of Materials…………………...59
Figure 4.3.5.2 Overall Preference of Conduit Materials…………………...……………………60
Figure 4.3.6.1 Overall Preference vs. Respondent’s Use of Each Conduit Material ….………..61
Figure 4.3.6.2 Overall Preference vs. Respondent’s Use of Each Conduit Material ….………..61
Figure 4.3.7 Open Ended Responses to Respondents Top Two Alternative

Conduit Materials………………………………………………...………………62
Figure 4.4 Respondent’s Concerns about Using PVC Conduit……………...………………63
Figure 4.6 Did Respondent’s Feel that a Green Certification Justifies the
Elimination of PVC Conduit………………………………………………..........65
xi
xii
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Problem
Figure 1.1: Underground Electrical Conduit in Data Center Construction
Polyvinyl Chloride, commonly known as PVC, is one of the most common types of
plastic. Developed in 1872, 1 the first PVC was brittle and nearly useless. Through innovations
in the manufacturing process, PVC has become a versatile plastic; accepting the widest variety of
additives and having a vast range of applications. PVC is now found all around us; in clothing,
flooring, computers, cell phones, automobile interiors, swim toys and construction materials.
1
K. Mulder and M. Knot, “PVC plastic: a history of systems development and entrenchment”, Technology in
Society, no.23 (2001): 267.
1
PVC is naturally resistant to bacteria which makes it ideal for many construction applications but
also makes it a target of environmental groups, who argue that is does not biodegrade.
In 2008, global production and consumption of PVC was approximately thirty-four and a
half million tons. 2 PVC is most commonly used as construction material. “The principal uses of
PVC, in order of importance are pipes, construction materials, consumer goods, packaging and
consumer products such as wire and cable. Pipes, siding, windows, doors and profiles (gutters,
fences, decks, etc.) together account for more than two-thirds of PVC use, and are among the
fastest growing categories.” 3 In 2002, forty-five percent of PVC sales were of pipe and conduit. 4
PVC is manufactured around the world by over one hundred companies in approximately fifty
countries. 5 PVC has proven to be an extremely versatile and popular material, however; it has
also become the center of a fierce effort by environmentalist who would like to see PVC
eliminated all together.
Since the late 1980’s the environmental group Greenpeace has been campaigning for the
elimination of PVC. 6 Greenpeace has been joined by many voices including; the Healthy
Building Network, 7 the World Watch Institute 8 and the Cascadia Region Green Building
Council. 9 Another organization, The U.S. Green Building Council, which administers the most
2
E. Linak, Chemical Economics Handbook, (SRI Consulting, 2009); available from
http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/580.1880/; Internet; accessed 19 September 2009.
3
F. Ackerman, Poisoned for Pennies: The Economics of Toxics and Precaution (Washington DC: Island Press,
2008), 166.
4
E.Linak and K. Yagi, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Resins: Chemical Economics Handbook Marketing Research
Report (California: SRI International, September, 2003); quoted in F. Ackerman, Poisoned for Pennies: The
Economics of Toxics and Precaution (Washington DC: Island Press, 2008),166.
5
E. Linak, Chemical Economics Handbook, (SRI Consulting, 2009) available from
http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/580.1880/, Internet; accessed 19 September 2009.
6
Greenpeace, “Go PVC-Free,” available from http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/campaigns/toxics/go-pvc-free;
Internet; accessed 8 August 2009.
7
Healthy Building Network, “PVC-Free Agenda makes Sense,” available from
http://www.healthybuilding.net/press/plastics_news_opition.html; Internet; accessed 25 September 2009.
8
P. McRandal, “Green Guidance,” World Watch Magazine, no. 19 (March/April 2006): 2
9
Cascadia Region Green Building Council (GRGBC), The Living Building Challenge: In Pursuit of True
Sustainability in the Built Environment (Portland Oregon, 2007), 20.
2
widely recognized standard for green building called the Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED), is currently considering the issue through its technical advisory
board. 10
The effort to eliminate PVC has been effective through a two-pronged approach. The
first approach has been implemented through aggressive marketing directly to consumers of PVC
to encourage the use of alternative materials over PVC. The second approach has been through
direct government regulation of PVC and the materials used to make it. In particular this
legislation has focused on regulating the use of chlorine, plasticizers and lead stabilizers. Many
of these environmental groups make the argument that PVC releases toxins throughout its life
cycle from manufacture to disposal. PVC is inherently flame retardant, but when burned it has
the potential to release chlorine gas. When chlorine gas is combined with moisture it produces
hydrochloric acid as well as dioxins, both of which have been shown to threaten human health
even at low concentration levels. 11
The possibility of PVC being eliminated is real and many European countries have
already passed legislation restricting its use. In the United States, environmental legislation first
began in 1972 with the forming of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since that time
environmental legislation has expanded and become increasingly strict. Currently, government
leaders appear willing to place tougher regulations on toxins and pollutants which may be
harmful to the environment. With fears of global warming and marketing appeals for “Going
Green” the general public has become environmentally conscious. These current trends add to
the probability that PVC may be eliminated.
10
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), “USGBC: PVC Task Group Background and History,” available from
http://www.usgbc.org/displaypage.aspx?CMSPageID=153 Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
11
2008),164-165.
3
If PVC is eliminated or phased-out the construction industry will be affected as builders
will be left without a material that is commonly used for many applications. Given the potential
risk of government restriction on the use of PVC and consumer demand for more
environmentally friendly products, users of PVC should become familiar with the most viable
alternative options.
The construction industry is responsible for about seventy percent of the world’s
consumption of PVC. 12 The largest construction use of PVC is for pipe and conduit.
Electricians involved with commercial construction are major users of PVC conduit. PVC
conduit has already been restricted by building code limitations for above ground use and is now
primarily used underground. If electricians are no longer permitted to use PVC conduit
underground, then alternatives should be identified and analyzed to determine which material is
best suited to take its place. A number of factors should be considered to determine the best
alternative including; the cost of material, the speed or ease of installation, the preference of the
installer, and the environmental friendliness of the material to avoid further conflict with
environmental groups.
1.2 Problem Statement
PVC, a chemical used to make common construction materials such as pipe and conduit,
has been targeted by environmental groups for elimination. The construction industry may be
faced with the necessity to replace this material. In light of this possibility it is important to
understand electricians’ awareness and preference for alternative underground conduit options.
12
4
1.3 Need for the Study
This study is valuable to the construction industry in identifying the most preferred
alternative conduit materials by electricians for three reasons: first; to be aware of possible
restrictions on PVC for underground use, second; to meet consumer demand for green building
certifications it may be necessary to replace PVC with alternative materials and third; to
determine electricians’ awareness of and preference for alternative underground conduit
materials.
1.4 Statement of Research
This study sought to clarify and evaluate the preferences of electricians working in the
state of Utah for more environmentally friendly alternatives to PVC conduit in underground
electrical applications. This was accomplished through the identification of trends, forces and
alternative materials found in the literature and by surveying the preferences of over one hundred
practicing commercial electricians in the state of Utah.
1.5 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research was to identify and evaluate the preferences of electricians
in the state of Utah for PVC and alternative conduit materials used in underground electrical
applications.
1.6 Uniqueness of the Study
A review of literature and positions of various environmental groups has shown that other
research is available on the pros and cons of PVC. This study adds to the available knowledge
5
by focusing specifically on the awareness and preference of electricians’ in the state of Utah for
alternative underground conduit.
1.7 Limitations
1. It was beyond the scope of this study to measure all products containing PVC.
This study focused solely on PVC for underground electrical conduit.
2. The scope of this study was limited to documenting the positions behind the
elimination of PVC. This study was not intended to debate the science behind
the push for the elimination of PVC but to acknowledge the debate and the
possible implications of the debate for electrical contractors in the construction
industry.
3. The “environmentally friendly” alternatives to PVC conduit for underground
electrical use were identified by environmental groups pushing for the
elimination of PVC. The analysis of the “environmental friendliness” of these
alternatives was beyond the scope of this study.
4. This scope of this study was limited to the preferences of electricians working
for major electrical contractors in the state of Utah. However, there is no reason
to assume that preferences of electricians should vary greatly by region, or
from state to state.
6
1.8 Assumptions
1. As users of PVC and other conduit, electricians are well suited to evaluate the use
of various alternative materials.
2. PVC has been identified as a product for elimination in both rigid and flexible
applications; therefore, PVC conduit will also be eliminated. It will need to be
replaced by some other type of conduit or pipe material.
1.9 Definition of Terms
1. Polyvinyl Chloride: The combination of the Vinyl Monomer and Chlorine. Used
in rigid and flexible applications, accepts a wide range of additives including
plasticizers and stabilizers, also known as PVC.
2. PVC Conduit: PVC pipe which is used primarily as a pathway for electrical
cables, rather than for liquids.
3. Green Building: “The practice of creating structures and using processes that are
environmentally responsible… 13 ”
4. Greenpeace: An international campaign organization dedicated to environmental
causes.
5. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Certification: The most
widely recognized and in some cases government approved standard for green
building certification, implemented by the United States Green Building Council,
also known as LEED.
13
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Green Building Basic Information, available from
www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm; Internet; accessed 15 June 2009.
7
6. The United States Green Building Council: A non-government agency which
administers LEED certification, also known as the USGBC.
7. Living Building Challenge: A new standard for building as developed by the
Cascadia Region Green Building Council, meant to surpass LEED as a higher
level of green building standard, also known as the LBC. To date no structure has
been certified as a Living Building.
8. Cascadia Region Green Building Council: A non-government agency which
administer the Living Building certification, also known as the CRGBC.
9. Materials Red List: A list of materials compiled by the CRGBC which may not
be present in construction for a building to be eligible to receive Living Building
status.
10. Sustainable Building: A building that can operate independently of outside
resources provided through civil services such as power, electricity and sewage.
11. Plasticizers: An additive which make PVC more flexible.
12. Stabilizers: An additive which makes PVC more rigid.
13. Organochlorines: An organic compound that contains at least one covalent bond
to chlorine, also known as an organochloride.
14. Phthalates: A chemical primarily used as a softener of PVC plastic, also known
as phthalic acid.
15. Dioxins: An environmental pollutant which can be released from PVC when it is
burned, also known as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins or polyhalogenated
chlorines.
16. Organohalogens: Any organic compound which contains at least one halogen.
8
17. Halogen: Any of five non-metallic elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine
and astatine.
18. Chlorine: A non-metallic element halogen. Chlorine is also the primary
ingredient in PVC.
19. Volatile Organic Compounds: Materials that may emit harmful chemicals or
odors such as certain types of paint or finishes, also known as VOC.
20. High Density Polyethylene: A non-chlorinated alternative to PVC pipe which
requires fewer additives and has a much higher recycling rate, also known as
HDPE. HDPE is less resistant to combustion, although it does not release
hydrochloric acid before combustion.
21. Polypropylene: An alternative to PVC pipe which is made from the monomer
propylene and shares many of the strengths of PVC. It is chemical resistant,
flame retardant and light weight. This pipe is useful for industrial applications
involving corrosive media, also known as PP or Poly.
23. Galvanized Steel: An alternative to PVC pipe which is a created by coating
traditional steel with zinc; this provides a resistance to corrosive environments
and rust. Despite its corrosion protection, Galvanized Steel does not stand up to
chemical environments as well as plastics.
24. Fiberglass: An alternative to PVC pipe which is created by combining glass
fibers with a polymer resin; resulting in a high strength, low weight product.
Because of the strength of the fiberglass material it may be buried directly without
concrete encasement.
9
25. Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy: An alternative to PVC pipe which is similar to
fiberglass pipe but uses a plastic product instead of resin, also known as FRE.
This pipe is commonly used in marine settings.
26. Nylon: An alternative to PVC pipe, commonly used in plumbing and fittings
which is available at local hardware stores. Nylon is most commonly found as the
pipe product called, Liquatite or Liquid Tight Conduit. For underground
applications, Liquid Tight is often found in the form of a corrugated flexible steel
conduit coated with Nylon for corrosion protection.
27. Polyurethane Coated Steel: An alternative to PVC pipe which is created by
coating steel with polyurethane for chemical resistance, also known as PCS. PSC
can also be found in the form of tubing used for a number of applications, but it
does not have the strength required to withstand the load of direct burial or
concrete encasement.
28. ISO 14001 and ISO 21391: A general frame work for improving the quality and
comparability of methods for assessing the environmental performance of
buildings which is published by the International Organization for Standardization
and promoted by the United Nations.
10
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
Figure 2.1: Construction Workers at Lunch
A famous photograph taken in 1932, high above the Rockefeller center in New York
City, shows a group of construction workers sitting on a steel beam eating lunch, twenty-three
stories above the city street. None of them wore hardhats, safety glasses, reflective vests, eye or
ear protection, none of them wore safety harnesses or any type of fall protection. A modern
picture would be very different. Safety is just one example of how the construction industry in
2009 has become a highly regulated environment. Today, nearly every aspect of construction is
11
overseen by some government agency requiring reports and approval. The design, safety and
materials of a structure are all subject to regulations, approval from city planners, inspectors and
agencies. For years the government has regulated what materials may be used in construction.
Asbestos is an infamous example of a construction material that was once widely used.
Asbestos was later shown to cause cancer in certain situations and was eventually eliminated
from new construction and from many existing structures. Today there is a chance that another
common construction material may be eliminated. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) has been targeted
by groups such as Greenpeace, The Healthy Building Network (HBN) and Cascadia Region
Green Building Council (CRGBC) for elimination. The United States Green Building Council
(USGBC), which administers the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Certification,
otherwise known as LEED, is currently studying the debate about PVC to determine if they will
support elimination. If PVC is banned by government regulation, or phased out to comply with
green building standards, acceptable alternatives must be identified so that builders are not left
without an important underground conduit material.
The following review of literature will document a brief history of government and
environmental regulation of the construction industry, the trend of green building and its
influence on construction, an overview of PVC, green building organizations and their call for
the elimination of PVC, and a few alternatives which have been recommended for replacement
of PVC conduit for underground electrical use.
2.2 The Construction Industry
The construction industry is classified as comprising those companies which are
primarily engaged in the construction of buildings or engineering projects, at all stages of
12
completion, from land development to alterations on existing work. Companies classified as part
of the construction sector are generally managed at a fixed place of business, while participating
in any number of construction activities at multiple project sites. Construction is one of the
largest industries in the United States. In 2006, there were about eight hundred and eighty-three
thousand construction establishments in the United States, with over seven and a half million
employees receiving wages or salary, and approximately an additional two million self-employed
or unpaid family workers. Of those establishments, only one percent employed one hundred or
more workers. 14 As of July 2009, there were approximately six million, one hundred and forty-
eight thousand persons employed in the United States construction industry. Electricians are an
important part of the construction industry, at last census, in 2008; there were more than four
hundred and eighty-seven thousand electricians, approximately eight percent of the total
employment in the construction industry. 15 In the state of Utah there are currently four
electrical contractors employing one hundred or more electricians. 16
2.3 Government Regulation of the Construction Industry
Since the early 1900’s building regulations in the United States have been based on
model building codes developed by three regional groups; the Building Officials Code
Administrations International (BOCA), the Southern Building Code Congress International
(SBCCI) and the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). These three groups
were responsible for regional regulatory standards across the United States. As the country grew
14
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Career Guide to Industries: Construction,” available from
http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs003.htm; Internet; accessed 15 August 2009.
15
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Construction: NAICS 23,” available from
http://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag23.htm; Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
16
The Associated General Contractors of Utah, “Member Directory,” available from http://www.agc-
utah.org/directory.html#bf-dirFrame_598; Internet; accessed 24 August 2009.
13
it became clear that a single coordinated set of building codes, without regional limitations, was
necessary. In response, these groups decided to combine efforts and formed the International
Code Council (ICC) in 1994. 17 The primary objective of the ICC is to protect “the health, safety,
and welfare of people by creating better buildings and safer communities,” 18 through high-
quality codes, products and services in order to create excellence and safety in the built
environment. After its formation in 1994, the ICC then began developing an International
Building Code (IBC) that could be used through out the United States. The first IBC was
published in 2000. Currently, all fifty states plus Washington D.C. have adopted the IBC. 19
In addition to the IBC, construction is also regulated by national and local government
agencies. These regulations go beyond the scope of the IBC and may determine the location of
buildings, their occupational ratings and their appearance. Government regulations may also
affect which types of materials may be used, as well as construction safety requirements.
2.4 Environmental Regulation of the Construction Industry
In July of 1970, the United States Government formed the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in response to growing concerns for cleaner air, water, and land. Since that time,
it has been the mission of the EPA to protect human health and the environment. In an effort to
fulfill that mission the primary objectives of the EPA are to repair damage to the natural
environment and to establish new criteria which will guide Americans toward a cleaner
17
International Code Council, Introduction to the ICC, available from http://www.iccsafe.org/news/about/#origin;
18
International Code Council, Introduction to the ICC, available from http://www.iccsafe.org/news/about/#origin;
19
International Code Council, International Code Adoptions, available from
http://www.iccsafe.org/government/adoption.html; Internet ; accessed 29 August 2009.
14
environment. 20 This is primarily fulfilled through laws that are administered by the EPA. These
laws directly affect the construction industry. Examples include; the National Environment
Policy Act (NEPA), the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA).
The NEPA was one of the first laws to establish a national framework for protecting the
environment. “NEPA's basic policy is to assure that all branches of government give proper
consideration to the environment prior to undertaking any major federal action that significantly
affects the environment.” 21 This policy affects the construction of any major federal
construction projects, such as highways, airports, military buildings etc. 22
The PPA was established with the goal of reducing pollution through cost-effective
changes in raw material use, production and operation, as well as increased efficiency in the use
of natural resources and conservation. 23 This policy affects construction from pre-planning to
completion so that waste is prevented or reduced at the source.
The OHSA was established to ensure worker and workplace safety. The underlying goal
of OHSA is to ensure that employers’ provide their workers with a safe environment, free from
known hazards to safety and health. 24 OHSA was the first nation wide, federal program with the
goal of protecting the work force from job related death, injury or illness. OSHA regulates the
construction industry by ensuring that conditions are made as safe as possible. This includes
regulations requiring reporting the use of materials which may pose a health hazard in the
20
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “About EPA,” available from
http://www.epa.gov/epahome/aboutepa.htm; Internet; accessed 15 August 2009.
21
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Summary of the National Environment Policy Act,” available from
22
42 U.S.C. §4321 et seq. (1969)
23
42 U.S.C. §13101 et seq. (1990)
24
29 U.S.C. §651 et seq. (1970)
15
workplace, as defined by the act. This list contains over one hundred and seventy highly
hazardous, toxic and reactive chemicals which require identification, Material Safety Data Sheets
and special training in proper handling. 25 “Fulfilling its basic responsibility to control air
quality, the EPA was responsible for the elimination asbestos from construction
manufacturing. 26 ”
From an initial frame-work for constructing safe structures, government regulation of the
construction industry has grown to regulate nearly every aspect of the construction process.
While the number of laws regulating the construction industry has grown, environmental
organizations which comprise part of the green movement continue to push for even tougher
regulations and more stringent requirements for the materials which are available for use by the
construction industry. Green building is the term used to promote the ideals of environmental
groups, today it has gained widespread acceptance and plays an important role in shaping both
government regulations and public opinion about construction materials.
2.5 Green Building, the Green Movement and its Influence on Construction
Green building is an offshoot of the Green Movement. Green building is defined by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as: “The practice of creating structures
and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a
building's life-cycle from sitting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and
deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns
of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known as a sustainable or
25
U.S. Department of Labor, “List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics and Reactives,” available from
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_id=9761&p_table=STANDARDS; Internet; accessed
15 August 2009.
26
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Asbestos Basic Information,” available from
http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/help.html; Internet; accessed 30 August 2009.
16
high performance building.” 27 Green building is not confined to the United States but is an
international movement with at least seventeen different countries having their own major green
building organizations. International regulations and building codes such as ISO 14001 and ISO
21931 28 have been encouraged by the United Nations as standards for green building. In 2004
the United Nations formed a voluntary initiative known as the Global Compact which
encourages companies to follow ten principles for conducting business. Three of the ten
principles deal with environmental friendliness. 29
The Green Movement is an environmental effort started by environmentalists in the
1960’s and 1970’s. The Green Movement is a powerful political force. Global warming is
frequently used as motivation to push the environmental agenda and has far reaching
implications for government regulation of construction, manufacturing and the daily life of the
average citizen. The increase in the popularity of the concept of global warming has added a
sense of urgency to the message of environmentalists. In June of 2009, the U.S. House of
Representatives passed a global warming initiative; this action demonstrates the strength of the
green movement. If passed into law, the U.S. government will be empowered to further advance
tougher construction material requirements of green building and the Green Movement.
Despite the strength of the Green Movement there are signs that public support for
increased environmental regulation and its associated costs may slow. Economic downturns
seem to diminish public support for the green movement. In January of 2009, a Pew Research
27
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Green Building Basic Information,” available from
28
International Organization for Standardization, “Sustainability in Building Construction, 2006,” available from
http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=40434; Internet; accessed 24 October 2009.
29
United Nations Global Compact, “The Ten Principles, 2004,” available from
http://www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/index.html; Internet; accessed 24 October 2009.
17
Center Poll showed that global warming came in last among twenty voter concerns, showing that
environmental concerns were far behind economic concerns for the majority of citizens. 30
There are essentially two principles which attract people to green building. The first
principle is conservation of resources. It is based on the basic law of scarcity. Energy, in the
form of electricity, oil and gas cost money. The more efficiently these resources are used, the
more money is saved. It makes economic sense to conserve energy and, therefore, conserve
money. Conservation of energy came to the attention of most Americans in modern times with
the rise of utility costs and oil shortages in the 1970’s. The rise in energy costs produced
demand for automobiles and structures that were more efficient. In the 1980’s energy costs
again fell but energy spikes in recent years have again sparked the interest of the general public
in the efficient use of resources. The second principle that attracts people to green building is the
environmental movement. People generally want to preserve a healthy and clean planet. While
not all people interested in green building consider themselves environmentalists, most people
are interested in decreasing pollution and doing their part.
It should be noted that the aims of the environmental movement are sometimes in conflict
with the needs of modern life as materials which are commonly used may be deemed
environmentally unfriendly, hazardous or toxic by environmentalists. It is not feasible to simply
eliminate every material which may be deemed unfriendly. Instead, innovations and more
environmentally friendly alternatives which provide equivalent value must be identified for new
materials to be readily adopted. Many green practices have a higher initial cost, but produce a
cost savings over the life of the product. The use of a photovoltaic or solar power system is a
good example of this. The initial cost will be higher but reduced energy bills overtime can
30
A. Revkin, “Environmental Issues Slide in Poll of Public’s Concerns,” The New York Times, 23 Jan 2009, sec.
A13.
18
produce savings. Many materials or methods that are recognized as green have a higher initial
cost as well as a higher lifetime cost. Materials or methods which offer only environmental
friendliness are the least likely to be adopted. Often when the environmentally friendly
alternative is uncompetitive, environmentalists will seek change through government regulation.
Some materials are not environmentally friendly but alternatives do not exist. The lack of
alternatives does not guarantee that environmental groups will stop seeking elimination of a
material. Environmentalists continue to push for tougher regulation of materials.
In the past, participation in green building has been voluntary and a way for companies to
show their environmental friendliness. In the future, it appears that green building may not be an
option, it will be the standard. The construction industry will have to adapt to the new
regulations, restrictions, material requirements and methods for compliance.
2.6 PVC: A Controversial Chemical
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) has been at the center of a fierce political debate for a number
of years. Environmentalists claim that it is toxic in numerous ways. Manufacturers claim that it
is no more toxic than any other common substance. PVC is a durable, versatile material which is
used in a wide variety of applications. First discovered in 1872 by Eugene Baumann, when
building upon previous research, he left tubes filled with vinyl chloride in direct sunlight. 31 The
result was a white porcelain like material. The material proved hard to work with and sometimes
brittle. It was not until 1930 that the B.F. Goodrich tire company and rubber producer was
searching for a way to bond rubber to metal that a commercially viable process for the
manufacture of PVC was invented. PVC is produced by the polymerization of the monomer
31
K. Mulder and M. Knot, “PVC plastic: a history of systems development and entrenchment”, Technology in
Society, no. 23 (2001): 267.
19
vinyl chloride (VCM). PVC is composed of chlorine, which is produced from decomposed salt,
and of vinyl which is made from petroleum, most often from natural gas. The raw materials are
formed into a resin which is shipped to manufacturing facilities for processing. Depending on
the final product a wide range of plasticizers, an additive which makes PVC more flexible and
able to be used in clothing or fabrics, or stabilizers, an additive which is used in rigid
applications, are added to the PVC resin. The result is a material that is inherently resistant to
bacteria, semi water proof and flame retardant. Due to its flexibility and other qualities,
including low cost of manufacture, PVC is now found all around us in clothing, flooring,
automobile interiors, swim toys and construction materials. In 2008, over thirty four and a half
million tons of PVC resin was produced. It has been estimated that between sixty-six and
seventy percent of global consumption of PVC is for construction materials. 32 In 2002, forty-
five percent of PVC sales were of pipe and conduit. 33 PVC conduit and pipe are essentially the
same material with the distinction being their end use. Pipe is used to transport liquids while
conduit is used as a pathway for electrical wires or pipes.
Due to concern about the toxic chemicals released when burned, building codes often
restrict PVC conduit to below ground applications. Since PVC is buried, concerns about fire are
greatly diminished. Nevertheless, the use of PVC conduit is still in danger due to the
international push to completely phase out all PVC products. PVC pipe and conduit are used in
all types of construction; including civil, industrial, commercial and residential. In 2003, it was
estimated that municipal water and sewer systems would acquire eight billion dollars worth of
PVC pipe over the next twenty years. This figure did not include the large quantities of pipe and
32
33
E.Linak and K. Yagi, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Resins: Chemical Economics Handbook Marketing Research
Report (California: SRI International, September, 2003); quoted in F. Ackerman, Poisoned for Pennies: The
Economics of Toxics and Precaution (Washington DC: Island Press, 2008), 166.
20
conduit installed in residential, commercial, industrial or agricultural applications. 34 According
to industry estimates, PVC accounts for more than seventy percent of all water and sewer pipes
being installed in the U.S. 35 It is important to note that not all products recommended for
plumbing or sewer use are recognized as suitable alternatives for use as electrical conduit. As
electrical conduit, PVC competes primarily with steel. Steel is more expensive, harder to bend
and to install, but is often required by code. In underground applications steel must be protected
against corrosion. The traditional application for steel in underground use is either PVC Coated
Steel or Galvanized Steel. In some areas, such as New York City and Chicago, PVC must be
avoided due to building codes. In other areas, the choice of building without the use of PVC is
due to interest in green building.
In 2003, Frank Ackerman and Rachel Massey released a study titled, The Economics of
Phasing Out PVC. The study takes a detailed look at how to phase out PVC and what the
economic impacts of this phase out would be. They persuasively argue that because PVC has
had a longer history of production and innovation the price of the material has come down. They
also argue that there are alternatives to PVC that, if given the chance to compete with PVC will
become competitive in price and function. When asked specifically about alternative materials
for PVC author Frank Ackermann directed the researcher to contact the Healthy Building
Network (HBN) for detailed information. The following sections will examine the debate behind
the call for the elimination of PVC.
34
F. Ackerman and R Massey, The Economics of Phasing Out PVC, (Somerville, MA: Tufts University, 2003), 13
35
K. Christman, “Vinyl Use in Buildings and Construction,” Vinyl Institute (2003); quoted in F. Ackerman and R
Massey, The Economics of Phasing Out PVC, (Somerville, MA: Tufts University, 2003), 13
21
2.7 Green Building Organizations and Their Call for the Elimination of PVC
2.7.1 Greenpeace
Greenpeace is one of the most widely known environmental organizations in the world.
Originally formed in 1971, their vision of a “Green and Peaceful World” has grown to a global
environmental organization with a presence in forty-six countries and nearly three million
financial supporters. 36 Greenpeace is not specifically an organization that regulates building
practices. It describes its self this way: “Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning
organization that acts to change attitudes and behavior, to protect and conserve the environment
and to promote peace…Creating a toxic free future with safer alternatives to hazardous
chemicals in today’s products and manufacturing.” 37 Starting in 1987, Greenpeace has been
campaigning for the phase out of organochlorines. Organochlorines, also known as
organocholrides, are defined as organic compounds that contain at least one covalent bond to
chlorine. While most organochlorines are pesticides, the production of PVC plastic uses thirty
percent of all chlorine manufactured. 38 In part, because of efforts by Greenpeace a large number
of organizations have agreed to reduce the use of, or phase out, PVC and Chlorine. Because
PVC is used so widely, it is impractical to simply eliminate it. However, this has not stopped
Greenpeace from campaigning for the total elimination of PVC.
2.7.2 Bans on PVC
As part of its goal to create a toxic free future, Greenpeace published a paper in August of
2001 titled PVC-Free Future: A Review of Restrictions and PVC free Policies Worldwide. The
36
Greenpeace, “The History of Greenpeace,” available from http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/history;
Internet; accessed 7 September 2009.
37
Greenpeace, “Who We Are,” available from http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/our-mission; Internet;
accessed 7 September 2009.
38
Greenpeace, PVC-Free Future: A Review of Restrictions and PVC free Policies Worldwide (Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 2001), 4.
22
paper described reasons for the elimination of PVC, various laws that have been enacted towards
that goal and different municipalities and organizations which have voluntarily phased out PVC.
Restrictions on PVC by cities began with the German town of Bielefeld in 1986. By the late
1990’s Spain had declared sixty-two cities PVC free. As of 2001, there were two hundred
seventy-four communities that had laws restricting the use of PVC. In 2001, the first total ban
on PVC was signed into law in Slovakia. This affected all products including packaging and
construction materials. 39 Sweden was the first country to propose national restrictions on PVC.
In 1995, the Swedish Parliament voted to phase out both soft and rigid PVC. The Swedish
Minister for the Environment made the following comment, “The question is not whether to
phase out PVC, but how to phase it out.” Denmark announced a strategy to reduce PVC in 1999
by introducing a new tax on PVC along with an additional tax on a toxic additive in PVC known
as phthalates. 40 Phthalates, also known as phthalic acid is a chemical primarily used as a
plasticizer or softener of PVC plastic. In some cases, phthalates have been shown to increase the
risk of birth defects and are associated with other health issues for adults and children. One aim
identified by Denmark was to limit the incineration of PVC waste. Recycling is common in
Denmark; however, PVC is considered difficult to sort out from other waste material and is often
incinerated. In places like Japan and Europe incineration is a common practice for waste
disposal. Incinerators are often configured to produce electricity and require less land than
landfill waste disposal, which is most common in the U.S. Greenpeace claims that through
incineration, PVC has the potential to release polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, also known as
polyhalogenated chlorines or dioxins, which are environmental pollutants. Additionally,
39
40
23
Greenpeace claims that dioxins are also produced during the manufacture of organochlorines
including PVC.
2.7.3 International Actions Concerning PVC
International agreements and conventions have set a priority on how to address hazardous
substances. Substances which are considered persistent, toxic and bioaccumulative have been
targeted. Organohalogens have been specified as a target. Organohalogens are defined as any
organic compound which contains at least one halogen. Chlorine is one of five non-metallic
element halogens: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Chlorine is a primary
ingredient in PVC. Organocholrines meet the definition of organohalogens. Because of the
chemistry of PVC, it falls into a category of toxins which are primarily composed of pesticides.
In some cases politicians eager to restrict pesticides may unknowingly agree to regulate the
production and manufacture of PVC.
In 1992, the United Nations Council on Environment and Development (UNCED)
organized the Rio Earth Summit. The summit produced the statement that: “As concerns other
sources of pollution, priority actions to be considered by states may include…eliminating the
emission or discharge of organohalogen compounds.” 41 In 1997, the United Nations
Environment Programme Governing Council issued a follow up to the Earth Summit to negotiate
a legally binding global convention to reduce and/or eliminate persistent organic pollutants
(POP’s). Twelve chemicals have been identified as “The Dirty Dozen” which have priority for
41
24
reduction and where possible elimination. Chlorine, the chief component of PVC has been
identified in this list. 42
In 1992, the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR and North Sea Conference) regulated the use of
Chlorine in manufacturing in an effort to reduce chemicals reaching the sea. In 1995, the North
Sea Conference produced a definition of toxic or hazardous substances as; “Substances or groups
of substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate.” 43 In 1998, the conference
produced the following statement “The OSPAR List of Chemicals for Priority Action include
several substances which are by-products of the production of chlorine and PVC, or additives in
PVC: dioxins and furans, chlorinated paraffin, mercury and organic mercury compounds, lead
and organic lead compounds, organic tin compounds and certain phthalates (DBP & DEHP).” 44
Clearly these international agreements identify PVC and its various elements as a target for
elimination.
In 1992, the International Joint Commission, USA/Canada, stated that the use of chlorine
and its compounds should be avoided in the manufacturing process. “The Commission therefore
recommends that the parties, in consultation with industry and other affected interests, develop
timetables to sunset the use of chlorine and chlorine containing compounds as industrial
feedstocks.” 45
Greenpeace has released the following statement in response to these international
agreements. “Greenpeace is campaigning for these agreements to be implemented through a
42
43
44
45
25
clean production approach, which targets the substitution of hazardous substances or materials
which give rise to hazardous substances such as PVC, as the most effective method of stopping
the release of these dangerous substances into the environment.” 46
2.7.4 U.S. Green Building Council and the Leadership in Energy and
Environmental and Design Certification
In the United States there is no organization more prominent in green building than the
United States Green Building Council (USGBC). The USGBC describes its self in this way:
“The Washington, D.C. based U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a 501 c3 non-profit
organization committed to a prosperous and sustainable future for our nation through cost-
efficient and energy-saving green buildings... With a community comprising 78 local affiliates,
more than 20,000 member companies and organizations, and more than 100,000 LEED
Accredited Professionals, USGBC is the driving force of an industry that is projected to soar to
$60 billion by 2010.” 47
In 1998, the USGBC successfully introduced a scoring system for measuring the
environmental friendliness of a building. The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
Certification (LEED) has grown into the most widely recognized system for measuring green
building. The LEED rating system is based on achieving a certain number of points, which are
allocated for design choices defined within each standard. The USGBC describes LEED this
way: “The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System is a
voluntary, consensus-based national rating system for developing high-performance, sustainable
buildings. LEED addresses all building types and emphasizes state-of-the-art strategies in five
46
47
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), “About USGBC,” available from
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=124; Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
26
areas: sustainable site development, water savings, energy efficiency, materials and resources
selection, and indoor environmental quality.” 48
Four levels of certification exist; Certified, Silver, Gold, and Platinum. Each level is
reached by obtaining points from a LEED rating system that offers seven prerequisite points and
sixty nine elective points. To achieve any certification a project must comply with the seven
prerequisite points, while the elective points determine the LEED rating that a building will
receive. A Certified rating is awarded when a building receives between twenty-six and thirty-
two points, a Silver rating is awarded when a building receives between thirty-three and thirty-
eight points, a Gold rating is awarded when a building receives between thirty-nine and fifty-one
points and a Platinum rating is awarded when a building receives between fifty-two and sixty-
nine points.
Cost of design, consultation and materials are likely to rise with each level. Owners who
desire to have a building LEED certified should be aware of potential cost impacts associated
with certification. A 2003 study prepared by Northbridge Environmental Management
Consultants found that detailing the cost of LEED certification is extremely difficult since the
cost varies greatly due to varying types of construction. However, the study did find that the
incremental costs of obtaining certification for public buildings would add at least nine hundred
million dollars per year and the figure may be as high as two billion dollars. If all public projects
were to comply with LEED, costs would rise an additional four to eleven billion dollars per
year. 49 While a number of LEED requirements may produce a reduced consumption of energy
which could reduce the lifetime costs of a building. The study concludes that careful analysis
48
http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=124; Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
49
Northbridge Environmental Management Consultants, Analyzing the Cost of Obtaining LEED Certification
(Westford, MA, 2003), 2.
27
should be made because “expanding these requirements to additional jurisdictions would raise
the cost of these projects and the potential benefits of certification may not justify these costs.” 50
Regional content requirements stipulate that all elements of a material be harvested,
manufactured and delivered within a five hundred mile radius of the construction and material
must be documented for pre and post consumer recyclable content. LEED also restricts certain
materials such as any substances which may emit harmful chemicals or odors; this includes
greenhouse gas emissions from manufacture. 51 The regulations on greenhouse gases and
emissions from manufacture are important and have the potential to impact use of PVC based
upon the claimed emissions of dioxins. In the early development of LEED a credit was proposed
for the avoidance of PVC in building products. At this time LEED does not offer points for PVC
avoidance but the topic is under review by the USGBC technical advisory committee. 52 It is
important to understand the influence of the USGBC and LEED in relation to the elimination of
PVC because of the prominent roll that this organization plays. If the USGBC does encourage
the elimination of PVC the results could have wide implications.
As of 2003, the government began adopting LEED as a standard for new construction,
and many existing buildings were also required to be retrofitted to comply with these
requirements. 53 The General Services Administration requires LEED certification for its new
buildings; as does the Department of the Navy and Army Corps or Engineers. State governments
in New York, Washington, and Oregon have adopted some green building requirements and
50
(Westford, MA, 2003),1-2.
51
http://leedcasestudies.usgbc.org/materials.cfm?ProjectID=189, Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
52
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), “USGBC: PVC Task Group Background and History,” available from
http://www.usgbc.org/displaypage.aspx?CMSPageID=153 Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
53
(Westford, MA, 2003),8.
28
Maryland has officially adopted LEED for all new state construction and renovations larger than
seven thousand, five hundred square feet. Other local governments have also adopted LEED
including; Los Angeles, San Jose and San Mateo in California; as well as Portland, Oregon and
Seattle, Washington. Other states, including; Connecticut, Minnesota and California; as well as
cities, including; San Francisco and New York are considering requiring LEED certification for
all new construction and renovations. 54 The influence and power of the USGBC is extraordinary
for a non-government organization.
2.7.5 Cascadia Region Green Building Council and the Living Building Challenge
The Cascadia Region Green Building Council (CRGBC) was incorporated in 1999. It is
one of three original chapters of the USGBC. 55 In 2006, the CRGBC formally announced the
Living Building Challenge (LBC). The LBC is an attempt to set a new, higher standard for
progression beyond the requirements of LEED, with the object of producing buildings that are
sustainable. CRGBC describes the LBC in this way: “The Living Building Challenge is a
rigorous performance standard that defines the closest measure of true sustainability in the built
environment, using a benchmark of what is currently possible and given the best knowledge
available today. Version 1.3 is comprised of sixteen prerequisites within six performance areas,
or Petals: Site, Energy, Materials, Water, Indoor Quality, Beauty and Inspiration.” 56
The LBC has the goal of producing buildings that can operate independently of outside
resources provided through civil services such as power, electricity and sewage. The LBC
54
(Westford, MA, 2003), 1.
55
Cascadia Region Green Building Council (CRGBC), “About Cascadia Region Green Building Council,” available
from http://www.cascadiagbc.org/about-us; Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
56
29
system is different than LEED. Rather than awarding points based upon meeting requirements
the LBC requires developers to meet sixteen prerequisites based upon principles. These
principles include: responsible site selection, limits to growth, habitat exchange, net zero energy,
materials red list, carbon footprint, responsible industry, appropriate materials radius,
construction waste, net zero water, sustainable water discharge, civilized work, source control,
ventilation, design for spirit, and an inspirational and educational environment. 57 The standard
of the LBC is so rigorous that as of 2009, there was no single structure in the world that has been
certified as a Living Building. In 2009, the CRGBC authorized a study that was conducted
through a collaboration of companies including; the New Buildings Institute, Sera Architects,
Gerding Edlen, Interface Engineering and Skanska USA Building. The study examined the
potential to meet the sixteen prerequisites for seven different building types in four different
climates of major cities. Using LEED Gold or Platinum certification as a base line, it identified
what additional costs might be incurred. The study is currently under peer review.
One area of potential impact of the LBC is the material requirements which prohibit the
use of certain materials which are believed to be toxic to human health in their use, manufacture
or disposal. These material requirements are know as the materials red list. The Materials Red
List is a list of materials, or chemicals found in materials, that are not to be used in the
construction process. PVC is the most commonly used construction material on the materials red
list. 58 By identifying PVC as a red list material the CRGBC has made clear that it sees the future
of construction and green building as a PVC-free environment. When CRGBC was approached
57
58
30
about which alternatives to use instead of PVC, they recommended contacting the Healthy
Building Network for specific materials.
2.7.6 Healthy Building Network
The Healthy Building Network (HBN) is another organization that advocates the
complete elimination of PVC. The HBN was established in 2000, by members of the national
environmental health movement. The HBN take a proactive approach. Rather than simply
fighting for the elimination of PVC and other materials that it feels are not environmentally
friendly, the HBN focuses on “the introduction of new, healthier building materials into
commercial markets, shifting over $4 billion in material purchases from toxic materials to
healthier alternatives that are comparable in both price and performance to the materials they
have replaced.” 59 The HBN has played a key role in setting green building guidelines and has
produced the first on-line evaluation tool for building materials. Rather than seeking to
implement its agenda solely through government regulation, the HBN has developed a
consumer-driven system for evaluation of green building materials, called “Pharos”. The HBN
hopes that Pharos will become the leading materials evaluation tool used by green building and
procurement professionals. The HBN website states that “Through informed specification and
selection of building materials, we can measurably enhance the environment, human health and
social benefits associated with the contemporary building industry.” 60 Pharos is designed to be
used by the architect, designer or other decision maker seeking to use green materials. The goal
is to introduce and incorporate these materials into the construction process through education
59
Healthy Building Network, “About Us,” available from http://www.healthybuilding.net/about/index.html;
60
Pharos Project Home, “The Pharos Project,” available from http://www.pharoslens.net/; Internet; accessed 16
September 2009.
31
about available alternatives and voluntary adoption. Because of this consumer driven approach,
the HBN has developed a comprehensive list of environmentally friendly alternative materials,
including several for PVC conduit. The alternatives identified by the HBN for the replacement
of PVC electrical conduit are included in this study and discussed below.
2.8 Alternatives to PVC Conduit
Because there are many uses of PVC, there are many alternatives for each application;
this research does not attempt to study all the alternatives for each application or to perform a
detailed examination of the chemical properties or environmental friendliness of each alternative
material. As noted before, around seventy percent of all PVC is used in construction and the
majority of PVC for construction use is pipe and conduit. 61 For this reason, this study focused
on the use of PVC conduit and its alternatives. As the Healthy Building Network was the most
commonly cited source for PVC alternatives, this study has focused on the materials identified
by the HBN. Descriptions of these alternatives are found below.
2.8.1 High Density Polyethylene
High density polyethylene (HDPE) is available for all pipe applications and is non-
chlorinated, requires fewer additives and is more easily recycled. It is considered more
environmentally friendly as well. HDPE is less resistant to combustion than PVC, but smolders
at a higher temperature. HDPE does not release hydrochloric acid before combustion. Of all
alternative materials, HDPE has seen the most growth in the conduit sector and is competitive
with PVC in cost. HDPE also comes in rolls of several hundred feet making it useful for
61
2008), 166.
32
covering long distances such as in civil construction, while PVC typically comes in twenty foot
sections. 62
2.8.2 Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is made from the monomer propylene and shares many of the
strengths of PVC. It is chemical resistant, flame retardant and light weight. This pipe is useful
for industrial applications involving corrosive media. PP may be used at temperatures up to one
hundred and fifty degrees Fahrenheit, in continuous pressure and at temperatures up to one
hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit, within gravity flow conditions. PP is also the lightest of
all thermoplastics and has good resistance to strong acids, except highly active oxidizers, such as
nitric acid. It also has excellent resistance to weak and strong alkalis and to most organic
solvents. PP is also a non-conductor of electricity. 63 PP pipe or conduit is typically available in
diameters up to four inches and twenty feet in length.
2.8.3 Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel is a created by coating traditional steel with zinc which provides a
resistance to corrosive environments and rust. Galvanized steel conduit is more suited to
underground use than traditional steel. Galvanized steel is a much heavier material than plastics
and despite its corrosion protection does not appear to stand up to chemical environments as well
as plastics. Galvanized steel is found almost as commonly as PVC conduit in construction
despite higher cost and weight.
62
J Harvie and T Lent, “PVC-Free Pipe Purchasers’ Report,” (Healthy Building Network, 2002), 14.
63
Industrial Plastic Pipe, “Polypropylene Pipe,” available from
http://www.industrialplasticpipe.com/pages/PolypropylenePipe.htm; Internet; accessed 16 September 2009.
33
2.8.4 Fiberglass
Fiberglass was invented in 1938 and consists of glass fibers combined with a polymer
resin which results in a high strength, low weight product. Product sales materials claim a
weight reduction of fifty-five percent over PVC. It is available in diameters up to four inches
and up to twenty feet in length. Because of the strength of the fiberglass material it may be
buried directly without concrete encasement.
2.8.5 Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy
Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy (FRE), also known as glass reinforced epoxy pipe is similar
to fiberglass pipe but uses a plastic product instead of resin. This pipe is commonly used in
marine settings and is available in diameters up to forty inches and up to forty feet in length.
2.8.6 Nylon
Nylon pipe or conduit is a product commonly used in plumbing and fittings, and is
available at local hardware stores. While Nylon does not have the flame retardant properties of
PVC, it is a low smoke product. Nylon is most commonly found as the pipe product called,
Liquid Tight Conduit. For underground applications Liquid Tight is often found in the form of a
corrugated flexible steel conduit coated with Nylon for corrosion protection. Liquid Tight is
only rated for direct burial or concrete encasement and is available in diameters up to one inch
and in rolls of several hundred feet.
34
2.8.7 Polyurethane Coated Steel
Polyurethane Coated Steel is steel that has been coated with polyurethane for chemical
resistance. Polyurethane can also be found in the form of tubing used for a number of
applications, but it does not have the strength required to withstand the load of direct burial or
concrete encasement. When steel is coated with polyurethane the two materials compliment
each other to provide strength and chemical resistance. The steel may be coated before or after
installation, making it available for use in any size of steel.
This list of materials, discussed above, comes from a list of alternatives to PVC for
electrical conduit as described by the HBN. It is beyond the scope of this study to determine if
these products are more environmentally friendly than PVC. The PVC industry has argued many
times that if other materials were subjected to the same scrutiny as PVC, it could be revealed that
PVC is the most viable option.
2.9 Summary
As shown through the review of literature, there is a fierce campaign to eliminate PVC.
However, even the harshest critics admit that it plays a valuable role in our society and that
replacing it is not easy. The price, convenience and adaptability of PVC make it a difficult
material to replace. PVC is an interesting polymer because it can accept a much wider range of
additives than other plastics. Many of the criticisms stem from its association with chlorine. It
has been argued by some that this association is inherently unsustainable; however, it appears
that much of this argument has been based on emotion rather than on scientific scrutiny. 64
64
J. Leadbitter, “PVC and Sustainability,” Progress in Polymer Science, no. 27 (2002): 2197.
35
Greenpeace in particular would like to see the end of all chlorine chemistry. The use of
chlorine as a primary element in PVC is one of the strongest arguments that Greenpeace has used
to push for the elimination of PVC. Some of their arguments have merit, as the industry
associated with the use of chlorine in manufacturing has not always been careful in its practices.
Despite improvements in modern manufacturing the industry retains a tarnished reputation. Not
withstanding the reputation of chlorine and its users, it should be acknowledged that chlorine has
many benefits. For example, over eighty percent of all pharmaceutical products are derived from
chlorine chemistry, and the addition of chlorine in drinking water prevents disease through the
destruction of harmful bacteria. 65 The presence of chlorine gives PVC a unique range of
technical features that has given the product much strength in making it such a useful product.
Greenpeace has focused on the complete elimination of chlorine and PVC rather than
allowing producers to improve the manufacturing process and reduce emissions. In 1997, a
network of English universities known as the National Centre for Business and Ecology
conducted a study titled “PVC in Packaging and Construction Materials –an assessment of their
impact on human health and the environment.” This report took a critical look at the PVC
industry and indicated that there were several areas that needed to be cleaned up; but if these
areas were modified, then PVC production could become environmentally acceptable. The
report stated that “The study team was unable to find conclusive scientific evidence linking the
production, use or disposal of PVC compounds where best industry practice is utilized, to
substantial harm to human health.” 66 This report recognized that there were areas for
improvement, but clearly stated that the process could be managed, instead of simply eliminated.
Rather than accept the findings of this report Greenpeace has continued to campaign against
65
66
36
PVC and chlorine, often referring to it as “the Devil’s element.” 67 Others have followed suite,
an internet search of PVC will yield results such as “PVC: The poison plastic”, author Frank
Ackerman published a book titled “Poisoned for Pennies: the Economics of Toxics and
Precaution,” which dedicates a chapter to the evils of PVC, while The World Watch Institute
released a paper titled “Why Poison Ourselves: A precautionary Approach to Synthetic
Chemicals examines the environmental impacts of PVC.” Clearly, the debate about the
environmental and health impacts of PVC has not been settled. What has been established is that
PVC is a versatile and dynamic material with a wide variety of uses. Manufacturers of PVC
have acknowledged concerns and have worked to improve manufacturing techniques. Even the
harshest critics of PVC acknowledge that in many areas a competitive alternative has not been
identified.
It has not yet been decided if PVC will eventually be eliminated through government
regulation or replaced by another product; due to concerns of purchasers or because of
innovation of superior products. However, the possibility of elimination is real and there is a
need to identify alternatives best able to replace this versatile yet controversial material.
The next chapter will discuss the methodology used in this study for evaluating the
awareness and preference of electricians in the state to Utah for alternative underground conduit,
as identified by the Healthy Building Network.
67
37
38
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Gathering Background Information
A review of literature was conducted and showed that PVC, a common construction
material, has been targeted by a number of environmental groups for elimination. The review of
literature also found that in 2008 around seventy percent of PVC produced was used for
construction and that over forty percent of this PVC was used for pipe or conduit. 68 PVC pipe
and conduit are essentially the same material but are differentiated by their end use. Pipe is
typically used for the distribution of liquids, while conduit is primarily used as a pathway for
electrical cables. PVC conduit is widely used in civil, industrial and commercial construction.
This study focused on electricians working for major electrical contractors involved with
commercial construction in the state of Utah in order to determine their awareness and
preference of environmentally friendly alternatives if PVC conduit were eliminated. These
alternatives were identified by the Healthy Building Network, as described in the review of
literature.
For the purpose of this research, major electrical contractors involved with commercial
construction were defined as electrical contractors with over one hundred electricians and
significant commercial construction experience in the state of Utah. Significant commercial
construction experience is defined as experience on one or more projects with a project value of
68
http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/580.1880/, Internet accessed 19 September 2009.
39
five million dollars or higher. Although this study focuses on major commercial electrical
contractors these same electricians are likely to be involved with industrial and civil construction
as well. Major electrical contractors involved with commercial construction are often significant
consumers of PVC conduit, in some cases installing miles of conduit on a single project. While
small electrical contractors may employ more total electricians, an internet search identified one
thousand two hundred and seventy-two electrical contractors in Utah, major electrical contractors
with commercial experience are more likely to be significant consumers of PVC conduit. For
example, in 2009 one major electrical contractor installed over forty-five miles of PVC conduit
in a two hundred and fifty thousand square foot data center constructed in South Jordan, Utah.
Figure 3.1.1: Underground Conduit in Data Center Construction
40
Figure 3.1.2: Underground PVC Conduit in Data Center Construction
Smaller projects such as residential home construction are less likely to require large amounts of
PVC conduit. Because smaller contractors generally use less PVC, they are less likely to have
extensive experience with PVC or its alternatives.
For the purposes of this research it was assumed that electricians who meet the
qualifications listed may also have experience with at least one alternative material that has been
identified as environmentally friendly by the Healthy Building Network. For example,
Galvanized Steel, commonly refereed to as GRC or Galvanized Rigid Conduit, is a common
material found on the list of alternatives. Because these electricians have experience with a
variety of materials, their preferences provide valuable insights into the possible impacts of using
various alternative materials.
To locate the population of interest, industry professionals were interviewed to identify
the largest electrical contractors in the state of Utah. To further identify possible candidates for
this research, a list of electricians from the Associated General Contractors of Utah (AGC of
41
Utah) was obtained. 69 These preliminary searches identified five contractors who were most
likely to meet the research criteria. These contractors were then contacted to verify that they met
the definition of major electrical contractor involved in commercial construction in the state of
Utah. One of the contractors did not meet the research criteria and the list was shortened to four.
Each of the four remaining organizations agreed to allow their electricians to participate in the
study. Because of the small population of electrical contractors meeting the research criteria, an
effort was made to sample the entire population, one thousand seven hundred and twenty
electricians, by distributing questionnaires to all electricians employed by the four major
electrical contractors. Individuals in each organization agreed to help in the distribution of the
survey instrument.
3.2 Research Design
The research design consisted of creating, testing, administering and analyzing the
findings of a multi-item survey instrument. It was decided that a questionnaire would be the
most appropriate survey instrument to accurately assess the population base.
The questionnaire was developed following a careful review of literature and with the
help of experienced professionals working in the electrical industry. The questionnaire was also
reviewed by faculty members at Brigham Young University; Dr. Jay Newitt, Dr. Jay
Christofferson, and Dr. Kevin Burr of the Construction Management program and Emeritus
Professor, Dr. Ray Andrus of the Marriott School of Management participated in the review and
development of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to yield enough information
69
The Associated General Contractors of Utah, “Member Directory,” available from http://www.agc-
utah.org/directory.html#bf_dirFrame_598; Internet; accessed 24 August 2009
42
to assess the experience, role and opinions of each respondent concerning PVC conduit and
alternative types of underground conduit.
For the purposes of this research it became apparent that the questionnaire should address
several key areas. Among these were the qualifications of the respondents to the questionnaire,
their experience with the various types of conduit, preference for each type of conduit,
perceptions of cost, and perceptions of ease of installation. The review of literature identified the
Healthy Building Network as a respected and often referenced authority of green building. As
documented in the review of literature, the Healthy Building Network produced a list of
alternatives by construction specification division. Under the electrical division seven alternative
materials were identified as environmentally friendly alternatives of PVC conduit. Larry Gruver,
Senior Project manager with over forty years of experience of Rosendin Electric, a major
national electrical contractor, also reviewed the list of materials to verify that they were viable
alternatives to PVC.
3.3 Questionnaire Development
One major concern in the development of the questionnaire was to minimize the time
required to take the survey while yielding the maximum amount of information. It was
anticipated that participation would be asked of electricians during a morning or lunch break, and
that participants would have limited time or interest in participating in a complicated or lengthy
survey. With this in mind, the questionnaire was designed to fit a one-half page format that
included the introduction, statement of purpose, all research questions and the statement of
certification by the University Review Board.
43
A preliminary questionnaire was produced and distributed to a test group of seven
electricians working on a local job site, to help determine the quality of information that could be
gained from each question, to get suggestions on how the questionnaire could be improved for
clear communication, and to help anticipate evaluation procedures. Based upon the findings of
the preliminary questionnaire, a revision was made and redistributed to another seven
electricians. With these results, the format was again refined. A meeting of the full research
committee was held in which the committee members offered suggestions for further refinement
and additional points of interest. With the addition of these changes, the committee gave its
approval and the questionnaire was submitted to and approved by Brigham Young University’s
Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects to ensure that the survey would not harm
participants and would pose them minimal risk, if any. Each survey included information for
contacting the Brigham Young University Institutional Review Board, should participants wish
to do so. 70
3.4 The Final Survey Instrument
The final questionnaire had nine questions and fifty-one data fields. The questions
included information about the respondent, a matrix of the electrician’s preferences, yes or no,
fill-in-the-blank, and open ended questions so that the method of response would most
effectively match the individual question. The questionnaire addressed, in order, the following
topics.
Question 1: Open ended question to identify years of experience as an electrician.
Question 2: A matrix which allowed the respondent to indicate strength of feelings
about the various types of conduit based upon experience using each type.
70
Please see Appendix E for Letter of Approval from the Institutional Review Board.
44
Preference, ease of installation, and cost were rated on a one to five scale.
Additionally, two blank areas were left for the respondent to suggest any
other type of underground conduit that might be preferred.
Question 3: Fill-in-the-blank question asking respondents to list their top two preferred
alternatives.
Question 4: Yes or No question asking respondents about the merit of eliminating
PVC conduit to receive a green certification.
Question 5: Open ended question asking respondents to identify concerns about using
PVC.
Question 6: Open ended question to share opinion about the possible elimination of
PVC conduit.
Question 7: Open ended classification question to identify the respondent’s employer.
Question 8: Open ended classification question to identify the respondent’s position.
Question 9: Yes or No classification question to identify if the respondent makes
purchasing decisions for the company.
Survey participants were guaranteed anonymity as well as access to the findings of the
study should the participants request them. The survey also included the author’s contact
information and a method for contacting Brigham Young University’s Institutional Review
Board. (To view the questionnaire please see appendix A)
3.5 Survey Distribution
The population of interest was comprised of electricians working for major electrical
contractors, involved with commercial construction in the state of Utah, employing more than
45
one hundred electricians. Individuals working for each of the four major electrical contractors
agreed to help in the distribution of the questionnaire to electricians working at various projects.
For ease of distribution the questionnaire was designed to be printed on a standard eight by
eleven inch sheet of paper, with two questionnaires on each sheet. In this way reproduction costs
were minimized while maximizing the use of paper. Physical copies of the questionnaire were
offered to each volunteer, but in some cases an electronic copy was sent and the volunteer
printed and distributed the survey. The response rate varied by organization and appears to have
been influenced by the willingness of the volunteer to distribute the questionnaire.
Questionnaires were distributed throughout the week of September 14th, 2009. Follow-up calls
and personal contact continued until September 25th, 2009 when it was concluded that additional
completed questionnaires would not be returned.
3.6 Response Rate
In order to identify the size of the specific study population it was necessary to determine
the number of electricians in each company, which met the required definition of major electrical
contractor involved with commercial construction in the state of Utah. By definition in this
study, the electrical contractor was required to have at least one hundred electricians. A table
identifying the four electrical contractors, with the number of electricians and actual response
rate for each is found below. It is important to note that the questionnaire was made available to
the entire population of electricians in the state of Utah meeting the specified requirements. The
target population totaled of one thousand seven hundred twenty electricians; from that population
one hundred twelve electricians responded to the questionnaire representing six and a half
percent of the total population. (See Table 3.6.1)
46
Table 3.6.1: Percentage of Population Surveyed
Percentage
Reported # of Actual of Total
Electricians Responses Population
Cache Valley Electric 1000 67 6.7%
Hunt Electric 270 31 11.5%
Rydalch Electric 100 9 9.0%
Wasatch Electric 350 5 1.4%
Totals 1720 112 6.5%
3.7 Data Entry and Analysis
As the responses were returned, each was individually numbered and manually entered
into Microsoft Excel for tabulation and summarization. Microsoft Excel is a commonly used
spreadsheet program which provides a wide range of capabilities for analyzing and charting data.
Some of the tools used most often were simple mathematical equations to find averages of the
scoring as well as cross-tabulation and charts of the data. Findings were analyzed to determine
trends and the strength of responses. During the analysis of the findings it was determined that
the resulting scores for the strength of preference, ease of installation and cost of material did not
communicate well using the one to five scale, with one being the positive response. Due to this
flaw in the questionnaire, the values were reversed to show five being the positive response.
This resulted in giving positive responses the highest scores and negative responses the lowest
scores. The findings of the data analysis are discussed in detail in the next chapter.
47
48
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
To determine the awareness and perceptions regarding PVC, its alternatives and possible
effects of pressures from environmental groups for its elimination, a survey of experienced
professional electricians was conducted, as an important part of the larger study of the
alternatives to PVC conduit. A hand delivered questionnaire (Appendix A), requiring a penciled
response, generated one hundred and twelve valid completed survey documents, representing
approximately six and a half percent of the targeted total population. Respondents had a range of
less than one year to fifty years of professional experience, with a median experience level of
about fourteen and one-half years. Fifty-five percent had over eleven years of experience. The
largest group, forty-one percent of respondents, was journeyman electricians. Twenty-four
percent were foreman or project managers. Nine percent of respondents reported that they made
materials purchasing decisions.
Experience, familiarity and perceptions of alternative conduit materials were determined
through use of a matrix question, asking respondents to rate, on a one to five scale, their
experience and opinions regarding PVC and other underground conduit materials. Most had
experience with several different materials. PVC had been used by eighty-nine percent of the
sample, followed by eighty-two percent for Galvanized Steel and lesser amounts for the other six
49
alternatives listed. PVC was clearly preferred and perceived as the easiest to use and least costly.
Two-thirds of the respondents reported no concerns about using PVC. Twenty percent reported
concerns about the strength of PVC and eleven percent disliked the glue fumes.
The possible elimination of PVC elicited seventy-five written, often emotional,
comments. Most were concerned about the increased cost of projects and several gave negative
comments about environmentalists. Only one response said that “It would be great for a greener
planet.” The majority, seventy-six percent, did not feel that green certification justified
elimination of PVC conduit. There was also a general sense that PVC probably would not be
eliminated. Clearly, sampled electricians are not in agreement with environmentalists’ concerns
regarding PVC underground conduit. A detailed discussion of these findings follows.
4.2 Profile of the Respondents
In order to understand the profile of the respondents a number of questions were asked
concerning their experience as electricians, their opinions on the elimination of PVC conduit for
underground applications and the recommended alternative materials.
4.2.1 Years of Experience as an Electrician
Survey respondents were presently employed by a major electrical contractor in the state
of Utah, as defined in the research. Respondents had an average of fourteen and one-half years
of experience as electricians. There was a wide range of responses to this question ranging from
less than one year to fifty years of experience. Forty-five percent of respondents had one to ten
years of experience as electricians, thirty-four percent had eleven to twenty years of and twenty-
four percent had twenty-one or more years of experience as an electrician. (See Figure 4.2.1)
50
50 45
Percentage of Respondents
45
40
35 31
30 24
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 to 10 years 11 to 20 years 21 + years
Years of Experience as an Electrician
Figure 4.2.1: Respondent’s Years of Experience as an Electrician
4.2.2 Current Position Occupied by Each Respondent
Respondents to the survey held a variety of positions in each company. Responses
included; Apprentice, Junior Electrician, Journeyman Electrician, Foreman, Superintendent,
Project Manager, and Estimator. Of the survey respondents, forty-one percent were Journeymen
Electricians, twenty-three percent were Apprentices, fifteen percent were Foremen and nine
percent were Project Managers. Three percent answered “Other” which included; Quality
Control, Estimator and Superintendent. Nine percent did not respond. (See Figure 4.2.2)
45% 41%
40%
35%
30% 23%
25%
20% 15%
15% 9% 9%
10% 3%
5%
0%
Journeyman
Manger
Other
Foreman
Apprentice
Response
Project
Electrician
No
Electrician Respondents by Position
Figure 4.2.2: Position Occupied by Each Respondent
51
4.2.3 Respondents Who Make Purchasing Decisions
Respondents were asked if they made purchasing decisions for their company. Nine
percent responded “Yes,” they do make purchasing decisions, while seventy-six percent
responded “No,” they do not make purchasing decisions and sixteen percent left the question
blank. (See figure 4.2.3) The majority of the respondents to this survey do not see themselves as
making purchasing decisions.
It is important to understand, that in the construction process, the type of material
specified for use is often specified by the designer or architect/ engineer on a project. Even those
who make purchasing decisions for these electrical contractors will not often have the ability to
choose the type of materials used. However, it is common practice to allow a subcontractor to
make a substitution request for an alternative material. If the electricians are aware of another
material that provides more value they may have a great deal of influence in introducing a new
product to the market because of their specialty and experience; they may persuade a designer to
try a new or alternative material. Even though the majority of respondents stated that they do not
make purchasing decisions for their company, their insight is still valuable and may affect the
adoption of alternative materials.
Because most of the respondents do not make material purchasing decisions they may not
have direct knowledge about the cost of conduit materials. However, their experience and
opinions of the materials in this study provide insight into the ease of installation which
influences productivity and has an effect on the final cost of the project.
52
80% 76%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
16%
20%
8%
10%
0%
Yes No No Response
Purchasing Decision Makers
Figure 4.2.3: Percentage of Respondents who Make Purchasing Decisions
4.3 Material Use, Preference, Ease of Installation and Cost
As described in the study design, a matrix question was developed which gave
respondents the opportunity to indicate if they had used a material and to rate each conduit
material on the basis of their preference, the ease of installation and cost of the material. Below
is an analysis of the opinions offered by respondents. Survey respondents were asked to rate
each material by preference on a scale of one to five, with one being their favorite and five being
their least favorite. During the analysis of the data it was determined that the scale did not
effectively communicate the preferences of the respondents. After the data was entered into a
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, a formula was devised to invert response values. For analysis
purposes; preference, ease of installation and cost ratings were restated on a one to five scale,
with five being the most positive response. A high rating for cost indicates that the response is
positive, or in other words, the material is least costly.
53
4.3.1 Respondents Who Have Used Each Material
The questionnaire included a check box by each conduit material where the respondent
indicated which materials they had used. Eighty-nine percent had used Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC); eighty-two percent had used Galvanized Steel (Galv); sixty-three percent had used
Polyurethane Coated Steel (PCS); sixty-two percent had used Nylon; forty-five percent had used
Fiberglass (Fiber); twenty-nine percent had used Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy (FRE), twenty-
four percent had used High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and seventeen percent had used
Polypropylene (Poly). Many respondents offered opinions about specific materials while not
indicating that they had used any of the materials. On the average, there were 9.7 percent more
opinions regarding each material than there were respondents who indicated that they had used
the material. (See figure 4.3.1) Two factors may explain this discrepancy: first, in many cases it
appears the respondents had misread the questionnaire and did not indicate that they had used a
material when, in fact, they had; second, some of the respondents may have offered opinions
about materials they had not used. Because it is difficult to determine which of these might be
the case, for the purposes of this study, the above percentages are based upon those respondents
who indicated that they had used a material and not those who offered an opinion. However, it is
important to note that the materials may have been more commonly used than the percentages
given above. Figure 4.3.1, found below, shows “Responses” which include the total number of
respondents who indicated that they had used a material and those who offered opinions; and
“Respondents who have Used Each Material” which includes only those who indicated that they
had used each material.
54
100% 95% 93%
89%
90% 82%
80% 73% 71%
70% 63% 62%
60% 54%
50% 45%
38%
40% 33%
29% 29%
30% 21%
17%
20%
10%
0%
PVC Galv PCS Nylon Fiber FRE HDPE Poly
Responses Respondents who have Used Each Material
Figure 4.3.1: Percentage of Respondents who have Used Each Conduit Material
4.3.2 Respondents Stated Preference of Each Material
Survey respondents were asked to rate preferences for conduit materials. This is an
important figure; however, it does not give a complete picture of the perceived value of each
material by the respondents. For this reason this figure is referred to as the “Stated Preference.”
A more complete picture of the perceived value of each material is found below and is referred
to as the “Overall Preference.”
Using the one to five scale, with five being positive, the conduit materials received the
following scores regarding the respondents stated preference. PVC received the highest average
score of 4.49. The next highest average score was for Polypropylene at 3.19; High Density
Polyethylene was third with 3.10, Nylon was fourth with 3.00, Galvanized Steel was fifth with
2.70, Fiberglass was sixth with 2.50, Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy was seventh with 2.22 and
Polyurethane Coated Steel was eight with 2.20. (See figure 4.3.2) The total range of the means
was 2.29, but if PVC were eliminated the range of the means would only be 0.99; indicating that
all other conduit materials were closely grouped together in terms of stated preference.
55
5.00 4.49
4.00
3.19 3.10 3.00
3.00 2.70 2.50
2.22 2.20
2.00
1.00
0.00
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Galv Fiber FRE PCS
Stated Preference
Figure 4.3.2: Stated Preference of Conduit Materials
4.3.3 Ease of Installation
Respondents were asked to rate their perception of each material’s ease of installation.
Ease of installation is important in determining the value or perceived value of alternative
conduit materials by the survey respondents. Ease of installation has the potential to affect the
preference for a material; it may also affect the rate of installation and productivity for specific
materials. There are several factors that may affect the ease of installation; including the weight
of the material, the type of joints required the ability to form or bend the material and the
difficulty of repair, if needed.
Using the one to five scale, with five being positive, the conduit materials received the
following scores. PVC received the highest average score of 4.72. The next highest average
score was for Polypropylene with 3.76, High Density Polyethylene was third with 3.38, Nylon
was fourth with 3.24, Fiberglass was fifth with 2.59, Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy was sixth with
2.46, Galvanized Steel was seventh with 2.42, and Polyurethane Coated Steel was eighth with
2.00. The most notable difference between ratings for Stated Preference and Ease of Installation
56
is that Galvanized Steel dropped from the fifth highest rating to the seventh. The two steel based
materials were rated last for ease of installation. (See figure 4.3.3)
5.00 4.72
4.50
4.00 3.76
3.38 3.24
3.50
3.00 2.59 2.46 2.42
2.50 2.00
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Fiber FRE Galv PCS
Ease of Installation
Figure 4.3.3: Ease of Installation of Conduit Materials
4.3.4 Cost of Materials
Respondents were asked to rate each material based upon cost. There are several factors
that may be included in cost; including the cost of the material and the cost of labor. The
questionnaire did not clarify the difference between the two. Respondents were simply asked to
rate their perception of the cost of each material on a scale of one to five, with five being the
most positive response or the lowest cost.
PVC was perceived as the least costly material and received the highest average score of
4.76, a 1.82 margin over the next material. The next highest average score was for
Polypropylene with 2.94, High Density Polyethylene was third with 2.86, Nylon was fourth with
2.50, Fiberglass was fifth with 2.21, Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy was sixth with 2.10,
Galvanized Steel was seventh with 2.04 and Polyurethane Coated Steel was eighth with 1.39.
PVC received its highest rating for its low cost while all other materials received their lowest
57
ratings. The order of preference remained the same compared to ease of installation. The total
range of the means was 3.21 and was the largest difference of any of the surveyed areas. (See
figure 4.3.4)
Increased cost of material does not appear to add value to the respondents. In fact, the
least costly materials were also rated as the easiest to install. The one exception was Galvanized
Steel, which was ranked as fifth in Stated Preference, but seventh in both Ease of Installation and
Cost. Many of the respondents expressed concerns that by replacing PVC with an alternative
material that prices would raise, resulting in higher project costs; which may result in smaller and
fewer projects, impacting their personal employment.
5.00 4.76
4.50
4.00
3.50
2.94 2.86
3.00 2.50
2.50 2.21 2.10 2.04
2.00
1.39
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Fiber FRE Galv PCS
Cost
Figure 4.3.4: Cost of Conduit Materials
4.3.5 Overall Preference for Each Conduit Material
As described earlier, the stated preference for each material did not give a complete
picture of the respondents’ perceived value of each material. Figure 4.3.5.1 shows the average
score for each material in the three areas of interest: Stated Preference, Ease of Installation and
Cost, combined into one chart.
58
5.00 4.724.76
4.49
4.50
3.76
4.00 3.38
3.19 3.24
3.50 2.94 3.10
2.86 3.00
3.00 2.70
2.50 2.502.59 2.42 2.46
2.50 2.21 2.22 2.10 2.20
2.04 2.00
2.00 1.39
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Fiber Galv FRE PCS
Stated Preference Ease of Installation Cost
Figure 4.3.5.1: Stated Preference, Ease of Installation and Cost of Conduit Materials
By taking the average of the above three scores for each material, a simplified view of the
respondents’ perceived value of each material is gained, the resulting score is referred to as the
“Overall Preference.” Figure 4.3.5.2 shows a chart of the Overall Preference of each material by
the survey respondents.
PVC received the highest overall rating with a score of 4.66, Polypropylene was second
with 3.30, High Density Polyethylene was third with 3.11, Nylon was fourth with 2.92,
Fiberglass was fifth with 2.43, Galvanized Steel was sixth with 2.39, Fiberglass Reinforced
Epoxy was seventh with 2.26 and Polyurethane Coated Steel was eighth with 1.86. (See figure
4.3.5.2)
Compared to the charts for Ease of Installation and Cost, only Galvanized Steel and
Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy traded rankings. It is also interesting to note that the non-metallic
materials were nearly all rated higher than the steel based materials. The conclusion can be
made that respondents have a strong preference for PVC conduit, while all other alternative
59
materials are grouped closely together. The total range of non-PVC alternatives was 1.44 or a
range of thirty-six percent. This shows a discernable preference among survey respondents.
5 4.66
4.5
4
3.30 3.11
3.5 2.92
3 2.43 2.39
2.5 2.26
1.86
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Fiber Galv FRE PCS
Overall Preference
Figure 4.3.5.2: Overall Preference of Conduit Material
4.3.6 Overall Preference verses Respondents Who Have Used Each Material
By comparing the frequency of respondents who reported having used each material with
the Overall Preference scores some important observations may be made. As shown in figure
4.3.1, PVC was the most commonly used material followed by Galvanized Steel. PVC was the
most highly rated material while Galvanized Steel was one of the lowest rated materials. Figure
4.3.6.1 and 4.3.6.2, found below, shows a large gap between the number of respondents who
have used a material and some of their preferences. Often there is a learning curve with
materials and the longer a new material is used, or the more often it is used, the more efficiency
increases. However, this figure shows that with the proposed alternatives there is almost a
reverse trend. Polypropylene and High Density Polyethylene were the least used alternative
materials but received the highest ratings of the non-PVC alternatives. Galvanized Steel and
Polyurethane Coated Steel were the most widely used materials but received two of the lowest
60
ratings. These ratings suggest that those who have used Polypropylene and High Density
Polyethylene perceived a high value, suggesting that these materials should be used more often.
A large negative gap, or a high number of users and a low rating, suggest that the materials usage
should be reduced. PVC, Nylon and Fiberglass had ratings that appeared consistent with their
usage. Figure 4.3.6.1 and figure 4.3.6.2; found below, both present the respondents’ overall
preference verses those respondents who have used each material.
5 4.66 120
4.5
Respondents who have

4 100 100
Overall Preference
Used the Material

3.30 92
3.5 3.11 2.92 80
3 69 2.43 2.39
2.5 2.26 60
2 50
1.5 40
32
1 19 24 20
0.5
0 0
PVC Poly HDPE Nylon Fiber Galv FRE
Overall Preference Respondents who have Used Each Material
Figure 4.3.6.1 Overall Preference vs. Respondents Use of Each Conduit Material
5 100%
Pecent of Respondents Who
Have Used Each Material
4.5 90%
4 80%
Overall Preference
3.5 70%
3 60%
2.5 50%
2 40%
1.5 30%
1 20%
0.5 10%
0 0%
PVC Galv PCS Nylon Fiber FRE HDPE Poly
Overall Preference Respondents Who Have Used Each Material
Figure 4.3.6.2: Overall Preference vs. Respondents Use of Each Conduit Material
61
4.3.7 Respondents’ Awareness of Alternative Conduit Materials
Figure 4.3.7 shows respondents answers when asked to name their top two alternatives if
PVC were eliminated. The responses were varied and do not correlate strongly with either the
Stated Preference or Overall Preference ratings shown above, figures 4.3.2 and 4.3.5.2
respectively. One possible reason why the responses did not correlate with the results given in
the analysis above is that respondents did not have strong feelings towards the alternatives in this
study. The most common responses were other materials not listed in the research. Many of the
responses were not viable underground materials with the most common response being “direct
burial.” Because of the open-ended response format of the question the responses are a good
picture of the level of awareness about the alternatives proposed in the study. This indicates that
in general, respondents did not have strong opinions or awareness about these materials. Of the
materials in the study, Fiberglass was listed as the top alternative if PVC were eliminated. High
Density Polyethylene was listed second, Galvanized Steel was listed third, Nylon was listed
fourth, Polyurethane Coated Steel was listed fifth, Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy was listed sixth
and Polypropylene was listed seventh. (See figure 4.3.7)
35 33
30
25
20 18
14 14
15 12
10 10 9 8
10 8 7
6
5 3 3 3 2
0
Other Fiber HDPE Galv Nylon PCS FRE PP
#1 Alternative #2 Alternative
Figure 4.3.7: Open Ended Responses of Respondent’s Top Two Alternative Conduit Materials
62
4.4 Respondents’ Concerns about the Use of PVC Conduit
Respondents were asked to share their concerns or problems with the use of PVC
conduit. Of the sixty-five written responses to this question sixty-six percent responded “none”
or no concerns about using PVC. Twenty percent complained about the strength of the material;
that it was brittle when cold or that it would sometimes burn when a leader pull cord was used to
draw the electrical cables during installation. Eleven percent complained of the fumes from the
glue used to seal PVC joints. Only one respondent mentioned toxic fumes when PVC was
burned and one respondent said “It messes up the environment.” Evidently, if environmentalists
wish to persuade electricians that PVC is a toxic substance they need to make a greater effort to
explain their case to the users of PVC conduit. (See figure 4.4)
66.2%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0% 20.0%
20.0% 10.8%
10.0% 1.5% 1.5%
0.0%
None Strength of Fumes from Toxic when Messes up
PVC Glue Burns the
environment
Concerns about using PVC
Figure 4.4: Respondent’s Concerns about Using PVC Conduit
4.5 Respondents’ Opinions about the Possible Elimination of PVC Conduit
Respondents were asked to share their opinions about the possible elimination of PVC
conduit. Of the seventy-five written responses to this question only one respondent replied that
elimination of PVC “Would be great for a greener planet,” another said that “I don’t like it but
63
I’ll live.” Thirty-one of the responses expressed concerns about raising the cost of project
materials and labor. Eleven of the responses simply stated “Don’t do it.” A hand full of the
responses stated “Stupid” or “Environmentalists are stupid” one even said, “Tell the tree huggers
to stop worrying.” Overall, many of the respondents appeared to take the question personally
and their emotion filled responses seemed to indicate resentment over being told what materials
they were allowed to use. Four of the respondents expressed a willingness to use any material
that was better than PVC.
4.6 Did Respondents Feel that a Green Certification Justifies the Elimination of PVC
Conduit?
Respondents were asked a yes or no question if a green certification justified the
elimination of PVC. Seventy-six percent of respondents felt that a green certification did not
justify the elimination of PVC conduit, sixteen percent left no response to the question and only
eight percent of the respondents answered that it did. (See figure 4.6) The majority of the
respondents did not feel that a green certification would justify the elimination of PVC conduit.
Responses documented in section 4.5 give a good indication as to possible reasons why such a
strong majority felt that elimination of PVC was not justified.
64
80% 76%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
16%
20%
8%
10%
0%
Yes No No Response
Does a Green Certification Justify Eliminating PVC Conduit?
Figure 4.6: Did Respondents Feel that a Green Certification Justifies the Elimination of PVC Conduit?
4.7 Specific Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the preferences of electricians in the state of
Utah for PVC and alternative conduit materials for underground electrical applications. From a
thorough review of literature and from answers provided by respondents, new information about
these preferences emerged. New information and several conclusions can be drawn from this
study.
 PVC is the most preferred underground electrical conduit of the materials considered
in this study. It is regarded as the least expensive, easiest to install and favorite
material of electricians working for a major electrical contractor in the state of Utah.
 Of the alternatives considered in this study Polypropylene is the most preferred,
although the fewest number of electricians had experience with it. High Density
Polyethylene was the second most preferred alternative, although the second fewest
numbers of electricians had experience with it. Nylon conduit was also attractive to
respondents, based upon the ratings and the number of electricians who had
experience using the material.
65
 Most of the alternative materials were rated higher for perceived cost and ease of
installation than Galvanized Steel conduit, which was the second most commonly
used material.
 Galvanized Steel and Polyurethane Coated Steel were the least preferred alternatives
but were the two most commonly used alternative materials in this study.
 Conflicting responses between the ratings and open ended responses suggest that
respondents did not have strong opinions about the alternatives considered in this
study. More could be done to expose electricians to these alternatives.
 Respondents to this study strongly felt that there is not enough value in green
certification to justify the elimination of PVC.
 Respondents did not express concerns about the environmental impact of PVC or
other concerns cited by those seeking to eliminate it.
 Respondents, who are some of the primary users of PVC, were not generally aware of
the effort to eliminate PVC. Respondents expressed concerns about the impact such
an effort would have on construction, costs and their personal employment.
 Many respondents appeared willing to adopt new materials if there was an increase in
value.
 Respondents displayed an awareness of the impact that eliminating PVC could have
on their company’s well being.
 Responses indicated that the electricians’ perceptions concerning the ease of
installation and cost of a material usually correlated.
 For respondents, a more expensive material did not demonstrate an increase in value.
66
 Respondents displayed an attitude of doing the right thing for their company because
that would benefit them personally. This sense of partnership with the company can
allow for trial and error with new materials to determine if the alternatives identified
in this study would in fact decrease costs or increase productivity, while improving
the environmental impact of a project.
4.8 Summary
The results of this study indicate that PVC is not only the most common underground
conduit material, it is also perceived to have the highest value. Polypropylene conduit was rated
next highest, but the fewest number of respondents had used it. In general, respondents’ attitudes
did not appear overwhelmingly strong towards any of the environmentally friendly alternatives
that were suggested by the Healthy Building Network. This indicates that the respondents were
not exceedingly aware of these alternatives and that their opinions may not be based so much in
experiences with each material but formed from other sources. In any case, there is room for
education about these alternative materials. This is important, because like any new technology,
alternative conduit materials need to show that they provide superior value to the existing
technology if they are to gain wide spread use and acceptance.
67
68
CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, FURTHER STUDY AND SUMMARY
5.1 Overview
The construction industry is dependent upon its ability to serve building needs. It must
continually be prepared to adapt to changing conditions. An ever-evolving environment of social
values, new technologies, materials, processes and market forces shape the future for successful
construction firms. New technologies with improved electronic sophistication, automation, and
information require increased wire and wireless connections in ever more complex structures.
Modern technology has produced a huge demand for data facilities, which require vast amounts
of wire, cables and conduit. For example, in fall of 2009, the federal government announced the
new construction of a one and half billion square foot data center in Utah that is estimated to
require as much electricity as all of the homes in Salt Lake City. 71 For comparison, a data center
constructed in 2009 a few miles away in South Jordan was approximately one quarter of the size
and required fifty-seven miles of underground PVC conduit. Increased social concern for the
preservation of our environment and planet with attendant pressures to reduce pollution and the
presence of hazardous materials, including chlorine based materials, conflict with many of the
demands of modern society.
71
M. LaPlante, “Camp Williams’ NSA Data Center Will Mean Big Boost for Construction,” The Salt Lake Tribune,
7 August 2009, available from
http://www.sltrib.com/portlet/article/html/fragments/print_article.jsp?articleId=12772821&siteId=297; Internet;
accessed 24 October 2009.
69
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is the foremost material used in underground electrical
conduit. Chlorine is its chief component, making PVC a prime target for elimination.
Elimination pressures from various environmental groups have already led to increased
restrictions, which has resulted in PVC being banned in some countries. In the United States,
regulation and voluntary industry standards groups have been relatively moderate in the
restriction of PVC, but pressures for additional limitations and even the elimination of PVC
continue to increase. The primary installers of PVC underground electrical conduit are
electricians employed by major electrical contractors involved in building structures to serve
modern technologically oriented organizations.
A survey of electricians working for the four major electrical contractors in Utah revealed
that the electricians are most familiar and comfortable with using PVC for underground conduit,
they also feel that PVC is the most cost effective material. To a lesser extent, they are familiar
with the use, benefits and costs of alternative conduit materials. They are also generally
reluctant to change preferred materials without significant reasons or an increase in value.
The capability of experienced electricians and other construction professionals to change
and adapt to new technologies and materials is obvious. However, they are unlikely to change
proven methods and materials without significant pressure from market factors, including;
demand, restrictions, cost savings and other incentives.
5.2 Recommendations for Major Electrical Contractors
The study provides a valuable starting point to increase experimentation with conduit
materials that appear to be viable alternatives to PVC and may be more environmentally friendly.
Major electrical contractors should be aware of changing market forces and the possibility of
70
regulations which may produce a need to shift away from PVC. Electricians should be prepared
to effectively use a variety of alternative conduit types, as organizations prepare to adjust and
respond to new demands.
5.3 Recommendations for Those Seeking to Eliminate PVC
The environmental groups pushing for the elimination of PVC have relied heavily on
government regulations, rather than the development of competitive alternatives or education
about the benefits of existing alternative materials. An appeal to the users of PVC electrical
conduit should focus on the value of new materials in terms of cost, ease of use and other
benefits, rather than just a material’s environmentally friendliness. Environmental friendliness
alone did not appear to influence respondents enough to produce a change in voluntary behavior.
Attempts to coerce change through government regulations rather than an increase in
value, builds resentment rather than good will. A few of the survey respondents indicated that
they were willing to adopt a new technology if it provided superior value, but many others
expressed resentment over being forced to use another material if it would affect them personally
by increasing costs, decreasing the ease of installation or affecting their personal employment.
Numerous responses indicated the perception that “costs of labor and materials would skyrocket”
if PVC were eliminated. While these perceptions may not be accurate, they show that more
should be done to persuade before governmental coercion is used.
It should be noted that the Healthy Building Network, while pushing for the elimination
of PVC, has taken proactive steps to promote alternatives. Based upon the results of this study,
many of these alternatives appear to be viable and provide a reasonable equivalent to PVC. The
71
results of this study also indicate that many of the respondents were not very familiar with these
alternatives and that their perceptions are not set in stone.
Some of the studies documented in the review of literature indicated that alternative
materials have not been as critically examined as PVC. If so, why recommend one material over
another if they cannot be measured impartially? Society, in general, has expressed increased
interest in environmental issues in recent years. This interest should be validated through the use
of impartial measurements and objective standards that lead to real improvements instead of
emotional battles resulting in diminished use of efficient materials. Real value, increased
efficiencies, market and social benefits should be the basis for changes in products and
processes, including the selection of appropriate construction materials.
5.4 Recommendations for Further Study
 This study was limited to electricians’ working for major electrical contractors in
the state of Utah. Over six and a half percent of the target population responded
to this study and offered their opinions and preferences on various alternatives to
PVC conduit. Are their preferences consistent with respondents from other areas
of the country? Further studies should determine if comparable attitudes and
opinions are found in other regions and market situations.
 Manufactures advocating the use of PVC state that alternative materials listed as
more environmentally friendly have not been critically analyzed to nearly the
extent as PVC. This was one of the main considerations cited by the U.S. Green
Building Council for not promoting the elimination of PVC. Are the other
alternative materials considered in this study truly more environmentally friendly
72
than PVC? Further studies should establish an objective system to analyze
construction materials to ensure impartial conclusions about environmental
friendliness.
 This study was limited to electricians’ preferences for alternative materials based
upon their perceptions of product preference, ease of installation, and cost. Are
their perceptions of ease of installation and cost accurate? Further studies should
analyze ease of use, productivity and costs of the alternative materials identified
in this study.
5.5 Summary
This study was an important first step in identifying preferences of electricians working
for major electrical contractors in the state of Utah of alternative materials to PVC conduit in
underground applications. It provides insight into the preferences of electricians, based upon use
of a material, stated preference and ease of installation and cost. Among its findings it is revealed
that PVC is the most commonly used and most preferred conduit material for underground
applications. Conduit materials which have been recommended as environmentally friendly vary
greatly in preference and in number of respondents who have used each material.
This study also showed that electricians did not see value in eliminating PVC to obtain a
green certification but were likely to be open to alternatives if they provided an increase in value.
Electricians’ perceptions of alternative materials could change with further study and exposure,
possibly leading to more widespread adoption.
73
The construction industry, including electrical contractors, must be aware and prepared
for adjustments of practices and materials should greater restrictions on the use of PVC conduit
become more evident.
Environmental groups seeking to replace PVC should focus more on the benefits and
costs of PVC alternatives in order to achieve their goals.
Governments should not be reckless in adopting new standards for the increased
regulation of PVC, as PVC is the most widely preferred and used underground electrical conduit.
Further study is needed to impartially analyze the costs, benefits and environmentally
friendliness of construction materials.
Building owners should be involved in examining the costs and benefits of alternative
construction materials; as well as, constraints imposed by law or environmental standard.
The general public should be prepared to bear additional costs if they elect to accept less
efficient building alternatives for the sake of environmental benefits.
Disagreements over the use of PVC electrical conduit illustrate conflicts and provide an
opportunity for finding common ground by evaluating alternatives to satisfy society’s needs and
protect the environment.
74
REFERENCES
Ackerman, F. Poisoned for Pennies: The Economics of Toxics and Precaution. Washington DC:
Island Press, 2008.
Ackerman, F and Massey, R. The Economics of Phasing Out PVC. Somerville, Massachusetts:
Tufts University, 2003.
Cascadia Region Green Building Council (CRGBC). “About Cascadia Region Green Building
Council.” Available from http://www.cascadiagbc.org/about-us; Internet; accessed 29
August 2009.
Cascadia Region Green Building Council (GRGBC), The Living Building Challenge: In Pursuit
of True Sustainability in the Built Environment. Portland, Oregon, 2007.
Christman, K. “Vinyl Use in Buildings and Construction.” Vinyl Institute (2003); quoted in
Ackerman, F. and Massey, R. The Economics of Phasing Out PVC. Somerville,
Massachusetts: Tufts University, 2003.
Greenpeace. “Go PVC-Free.” Available from

http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/campaigns/toxics/go-pvc-free; Internet; accessed 8
August 2009.
Greenpeace. PVC-Free Future: A Review of Restrictions and PVC free Policies Worldwide.
Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2001.
Greenpeace. “The History of Greenpeace.” Available from

http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/history; Internet; accessed 7 September
2009.
Greenpeace, “Who We Are.” Available from http://www.greenpeace.org/international/about/our-

mission; Internet; accessed 7 September 2009.
Harvie, J. and Lent, T. “PVC-Free Pipe Purchasers’ Report.” Healthy Building Network, (2002):
14.
Healthy Building Network. “About Us.” Available from

http://www.healthybuilding.net/about/index.html; Internet; accessed 16 September 2009.
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Healthy Building Network. “PVC-Free Agenda makes Sense.” Available from
http://www.healthybuilding.net/press/plastics_news_opition.html; Internet; accessed 25
September 2009.
Industrial Plastic Pipe, “Polypropylene Pipe.” Available from

http://www.industrialplasticpipe.com/pages/PolypropylenePipe.htm; Internet; accessed
16 September 2009.
International Code Council. “Introduction to the ICC.” Available from

http://www.iccsafe.org/news/about/#origin; Internet; accessed 29 August 2009.
International Code Council. “International Code Adoptions.” Available from

http://www.iccsafe.org/government/adoption.html; Internet ; accessed 29 August 2009.
International Organization for Standardization. “Sustainability in Building Construction, 2006.”

Available from http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=40434; Internet;
LaPlante, M. “Camp Williams’ NSA Data Center Will Mean Big Boost for Construction,” The
Salt Lake Tribune, 7 August 2009, available from
http://www.sltrib.com/portlet/article/html/fragments/print_article.jsp?articleId=12772821
&siteId=297; Internet; accessed 24 October 2009.
Leadbitter, J. “PVC and Sustainability,” Progress in Polymer Science, no.27 (2002): 2197-2204.
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http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/580.1880/; Internet; accessed 19
September 2009.
Linak E. and Yagi, K. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Resins: Chemical Economics Handbook
Marketing Research Report (California: SRI International, September, 2003); quoted in
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Washington DC: Island Press, 2008.
McRandal, P. “Green Guidance,” World Watch Magazine, no. 19 (March/April 2006): 2
Mulder, K. and Knot, M. “PVC plastic: a history of systems development and entrenchment”,
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Certification Westford, Massachusetts 2003.
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Revkin, A. “Environmental Issues Slide in Poll of Public’s Concerns,” The New York Times, 23
Jan 2009, sec. A13.
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Construction.” Available from http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs003.htm; Internet; accessed
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http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/pubs/help.html; Internet; accessed 30 August 2009.
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2009.
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). “About USGBC.” Available from

http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=124; Internet; accessed 29 August
2009
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77
78
APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRE
79
80
APPENDIX B. RAW DATA
81
82
APPENDIX C. CONCERNS REGARDING THE USE OF PVC
83
84
APPENDIX D. OPINIONS ON THE POSSIBLE ELIMINATION OF PVC
85
86
APPENDIX E. CERTIFICATION FROM BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY’S
INSTIUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
87
88

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Brigham Young University

Theses and Dissertations

A Study of Electricians' Preferences of PVC and Alternative

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd

Part of the Construction Engineering and Management Commons

BYU ScholarsArchive Citation

and Alternative Conduit Materials

in the State of Utah

A thesis submitted to the faculty of

Jay S. Newitt, Chair

Brigham Young University

A Study of Electricians’ Preferences of PVC

and Alternative Conduit Materials

in the State of Utah

Polyvinyl Chloride, commonly known as PVC is a common and effective construction

PVC electrical conduit is commonly used in commercial, industrial, and civil

Keywords: Robert Andrus, PVC, polyvinylchloride, conduit, electrician, conduit alternatives,

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Construction Management Program at

LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………………………………….. ix

LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………… xi

1.1 Problem and Background ………………………………………………………... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………. 4

1.3 Need for the Study ………………………………………………………………. 5

1.4 Statement of Research …………………………………………………………… 5

1.5 Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………….. 5

1.6 Uniqueness of the Study ………………………………………………………… 5

1.7 Limitations ....……………………………………………………………………. 6

1.8 Assumptions ……………………………………………………………………... 6

1.9 Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………........ 7

2 Review of Literature ………………………………………………………………….. 11

2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 11

2.2 The Construction Industry ……………………………………………………... 12

2.3 Government Regulation of the Construction Industry …………………………. 13

2.4 Environmental Regulation of the Construction Industry ………………………. 14

2.5 Green Building, the Green Movement and its Influence on

2.6 PVC: A Controversial Chemical ……………………………………………….. 19

2.7 Green Building Organizations and Their Call for the

2.7.2 Bans on PVC …………………………………………………………… 23

2.7.3 International Actions Concerning PVC ………………………………... 24

2.7.4 U.S. Green Building Council and the Leadership in Energy

2.7.5 Cascadia Region Green Building Council and the Living

2.7.6 Healthy Building Network ……………………………………………... 31

2.8 Alternatives for PVC Conduit ………………………………………………….. 32

2.8.1 High Density Polyethylene …………………………………………….. 32

2.8.2 Polypropylene ………………………………………………………….. 33

2.8.3 Galvanized Steel ……………………………………………………….. 33

2.8.4 Fiberglass ………………………………………………………………. 34

2.8.5 Fiberglass Reinforced Epoxy …………………………………………... 34

2.8.6 Nylon …………………………………………………………………… 34

2.8.7 Polyurethane Coated Steel ……………………………………………... 35

2.9 Summary ……………………………………………………………………….. 35

3.1 Gathering Background Information ……………………………………………. 39

3.2 Research Design ………………………………………………………………... 42

3.3 Questionnaire Development ……………………………………………………. 43

3.4 The Final Survey Instrument …………………………………………………... 44

3.5 Survey Distribution …………………………………………………………….. 45

3.6 Response Rate ………………………………………………………………….. 46

4 Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………………….. 49

4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………….……. 49

4.2 Profile of the Respondents ……………………………………………………... 50

4.2.1 Years of Experience as an Electrician …………………………………. 50

4.2.2 Current Position Occupied by Each Respondent ………………………. 51