ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The chief sources of all water supplies are rainfall. This water after getting
proper treatment we get from municipal corporation/water supply department i.e.
public health engg. Department.
Other source of water is underground water. Water that has percolated into the
ground is brought on the surface.
The upper surface of free water in the top soil is termed as ground water level/
table.
Form in which underground sources are found infiltration galleries. Infiltration
wells are sunk in series on the bank of river. Other source is spring an outcrops
of water. A ground well is defined as an artificial hole/pit made in the ground for
the purpose of tapping of water. Following are types of wells-
(a) Shallow wells.
(b) Deep wells
(c) Tube wells
(d) Artesian wells.

Tube Wells -
Tube wells are of type-
(a) Strainer type
(b) Cavity type
(c) Slotted type
(d) Perforated type.
Tube Wells:
Bores are made into the ground by hand & mechanically operated augers,
percussion equipment or drilled by coring rigs.
The most common bores are made by augers in which a pipe is inserted on a
hand pump with a suction pipe is installed. Hand pumps are for local use and the
wells are exposed to the same pollution risks as the dug wells.
A more scientific deep-bore hand pump called Mark IV, for drawing safe water
from deeper strata, has been developed by Indian Scientists, and is now being
extensively used in rural water supply schemes in India,.
Tubewells deeper than 30 m or so have a lesser chance of being polluted.
The possibility of contamination in any Tubewell should never be discounted
and water should be tested often to ensure safety.
Tube well is deep well having diameter 50 to 200 mm.
A bore is drilled in the ground (Percussion core rotary drilling m/c.) For testing
the yields of a well recuperation and constant pumping test is done, pipe for tube
well is then inserted in the bore hole.
It consists, of strainer and blind sections. A strainer is a perforated pipe which
is provided with an arrangement such as that only water will be admitted to
inside of the pipe. Pumping is then started.
Maintenance of a Tube Well:
Use in the grounds and gardens, then it is essential to ensure that there is no
possibility of the contamination of potable water supplies with these lower-qual-
ity supplies, The two systems must be physically isolated and outlet points with
non-potable' supplies must be clearly labeled as not suitable for drinking.
(i) Cleaning of screen with hydro sulfuric acid. Hydrochloric acid.
(ii) Removal of lime particles - clogging of screen.
(iii) Replacement of parts. Failure of tube well is due to
(i) Corrosion
(ii) Incrustation - deposition of alkali salts on the inside walls of the tube well.
Types of Well Construction:
(a) Dug well - Shallow well
(b) Driven well - Deep well in unconsolidated solid
(c) Bored/Drilled well.

Sanitary Protection Of Well:

(a) Water tight connection of pump
(b) Covered top
(c) Casing depth 3m
below the ground water
table.
(d) Distance from the source of contamination, minimum 90 m
(e) No presence of trees
(f) Priming of pump by safe water
(g) Washing of cloth should be prohibited

Open Streams/Springs Etc:

(a) Whenever no other water source is available, it may be necessary to tap a
local water-stream or river. However, the quantity, quality and dependability of
the source have to be investigated. The methods of treatment e.g. filtration
disinfection and storage must be decided on the basis of the results of these
investigations.
(b) When the source of water is far away from its area of consumption a detailed
survey of the area, route of pipe line has to be made for laying the water mains.

Rain Water Harvesting:

Conditions for Rain Water Harvesting
Many area endowed with a fair amount of natural precipitation do not have
geographical or subsoil conditions to absorb and impound the rain water.

Rivers:
Rivers are commonly used as a source of water but normally require treatment
before use particularly in downstream sections, rivers are often contaminated
with waste materials from industry, agriculture and communities. Rivers are
classified in terms of their quality:-
» Class 1a, Good Quality: water of high quality suitable for potable supply
abstractions; game or other high-class fisheries; high amenity value.
» Class 2b, Fair Quality waters suitable for potable supply after advanced treat-
ment supporting reasonably good coarse fisheries, moderate amenity value.
» Class 3, Poor Quality; waters which are polluted to an extent that fish are
absent or only sporadically present; may be used for low-grade industrial
abstraction purposes; considerable potential for further use if cleaned up.
» Class 4, Bad Quality; waters which are grossly polluted and likely to cause a
nuisance.

Lakes (Natural and Artificial):

Where there is a shortage of underground water, lakes or artificial reservoirs
may be used to provide water supplies but this water usually needs some form
of treatment prior to use recently, there has been an increase in the occurrence
of algae blooms caused by the growth of blue-green algae.
Some of these algae produce toxins which are poisonous to fish and mammals.
The same classification scheme is used for rivers and lakes.

Oceans:
The oceans represent the most abundant source of water on the planet, but the
cost of desalination is usually prohibitively high and therefore sea water is not
often used as a source of water. Coastal waters are often contaminated with
sewage and heavy metals.

INTAKES:

The main function of the intakes works is to collect the water from various
sources. The sources may be lakes, rivers, reservoirs and canals. The intake
work for each type of source is designed separately according to its
requirements and situations.
 Intakes are structures which essentially consist of opening,
grating through which the raw water from source and is carried to a sump-well
by means of conduits.

Water from the sump well is pumped through the rising mains to
the treatment plant.

The following points should be considered while selecting a site for intake
works:

 The best quality of water should be available at the site so that it can be
easily and economically purified in less time to the treatment plants.
 The site should be such that intake work can draw more quantity of water if
required in the future, there should be sufficient scope for future.
 The site of intake should be easily approachable without any obstruction.
 As far as possible the selection of the site should be near the treatment works, it
will reduce the conveyance cost from the source of the water-works.
 At the site sufficient quantity should be available for the future expansion of the
water-works.
 As far as possible the selection the intake should not be located in the vicinity of
the point of sewage disposal.

TYPES OF INTAKES:

The intake work for each type of source is designed separately

according to the requirements and situations, Depending on the source of water
in intake works are classified as follows:

1. Lake intake

2. River intake

3. Reservoir intake

4. Canal intake
1. LAKE INTAKE:

For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used.

 These intakes are constructed in the bed of the lake below the slow water
level so as to draw water in dry season also.
 It essentially consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the river at one end, which is
in the middle of the lake is fitted with bell mouth opening covered with mesh
and protected by concrete blocks.
 The water enters in the pipe through the bell mouth opening and flows
under gravity to the bank where it is collected in sump-well and then
pumped to treatment plant.
 If one pipe is not sufficient two or more pipes may be laid to get the
required quantity of water.
 As these intakes draw small quantity of water, these are not used on big water
supply schemes like rivers or reservoirs.

2. RIVER INTAKE:
 Water from the rivers is always drawn from the upstream side, because it is free
from the contamination caused by the disposal of sewage in it.
 It has circular masonary tower 4 to 7m in dia constructed along the bank of
the river at such place from where required quantity of water can be obtained
even in the dry period.
 The water enters in the lower portion of the intake known as sump-well from
penstocks.
 The penstocked are fitted with screens to check the entry of floating solids.
 Number of penstock opening are provided in the intake tower to admit water
at different levels.
 The opening and closing of penstock valves is done with the help of
wheels provided at the pump-house floor.
 In case of emergency and temporary works , movable intakes can be used .
 The water is directly pumped from the river and sent for the treatment
and distribution.

3. RESERVOIR INTAKE:
 Reservoir intakes which mostly used to draw the water from earthern dam
reservoir. It essentially consists of an intake tower constructed on the slope of
the dam at such place from where intake can draw sufficient quantity of
water even in the driest period.
 Intake pipes are fixed at different levels, so as to draw water near the surface
in all variations of water level.
 These all inlet pipes are connected to one vertical pipe inside the intake well.
 Screens are provided at the mouth of all intakes pipes to prevent the entrance
of floating and suspended mstter in them.
 The water which enters the vertical pipe is taken to the other side of the dam
by means of outlet pipe.
 At the top of the intake tower sluice valves are provided to control the flow
of water.

4. CANAL INTAKE
 Canal intake is a very simple structure constructed on the bank.
 It essentially consists of a pipe placed in a brick masonry chamber
constructed partly in the canal bank.
 Other side of chambers as opening is provided with coarse screen for the
entrance of water.
 The pipe in side chamber is provided with a bell-mouth fitted with a a
hemispherical fine screen,
 The out-let pipe carries the water to the other side of the canal bank from
where it is taken to the treatment plants.
 One sluice valve which is operated by a wheel from the top of the
masonry chamber is provided to control the flow of water in pipe.

LAYOUT OF WATER TREATMENT

Uniform settling velocity:

 Settling is the process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid

and form a sediment.
 Particles that experience a force, either due to gravity or due to centrifugal
motion will tend to move in a uniform manner in the direction exerted by
that force.

Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction with

neighboring particles.

Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and

settle at a faster rate.

Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
The purpose of a Water Treatment Plant is to remove particulates and
pathogens from water that may pose a health threat to consumers.

PRINCIPLES OF WATER TREATMENT:

The Principles of Water and Wastewater Treatment

Processes has been divided into the following Units:

PHYSICAL PROCESSES:

Microbes and other colloidal particles can be physically removed from water
by various processes. The sizes of the microbes are especially important for
their removal by sedimentation and filtration.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES:

Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) (Ca(OH)2):

Is dosed at the start and end of the treatment process.

The pre-dose increases the alkalinity for optimal coagulation as well as the
hardness and buffering capacity of water (resistance to change in pH).
The post-dose is to raise the pH to within drinking water guidelines and the
optimum level for the residual disinfectant.

SLUDGE TREATMENT:

Sludge is produced from the treatment of wastewater in on-site (e.g.

septic tank) and off-site (e.g. activated sludge) systems. The primary aim of
wastewater treatment is removing solids from the wastewater.

ODOUR MANAGEMENT:

Wastewater treatment plant odours are common. Perimeter odour neutralizing

spray systems can be used to great effect to control wastewater treatment plant
odours.

( Biofiltration systems can treat several contaminants

simultaneously, without the use of chemicals. With 95% odour removal
efficiency, our biofiltration systems can treat a wide range of contaminants )

SURFACE LOADING
 Calculating the surface loading gives a guide to how much water can be
processed each day per area of sedimentation tank.

 Surface loading is one of the most important factors affecting the effectiveness
of the sedimentation process. The surface loading rate is used to determine if
the sedimentation tanks and clarifiers are under loaded or over loaded.
 If actual surface loading is > the design values then this indicates the tanks
are overloaded.
If actual surface loading is < the design values then this indicates the tanks are
underloaded.
 The surface loading test calculates the volume of water being treated over
a period of time over surface area of the tank.

surface loading (kL per day per m2) = flow rate (kL per day)
surface area of tank (m2)

AERATION:

 Aeration (also called Aerification) is the process by which air is

circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or substance.
 Passing the liquid through air by means of fountains, cascades, paddle-wheels or
cones.

USES:

 Production of aerated water for drinking purposes.

 Secondary treatment of sewage or industrial wastewater through use of
aerating mixers/diffusers.
 To increase the oxygen content of water used to house animals,
such as aquarium fish or fish farm.
 In chemistry, to oxidize a compound dissolved or suspended in water.
 WATER QUALITY TESTING

 As the quality of source water varies daily in every season, it is necessary that
the water samples for analysis should be collected frequently.

 According to the quality of water it should be treated.

The following are the tests which are done

During water quality test:

a) Physical test.

b) Chemical test.

c) Biological test.

a) PHYSICAL TEST:

1. TEMPERATURE: The temperature of water is measured by means of

ordinary thermometers.

 From the temperature the MASS density(P=m/v), viscosity, vapour pressure

and surface tension of water can be determined.

 The temperature of surface water is generally same to the atmospheric

temperature, while that of ground water may be more or less than
atmospheric temperature.

 The most desirable temperature for public supply is between 4.4 °c to 10 °c.

 Temperature above 28 °c are undesirable and above 35 °c are unfit for public
supply, because it is NOT PALATABLE(NOT ACCECTABLE TO TASTE).
 2. COLOUR: The color of water is usually due to presence of organic matter,
but sometimes it is also due to mineral and dissolved organic and inorganic
impurities.

 Before testing the color of the water, first of all total suspended matter should
be removed from the water by centrifugal force in a special apparatus.

 After this the color of water is compared with standard color solution.

 The permissible color for domestic water is 20p.p.m on platinium cobalt scale.

 The color in water is not harmful but it is objectionable.

3. TURBIDITY: It is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter

in the water.

 The character and amount of turbidity depends on the type of soil over which
the water has moved.

There are two types of turbidimeters:

1) Based on visual method( through naked eye).

2) Based on direct (meter reading ) method.

b) CHEMICAL TEST:

 In the chemical testing of water those test are done that will reveal the
sanitary quality of the water.

 The chemical test involve the determination of total solids, hardness,

chlorides, iron and manganese etc.
 1) Total solids:

• Total solids is a measure of the suspended and dissolved solids in water.

• The quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water

through a fine filter, drying and weighing.

• The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating

the filtered water(obtained from the suspended solid test) and weighing the
water.

• The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating

the water and weighing it.

• By weighing we can determine the inorganic solids and deducting it from

total solids.

2) HARDNESS:

• It is the property of water which prevents the lathering (form ) of the soap.
• It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of calcium
and magnesium in the water.
• Also in the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium cause
hardness in the water.
• Hardness is usually expressed in mg/lit or p.p.m of calcium carbonate in water.
• In the past the hardness was determined by soap test, in which the standard
soap sol was added in the water and it was shaked to see the formation of lather
for 5 min. The hardness of water was calculated on the basis of soap solution
added and lather factor.

3) CHLORIDES:
• The natural water near the sea or mines have dissolve sodium chloride(Nacl).

• The presence of chlorides may be due to the mixing of saline water (Saline
water is water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved salts
(mainly NaCl) and is commonly known as saltwater) and sewage in the
water.

• Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use. The chloride can be
reduced by diluting the a water.

• Chlorides above 250p.p.m are not permissible(not allowed) in water.

The chloride can be determined by titrating the water with silver

nitrate(Agno3) and potassium chromate(k2cro4), in that titration process reddish
colour will be formed if chlorides are present.

4) IRON AND MANGANESE

• These are generally found in ground water. If these are present less than 0.3
p.p.m. it is not objectionable . But it exceeds 0.3p.p.m the water is not suitable
for domestic and laundering purposes.

• The presence of iron and manganese in water makes brownish red colour in
it, leads to growth of micro-organisms. Iron and manganese also cause taste
and odour in the water.

• The quality of iron and manganese is determined by colorimetric methods.

• In these methods some colouring agents are added in the water and
compared with standard colour solutions.

5) PH VALVE
• In general, a water with a pH < 7 is considered acidic and with a pH > 7 is
considered basic.

• The normal range for pH in surface water systems is 6.5 to 8.5 and for
groundwater systems 6 to 8.5.

• Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of the water to resists a change in pH

that would tend to make the water more acidic.

PH SCALE

0 TO 7  7  Slightly above 7 to 14

(Acidic range) (Alkaline range)

3) BIOLOGICAL TEST:-

In a biological test the following two tests are done:-

a) TOTAL COUNT OF BACTERIA:- In this method total number of bacteria

present in millimeter of water is counted. The sample of water is taken, 1 ml of
sample water is diluted in 99ml of sterilized water.

1. Sterilized Water (absence of any bacteria in the water).

2. Distilled water (that has many of its impurities removed through

distillation. Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the
steam into a clean container).

• This mixture is kept in incubator at 37°c for 24hrs.

• After it the sample will be taken out from incubator and counted by means
of microscope.

b) BACTERIA COLI(B-COLI)TEST:
• There are 2 tests B-coli first is presumptive and second confirmative.

• In the presumptive test definite amount of diluted sample of the water in

standard fermentation tubes is kept in inclubator at 37°c for 24hrs. If some gas is
produced in the fermentation tube , indicates the presence of B-coli.

• And it again kept in incubator at 37°c for 48 hrs, if there is formation of gas in
the tube , it confirms the presence of B-coli and the water is unsafe to use.

This method is known as “MEMBRANE FILTER TECHNIQUE”.

WATER TREATMENT
Defination:

• A wastewater treatment plant is a physical plant where various physical,

biological or chemical processes are used to change the properties of
the wastewater (e.g. by removing harmful substances) in order to turn it into a
type of water (also called effluent) that can be safely discharged into
the environment or that is usable for a certain reuse purpose.
• By-products from wastewater treatment plants, such as screenings,
sewage sludge, odorous gases are also treated in a wastewater treatment
plant.

1.Preliminary treatment:

The purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect the operation of the

wastewater treatment plant which can damage pumps, or interfere with
subsequent treatment processes.

Preliminary treatment devices are, therefore, designed to:

 1.Remove or to reduce in size the large, entrained, suspended or floating solids.
These solids consist of pieces of wood, cloth, paper, plastics, garbage, etc.
together with some fecal matter.

Pre- chlorination:

• Pre-chlorination is a process that involves adding chlorine to the collection

system of industrial plants and other Treatment plant, mainly for corrosion
and odor control.
• It is also applied for the purpose of disinfection and for the removal of oil
particles.
• It is also used in water treatment to control aquatic growth as well as taste,
and as aid in settling and coagulation.
• In pre-chlorination, chlorine is added to the raw water prior to flash mixing
and post screening.

The excess chlorine is beneficial in the various stages of treatment by:

1. Aiding coagulation

2. Controlling of algae problems

3. Reducing odor and mud ball formation

Actual chlorination process:

2. Coagulation:

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and
other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc"
which attract the dirt particles.

The combined weight of the dirt and the alum become heavy enough to sink to
the bottom during sedimentation.

Solids are removed by sedimentation (settling) followed by filtration. Small

particles are not removed efficiently by sedimentation because they settle too
slowly; they may also pass through filters. They would be easier to remove if
 they clumped together (coagulated) to form larger particles, but they don't
because they have a negative charge and repel each other (like two north poles
of a magnet).

In coagulation, we add a chemical such as alum which produces positive charges

to neutralize the negative charges on the particles. Then the particles can stick
together, forming larger particles which are more easily removed.

The coagulation process involves the addition of the chemical (e.g. alum) and
then a rapid mixing to dissolve the chemical and distribute it evenly throughout
the water.

3. Floccuation:

Flocculants are used in water treatment processes to improve the sedimentation

or filterability of small particles.

Floc:

A soft or fluffy particle suspended in a liquid or the fluffy mass of suspended

particles so formed. Floc may be mineral as for clay, chemical as in water
treatment or biological as in sewage treatment.

4. Sedimentation process:

• Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process using gravity to

remove suspended solids from water.
• The particles that settle out from the suspension become sediment, and in water
treatment is known as sludge. When a thick layer of sediment continues to
settle, this is known as consolidation.
• Solid particles entrained by the turbulence of moving water may be
removed naturally by sedimentation in the stilwater of lakes and oceans.

5. Sand purification:

• Sand filters are used for water purification. There are three main types;
• Rapid (gravity) sand filters.
• Sand filtration is a frequently used very strong method to remove
suspended solids from water.

6. Post chlorination:

• Post Chlorination is the final process in water treatment.

• The chlorine will kill any bacteria or viruses remaining in the water and it is
important that a minimum level of chlorination remains in the water through
the storage and distribution.
• If needed, additional chorine is added to the finished water that leaves the
water plants. Low levels of chlorine (approximately 0.2 to 1.0 part per million)
must be maintained in the distribution systems pipes and home plumbing to
prevent the growth of microorganisms.

7. flouridation:

• Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water

supply to reduce tooth decay.
• Water fluoridation is the addition of the chemical fluoride to public water
supplies, for the purpose of reducing cavities.`

Advantages:

• Water purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to

produce drinking water that is pure enough for the most critical of its intended
uses, usually for human consumption.
• Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of
the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment as well.
 AQUIFERS
What is an aquifer???

• An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or

unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can
be extracted using a water well.
• The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is
called hydrogeology.

What is confining layer (aquitard)?

Geological material through which significant quantities of water can not move,
located below unconfined aquifers, above and below confined aquifers. Also
known as a confining bed.

1. CONFINED AQUIFER(ARTESIAN) :-

Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists that
prevents water from seeping into the aquifer from the ground surface located
directly above.

2. Unconfined aquifer (water table aquifer):-

Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface
directly above the aquifer.

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS:

Natural recharge of the unconfined aquifers is mainly due to the downward

seepage (or percolation) through the unsaturated zone of the excess water over
 passing the field capacity of the soil. Recharge can also occur through upward
seepage (leakage) from underlying aquifers.

CONFINED AQUIFERS:

A regional confined aquifer is directly recharged by precipitation in the area

where the aquifer crops out, having the same characteristics as an unconfined
aquifer.

INFILTRATION GALLERIES:

• Infiltration galleries is a conduit,

• built in permeable earth, for collecting ground water.
• We have seen earlier that ground water travels towards lakes, rivers or
streams. This water which is travelling can be intercepted by digging a trench
or by constructing a tunnel with holes on sides at right angle to the direction of
flow.
• These underground tunnel used for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes
or streams are called “INFILTRATION GALLERIES”.
• These are also known as Horizontal walls.

Example:-

• Infiltration galleries can be used to collect sub-surface flow from rivers. Water
is taken to a collective well, or sump, and then pumped to a storage tank.
• Infiltration galleries vary in size, from a few meters feeding into spring box, to
many kilometers forming an integral part of unban water supply.
• Construction of galleries:
• To ensure a continuous supply of water , infiltration galleries should be built
in the end of dry season and should be at least one meter under the dry season
water table.
• Excavate a trench to at least 1 m below the water table,
• Lay graded gravel on the base of the trench.
• Lay the pipe or drain blocks on top of the gravel. Cover the top and sides
with more graded gravel.
• Cap the gravel with an impermeable layer of clay to prevent surface
water entering the gallery.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
What is Distribution System?

• Distribution system is the part of the water works which receives the water from
the pumping station in the form of gravity flow or pumping system and delivers
it throughout the town which is to be served.
• The distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters,
pumps, distribution reservoirs, hydrants etc.

Requirements of distribution system?

• The pipe lines carry the water to each and every street, road.
• Valves control the flow of water through the pipes.
• Meters are provided to measure the quantity of water consumed by the town.
• Hydrants are provided to connect the water to the fire fighting
equipments during fire.
• Service connections are done to connect the individual building with the
water line passing through the streets.
• Pumps are provided to pump the water to the elevated service reservoirs
or directly in the water mains to obtain the required pressure in the pipe
lines.

Requirement for good distribution system?

• It should convey the treated water up to the consumers with the same degree of
purity.
• The water should reach to every consumer with the required pressure head.
• Sufficient quantity of treated water should reach for the domestic and
industrial use.
• It should be able to transport sufficient quantity of water during emergency
such as fire- fighting.
• It should be reliable so that even during breakdown or repairs of one line
water should reach that locality from other line.
 LAYOUT OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

Generally there are four different systems of distribution which are used,

Depending upon their layout and direction of supply, they are classified as
follows:

1. Dead end or tree system.

2. Grid Iron system.

3. Circular or ring system.

4. Radial system.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

Depending upon the methods of distribution , the distribution system is

classified as follows:

1. Gravity system

2. Pumping system

3. Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system.

1) GRAVITY SYSTEM:

• This method is much suitable when source of supply such as lake, river or
impounding reservoir is at sufficient height than city.
• The water flows in the mains due to gravitational force, as no pumping
is required, therefore it is most reliable system for the distribution of
water.
• In this system usually pumping is not required at any stage, in case the source of
water supply is lake situated at the hill, low lifting pumping is required to lift
the water up to water treatment plant.

ADVANTAGES:

• This will reduce the

• Leakage and waste to the
• Minimum.

DISADVANTAGES:

But in case of fire attack the water had to be pumped.

2)PUMPING SYSTEM:

• In this system water is directly pumped in the mains

• Since the pumps have to work at different rates of the day, the maintenance
cost increases.
• High lift pumps are required and their operations are continuously watched.
• If power fails, the whole supply of the town will be stopped, therefore it is
better to have diesel pumps also in addition to the electric pumps as stand bye.

ADVANTAGE:

During fires, the water can be pumped in the required quantity by the stand-bye
units also.

3)DUAL SYSTEM:

• This is the combination of both gravity and pumping system.

• The pump is connected to the mains as well as to an elevated reservoir.
• In the beginning when water demand is small the water is stored in the
elevated reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in
the distribution system comes from the both the pumping station as well as
from elevated reservoir.

ADVANTAGES:

• This system is more reliable and economical.

• The water stored in elevated reservoir meets the requirements of demand
during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.
• The balance reserve in the storage reservoir will be utilized during fire. In case
the fire demand is more, and if required the water supply of few localities may
be closed.

Factors to be considered in the design of distribution system:

• Type of flow- whether continuous or intermittent.

• Method of distribution- whether by gravity or by pumping.
• Probable future demand based on increase in population. This also includes
the industrial demand as well as fire –fighting requirements.
• Period to be considered in with life of pipes used. The system should
be designed anticipating the future of the town or city.

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT:

A line joining the points of highest elevation of water in a series of vertical pipes
rising from a pipeline in which water flows under pressure.

According to HAZEN- WILLIAMS the flow-formula is written as:

V=velocity of flow in pipe m/sec.

M= radius of the pipe in m.

I= Hydraulic gradient.

C=friction coefficient whose valve depends on type of pipe used.

 FORMULA:

The design procedure as been outlined as below:

a) Prepare a contoured plan of the city or town, locating the positions of districts
or distribution zones with their population, service reservoirs, pumping stations,
main roads and streets and other small features. A small scale (1/10,000) may be
used.

b) Estimating the rate of demand for all purposes including fire demand and
determining the quantity flowing in each section of pipe length. This gives
the average daily flow in the pipe. The max flow will be 3 times.

c) Assuming the pipe sizes, The velocity of flow varies 0.9-1.2 m/sec.

JOINTS:

A point at which parts of an artificial structure are joined.

TYPES:

1. Butt-welded Joints

2. Socket-welded Joints

3. Threaded or Screwed Joints

4. Grooved Joints
5. Flanged Joints
6. Compression Joints
 1. BUTT WELDED JOINTS:

• Butt-welding is the most common method of joining piping used in large

commercial, institutional, and industrial piping systems.
• Material costs are low, but labor costs are moderate to high due to the need
for specialized welders and fitters.

2. SOCKET-WELDED JOINTS

• Socket-welded construction is a good choice wherever the benefits of

high leakage integrity and great structural strength are important design
considerations.
• Construction costs are somewhat lower than with butt-welded joints due to
the lack of exacting fit-up requirements and elimination of special machining
for butt weld end preparation.

3. THREADED OR SCREWED JOINTS:

• Threaded or screwed piping is commonly used in low-cost, noncritical

applications
such as domestic water, fire protection, and industrial cooling water systems.
• Installation productivity is moderately high, and specialized installation skill
requirements are not extensive.
• Rapid temperature changes may lead to leaks due to differential
thermal expansion between the pipe and fittings.

4. GROOVED JOINTS:

• The main advantages of the grooved joints are their ease of assembly,
which results in low labor cost, and generally good leakage integrity.
• They allow a moderate amount of axial movement due to thermal expansion,
and they can accommodate some axial misalignment.
• The grooved construction prevents the joint from separating under pressure.

5. FLANGED JOINTS:
• Flanged connections are used extensively in modern piping systems due to
their ease of assembly and disassembly; however, they are costly.
• Contributing to the high cost are the material costs of the flanges themselves
and the labor costs for attaching the flanges to the pipe and then bolting the
flanges to each other.
• Flanges are normally attached to the pipe by threading or welding, although in
some special cases a flange-type joint known as a lap joint may be made by
forging and machining the pipe end.

6. COMPRESSION JOINTS:

• Compression sleeve-type joints are used to join plain end pipe without special
end
preparations.
• These joints require very little installation labor and as such result
in an economical overall installation. Advantages include the ability to absorb a
limited amount of thermal expansion and angular misalignment and the ability
to join dissimilar piping materials, even if their outside diameters are slightly
different.

SCREENS
 The primary treatment incorporates unit operations for
removal of floating and suspended solids from the wastewater. They are also
referred as the physical unit operations. The unit operations used are screening
for removing floating papers, rages, cloths, plastics, cans stoppers, labels, etc.;
grit chambers or detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; skimming tanks for
removing oils and grease; and primary settling tank for removal of residual
settleable suspended matter.

Designs of these primary treatment units are discussed

in this chapter. Screen is the first unit operation in wastewater treatment plant.
This is used to remove larger particles of floating and suspended matter by
coarse screening. This is accomplished by a set of inclined parallel bars, fixed at
certain distance apart in a channel.

The screen can be of circular or rectangular opening.

The screen composed of parallel bars or rods is called a rack. The screens are
used to protect pumps, valves, pipelines, and other appurtenances from damage
or clogging by rags and large objects. Industrial wastewater treatment plant may
or may not need the screens.

However, when packing of the product and cleaning of packing bottles/

containers is carried out, it is necessary to provide screens even for industrial
wastewater treatment plant to separate labels, stopper, cardboard, and other
packing materials. The cross section of the screen chamber is always greater
(about 200 to 300 %) than the incoming sewer. The length of this channel should
be sufficiently long to prevent eddies around the screen.

Types of Screens:

Screens can be broadly classified depending upon the opening size provided as
coarse screen (bar screens) and fine screens. Based on the cleaning operation
they are classified as manually cleaned screens or mechanically cleaned screens.
Due to need of more and more compact treatment facilities many advancement
in the screen design.

COARSE SCREEN:
 It is used primarily as protective devices and hence used as first treatment unit.
Common type of these screens are bar racks (or bar screen), coarse woven-wire
screens, and comminutors. Bar screens are used ahead of the pumps and grit
removal facility.

This screen can be manually cleaned or mechanically cleaned. Manually cleaned

screens are used in small treatment plants. Clear spacing between the bars in
these screens may be in the range of 15 mm to 40 mm. It is used in conjunction
with coarse screens to grind or cut the screenings. They utilize cutting teeth (or
shredding device) on a rotating or oscillating drum that passes through stationary
combs (or disks). Object of large size are shredded when it will pass through the
thin opening of size 0.6 to 1.0 cm. Provision of bye pass to this device should
always be made.

FINE SCREEN:

Fine screens are mechanically cleaned screens using perforated plates, woven
wire cloths, or very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm,
less than 6 mm typical. Commonly these are available in the opening size
ranging from 0.035 to 6 mm. Fine screens are used for pretreatment of industrial
wastewaters and are not suitable for sewage due to clogging problems, but can
be used after coarse screening. Fine screens are also used to remove solids from
primary effluent to reduce clogging problem of trickling filters. Various types of
microscreens have been developed that are used to upgrade effluent quality from
secondary treatment plant. Fine screen can be fixed or static wedge-wire type,
drum type, step type and centrifugal screens. Fixed or static screens are
permanently set in vertical, inclined, or horizontal position and must be cleaned
by rakes, teeth or brushes. Movable screens are cleaned continuously while in
operation. Centrifugal screens utilize the rotating screens that separate effluent
and solids are concentrated.

Types of Medium and Fine Screens Inclined (fixed):

These are flat, cage, or disk type screens meant for removal of smaller particles.
These are provided with opening of 0.25 to 2.5 mm.

They are used for primary treatment of industrial effluents. Band: It consists of
an endless perforated band that passes over upper and lower sprocket. Brushes
are installed to remove that material retained over the screen. Water jet can be
used to flush the debris. Opening size of 0.8 to 2.5 mm is provided in this screen.
They are used for primary treatment of industrial effluents.

DRUM SCREEN OR STRAINER: It consists of rotating cylinder that has

screen covering the circumferential area of the drum. The liquid enters the drum
and moves radially out.

The solids deposited are removed by a jet of water from the top and discharged
into a trough.

The micro-strainers have very fine size screens and are used to polish secondary
effluent or remove algae from the effluent of stabilization ponds. Opening size
of 1 to 5 mm and 0.25 to 2.5 mm is used for primary treatment and opening size
of 6 to 40 µm is used for polishing treatment of secondary effluents. It consists
of rectangular channel. Floor of the channel is normally 7 to 15 cm lower than
the invert of the incoming sewer. Bed of the channel may be flat or made with
desired slope.

This channel is design to avoid deposition of grit and other materials in to it.
Sufficient straight approach length should be provided to assure uniform
distribution of screenings over the entire screen area. At least two bar racks,
each designed to carry peak flow, must be provided. Arrangement of stopping
the flow and draining the channel should be made for routine maintenance. The
entrance structure should have a smooth transition or divergence to avoid
excessive head loss and deposition of solids . Effluent structure should be having
uniform convergence. The effluent from the individual rack may be combined or
kept separate as necessary.

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
 Double chamber bar screen and influent and effluent arrangement
Requirements and Specifications:

1. The velocity of flow ahead of and through a screen varies materially and affects
its operation. Lower the velocity through the screen, the greater is the amount of
screening that would be removed.
2. However, at lower velocity greater amount of solids would be deposited at the
bottom of the screen channel.
3. Approach velocity of wastewater in the screening channel shall not fall below a
self cleansing velocity of 0.375 m/sec or rise to a magnitude at which screenings
will be dislodged from the bars (Rao and Dutta, 2007).
4. The suggested approach velocity is 0.6 to 0.75 m/sec for the grit bearing
wastewaters. Accordingly the bed slope of the channel should be adjusted to
develop this velocity.
5. The suggested maximum velocity through the screen is 0.3 m/sec at average
flow for hand cleaned bar screens and 0.75 m/sec at the normal maximum flow
for Effluent Gate closed Gate closed Gate closed
6. Mechanically cleaned bar screen Velocity of 0.6 to 1.2 m/sec through the screen
opening for the peak flow gives satisfactory result.
7. Head losses due to installation of screens must be controlled so that back water
will not cause the entrant sewer to operate under pressure.
Head loss through a bar rack can be calculated by using Kirchmer’s equation:
h = β (W/b)4/3 hv Sin θ where,
h = head loss,
m β = Bar shape factor = 2.42 for sharp edge rectangular bars = 1.83 for
rectangular bars with semicircular upstream = 1.79 for circular bars = 1.67 for
rectangular bars with both u/s and d/s faces as semicircular.
W = Width of bars facing the flow,
m b = Clear spacing between the
bars,
m hv = Velocity head of flow approaching the bars,
m = V2 /2g
V = geometric mean of the approach velocity,
m/sec θ = Angle of inclination of the bars with horizontal.
Usually accepted practice is to provide loss of head of 0.15 m but the maximum
loss of head with the clogged hand cleaned screen should not exceed 0.3 m. For
 mechanically cleaned screen, the head loss is specified by the manufacturer, and
it can be between 150 to 600 mm.
The head loss through the cleaned or partially clogged flat bar screen can also be
calculated using following formula:
h = 0.0729 (V2 – v 2 ) Where,
h = loss of head, m
V = velocity through the screen,
m/sec v = velocity before the screen, m/sec
The head loss through the fine screen can be calculated as:
h = (1/(2g.Cd))(Q/A)2
g = gravity acceleration (m/sec2 );
Cd is coefficient of discharge = 0.6 for clean rack;
Q is discharge through screen (m3 /sec); and
A is effective open submerged area (m2 ).

1. The slope of the hand cleaned screen should be in between 30 to 60o with
horizontal. The mechanically cleaned bar screens are generally erected almost
vertical;
2. However the angle with the horizontal can be in the range 45 to 85o .
3. The submerged area of the surface of the screen, including bars and opening
should be about 200% of the cross sectional area of the incoming sewer for
separate system, and 300% for the combined system.
4. The clear spacing between the bars may be in the range of 15 mm to 75 mm in
case of mechanically cleaned bar screen. However, for the manually cleaned bar
screen the clear spacing used is in the range 25 mm to 50 mm. Bar Screens with
opening between 75 to 150 mm are used ahead of raw sewage pumping. For
industrial wastewater treatment the spacing between the bars could be between 6
mm and 20 mm.
5. The width of bars facing the flow may vary from 5 mm to 15 mm, and the depth
may very from 25 mm to 75 mm. Generally bars with size less than 5 mm x 25
mm are not used. These bars are welded together with plate from downstream
side to avoid deformation.
6. Quantities of Screening ¾ The quantity of screening varies depending on the
type of rack or screen used as well as sewer system (combined or separate) and
 geographic location. ¾ Quantity of screening removed by bar screen is 0.0035 to
0.0375 m3 / 1000 m3 of wastewater treated.
(Typical value = 0.015 m3 /1000 m3 of wastewater)
(Metcalf & Eddy, 2003) ¾
In combined system, the quantity of screening increases during storm and can be
as high as 0.225 m3 /1000 m3 of wastewater.
¾ For industrial wastewaters quantity of the screening depends on the
characteristics of the wastewater being treated.
Disposal of Screenings ¾ Screening can be discharged to grinders or
disintegrator pumps, where they are ground and returned to the wastewater. ¾
Screenings can be disposed along with municipal solid waste on sanitary
landfill. ¾ In large sewage treatment plant, screenings can be incinerated.
7 ¾ For small wastewater treatment plant, screenings may be disposed off .

Aeration
Aeration (also called aerification) is the process by which air is circulated
through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or substance.

Methods
Aeration of liquids (usually water) is achieved by:

 Passing the liquid through air by means of fountains, cascades, paddle-

wheels or cones.
 Passing air through the liquid by means of the Venturi tube, aeration
turbines or compressed air which can be combined with diffuser(s) air stone(s),
as well asfine bubble diffusers, coarse bubble diffusers or linear aeration
tubing.
 Ceramics are suitable for this purpose, often involving dispersion of fine air
or gas bubbles through the porous ceramic into a liquid.
 The smaller the bubbles, the more gas is exposed to the liquid increasing
the gas transfer efficiency.
 Diffusers or spargers can also be designed into the system to cause
turbulence or mixing if desired.
 Porous ceramic diffusers are made by fusing aluminum oxide grains using
porcelain bonds to form a strong, uniformly porous and homogeneous
structure.
 The naturally hydrophilic material is easily wetted resulting in the
production of fine, uniform bubbles.
On a given volume of air or liquid, the surface area changes proportionally with
drop or bubble size, the very surface area where exchange can occur. Utilizing
extremely small bubbles or drops increases the rate of gas transfer (aeration) due to
the higher contact surface area. The pores which these bubbles pass through are
generally micrometre-size.

USES OF AERATION OF LIQUIDS:

 To smooth (laminate) the flow of tap water at the faucet.

 Production of aerated water or cola for drinking purposes.
 Secondary treatment of sewage or industrial wastewater through use of
aerating mixers/diffusers.
 To increase the oxygen content of water used to house animals,
such as aquarium fish or fish farm
 To increase oxygen content of wort (unfermented beer) or must (unfermented
wine) to allow yeast to propagate and begin fermentation.
 To dispel other dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide or chlorine.
 In chemistry, to oxidize a compound dissolved or suspended in water.
 To induce mixing of a body of otherwise still water.
 Pond aeration.
Introduction Several techniques are used to treat domestic wastewater. These
can be classified into two groups: conventional and non-conventional treatment
plants. The former has high-energy requirements. The later is solely dependent
on natural purification processes. The conventional systems of wastewater
treatment includes trickling filters, activated sludge systems, biodisc rotators and
aerated lagoons. The non-conventional systems, which European Scientific
Journal May 2013 edition vol.9, No.14 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN
1857- 7431 279 are also called eco-technologies include constructed
wetlands and waste stabilization ponds (WSPs). Among these technologies,
the widely recommended ones for developing countries are the WSPs
(Awuah, 2006).
Oxidation ponds are also called stabilization ponds or lagoons and serve mostly
small rural areas, where land is readily available at relatively low cost (Bitton,
2005). Waste stabilization ponds are biological treatment systems, which
processes and operations are highly dependent on the environmental conditions
such as temperature, wind speeds and light intensity which highly variable and
any given combination of these environmental parameters is usually unique to a
given location (Gray, 2004). There are many advantages of using this kind of
biological treatment like easy to operate, low energy required, less equipment
maintenance, and better sludge thickening. However, the effluent quality from
fixed- film system are relatively poorer than suspended growth systems in terms
of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solid (SS) (Metcalf &
Eddy, 2003). If pond systems are correctly designed and managed in order to
cultivate anaerobic and aerobic bacteria and green micro-algae, then such
systems would decompose waterborne organic wastes effectively and efficiently,
and would help in reducing some of the problems associated with the treatment
and disposal of wastewater. In addition, about 90% of the ponds in the United
States are used in small communities with less than 10,000 residents and are to
be very effective in wastewater treatment (Gray, 2004). This study was
conducted to establish proper design guidelines for installation of WSP in Al-
dewaniyah province to provide a solution for the problem of the wastewater
generated from hundreds of villages and small towns in the province. For this
purpose a typical representative communities of 10000 population was selected
by making a model depending on a scale. Wastewater treatment in WSPs
Louisiana Administrative Code (2004) defines that an oxidation pond is a
shallow pond designed specifically to treat sewage by natural purification
processes under the influence of air and sunlight. The stabilization process
consists largely of the interactions of bacteria and algae. Bacteria digest and
oxidize the constituents of sewage and render it harmless and odor free. Algae
utilize carbon dioxide and other substances resulting from bacterial action and
through photosynthesis produce the oxygen needed to sustain the bacteria in the
treatment process. During the detention period, the objectionable characteristics
of the sewage largely disappear (Louisiana Administrative Code, 2004).
European Scientific Journal May 2013 edition vol.9, No.14 ISSN: 1857 – 7881
(Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431 280 Pena and Mara (2004) indicates that the
arrangement of WSPs, wastewater is first subjected to preliminary treatment -
screening and grit removal - to remove large and heavy solids. The design of this
preliminary treatment stage is the same as that used for conventional electro
mechanic WWTP, but for WSPs the simplest systems are generally used
(manually raked screens and manually cleaned constant-velocity grit channels).
Basically, primary treatment is carried out in anaerobic ponds, secondary
treatment in facultative ponds, and tertiary treatment in maturation ponds.
Anaerobic and facultative ponds are for the removal of organic matter (normally
expressed as BOD) and maturation ponds for the removal of faecal viruses,
faecal bacteria (for example, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp.
and pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli), and nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus) (Pena and Mara, 2004). Types of WSPs and Their Specific Uses
Kayombo et al.(1998) refers that WSP systems comprise a single string of
anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in series, or several such series in
parallel. In essence, anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for removal of
BOD, and maturation ponds for pathogen removal, although some BOD removal
also occurs in maturation ponds and some pathogen are removed in anaerobic
and facultative ponds. In most cases, only anaerobic and facultative ponds will
be needed for BOD removal when the effluent is to be used for restricted crop
irrigation and fish pond fertilization, as well as when weak sewage is to be
treated prior to its discharge to surface waters. The types of waste stabilization
pond are :- Aerobic ponds An aerobic stabilization pond contains bacteria and
algae in suspension; aerobic conditions (the presence of DO) prevail throughout
its depth. There are two types of aerobic ponds, shallow ponds and aerated
ponds(AFM, 1988). • Shallow ponds Shallow oxidation ponds obtain their DO
via two phenomena, oxygen transfer between air and water surface, and that
produced by photosynthetic algae. (AFM, 1988). • Aerated ponds An aerated
pond is similar to an oxidation pond except that it is deeper and mechanical
aeration devices are used to transfer oxygen into the wastewater. The aeration
devices also mix the wastewater and bacteria. On the other hand, the
disadvantage is that the mechanical aeration devices require maintenance and
use energy (Shilton, 2001). Its European Scientific Journal May 2013 edition
vol.9, No.14 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431 281 detention
times are in the order of 1 to 10 days, depending on organic loading rate,
temperature, and the degree of treatment required (Liu, 2007). Aerobic-
anaerobic (facultative) ponds Facultative ponds (FPs) are characterized by
having an upper aerobic and lower anaerobic zone, with active purification
occurring in both. Facultative pond designed for BOD removal and sized on the
basis of volumetric BOD loading (g BOD/m2 .d) (Hassan, 2011). Facultative
ponds are often categorized as either primary or secondary ponds, treating raw
or settled wastewaters respectively. As organic matter enters the basin, the
settleable and flocculated colloidal matter settles to the bottom to form a sludge
layer where organic matter is decomposed anaerobically. The remainder of the
organic matter, which is either soluble or suspended, passes into the body of the
water where decomposition is mainly aerobic or facultative, although it is
occasionally anaerobic (Gray, 2004). Three zones exist facultative pond : (AFM,
1988) • A surface zone where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in a symbiotic
relationship. • An anaerobic bottom zone in which accumulated solids are
actively decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. • An intermediate zone that is partly
aerobic and partly anaerobic in which the decomposition of organic wastes is
carried out by facultative bacteria. Because of this, these ponds are often
referred to as facultative pond. Gawasiri (2003) indicates that the facultative
ponds normally follow anaerobic ponds in a WSP system. Facultative ponds
usually have a depth of 1.5-2.0 meter . (Earnest F. Gloyna, 1971; Mara, D. D.,
Mills, S. W., Pearson, H. W., & Alabaster, G. P. ,2007) while Liu (2007)
referred that facultative pond depth ranges between 1.2 to 1.5m. Maturation
ponds Maturation ponds are widely used throughout the world as a tertiary
treatment process for improving the effluent quality from secondary biological
processes, including facultative ponds. (Gray, 2004). Pena and Mara (2004)
indicated that maturation ponds receive the effluent from the facultative ponds
and their size and number depends on the required bacteriological quality of the
final effluent.
They are shallower than facultative ponds with a depth in the range 1−1.5 m,
with 1 m being optimal (depths of less than 1 m encourages rooted macrophytes
to grow in the pond and so permites mosquitoes to breed). European Scientific
Journal May 2013 edition vol.9, No.14 ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN
1857- 7431 282 Anaerobic ponds Anaerobic ponds are commonly 2 – 5 m deep
and receive wastewater with high organic loads (usually greater than 100 g
BOD/m3 .day, equivalent to more than 3000 kg/ha.day for a depth of 3 m)
(Kayombo et al., 1998, ). They normally do not contain dissolved oxygen (DO)
or algae. In anaerobic ponds, BOD removal is achieved by sedimentation of
solids, and subsequent anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge. The process
of anaerobic digestion is more intense at temperatures above 15 o C. designed
for BOD removal and sized on the basis of volumetric BOD loading (g
BOD/m3
.d) (Hassan, 2011). Sazbo and Engle (2010) found when no oxygen is available,
anaerobic degradation may occur by anaerobic microorganisms. The benefit of
anaerobic digestion is that it can deal with highly concentrated waste water and
can achieve good purification results within short retention times. The anaerobic
pond should be installed as the first treatment step, when the load of waste water
is the highest. Controlled discharge ponds Controlled discharge ponds have long
hydraulic detention times and effluent is discharged when receiving water
quality will not be adversely affected by the discharge. Controlled discharge
ponds are designed to hold the wastewater until the effluent and receiving water
quality are compatible. Complete retention ponds Complete retention ponds rely
on evaporation and/or percolation to reduce the liquid volume at a rate equal to
or greater than the influent accumulation. Favorable geologic or climatic
conditions are prerequisite. Experimental Work and data collection The
experimental work of this study was performed in Aldewaniyah sewage
treatment plant to study the adequating of using waste stabilization pond for
wastewater treatment for many towns where using of wastewater treatment
plants by conventional methods are very expensive and needing very long times
for construction and operation . The experimental work was conducted in the
period from 20.11.2011 to 1.07.2012. All test in the experimental work were
done in the laboratory of WWTP of Aldewaniyah and the laboratory of the
engineering collage in AlQadissiyah university. According to references on this
study like basic principles available in Aldewaniyah sewage directorate,
previous tests for recent years, and other of scientific references. Experimental
 work in this search included the following tests :- 1- Biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) test. European Scientific Journal May 2013 edition vol.9, No.14
ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431 283 2- Chemical oxygen
demand (COD) test. 3- Total suspended solid TSS. 4- PH. 5- Nitrate and nitrite.
6- phosphate Description of oxidation ponds and the arrangement of the ponds
in the model The experimental model contains three ponds: anaerobic pond,
faculatative pond and aerobic pond. Also there is collecting basin at the end of
the series. Anaerobic pond The first pond in the series is anaerobic pond which
made with dimensions (5.75*2*2)m and detention time (8) days. Anaerobic
pond was used because of the high organic load in the influent wastewater enters
the ponds as shown in the results of the tests. Facultative pond It is the second
pond receives wastewater from anaerobic pond. It was made with dimensions
(5.75*2*1.5) m and detention time (6) days. Aerobic pond The third pond of the
series of ponds is the aerobic pond. It was made with dimensions (5.75*2*0.75)
m with detention time (3) days. This pond was supplied with two mixing pumps
operate as aerators in the pond.
SEWAGE FARMS:
Sewage farms comprise agricultural land irrigated and fertilised with sewage.
The product being "farmed" at such a works is actually the combination of
microbes and bacteria used to break down the sewage.
As a predecessor to modern sewage treatment systems, household sewage was
collected from towns and cities and transported to nearby farm lands.
During the Middle Ages this was accomplished with hand-carried buckets, but as
local populations grew, during the Industrial Revolution sanitary sewer systems
were built.
These used a network of pipes and pumps to transport sewage beyond the city
boundaries to large rented grasslands, into which the sewage trickled down. Berlin
once rented 20 sewage farms occupying about 10,000 hectares.[1]
Some of these farms remained in use until the end of the 20th century, at which
point it became apparent that as it was usually contaminated with industrial waste,
sewage was unsuitable for use as a fertiliser.
Therefore, sewage plants began to replace sewage farms. Modern sewage farms are
usually combined with such plant, so that they irrigate the land with reclaimed
water. Some types of untreated sewage can be used on a sewage farm, or filtered
through a constructed wetland.
A small-scale example of a sewage farm exists at Chester Zoo, where water fouled
with elephant droppings and urine is filtered through a reedbed.

SOAK PIT FOR PROPER DISPOSAL OF WASTE WATER:

Note:

 Do not use your soak pit for disposing of waste water from latrines.
 Day-to-day household tasks, such as cleaning, bathing, and washing
clothes, produce waste water. Stagnant pools of water around houses, in the
streets, and in choked drains are a health hazard.
 Besides producing bad odour and making areas muddy, stagnant pools
become breeding places for mosquitoes.
 Kitchen gardens are a good place to dispose of waste water. However, if
you don't have space for a garden, building a soak pit is a practical, effective
alternative.
 Soak pits work like this: waste water gets dispersed in the specially
designed pit and is absorbed in the subsoil, while pieces of solid waste
naturally decompose.
 Since decomposition takes place in a sealed pit, no foul smell is produced.
 Materials required Stones (large, medium, small): 1 cart load Plastic or
metal perforated plate (15 cm diameter): 1 PVC pipe (30 mm diameter) 75
cm - 1 m Cement: 2 kg Bricks: 12 Polythene or gunny bags: 4 Sand: 2 cubic
ft Masonry and labour charges (digging, fitting, and finishing construction of
the pit): 1 day

CONSTRUCTION:

Select a 1 sq m area close to the drain outlet, and 30 to 60 cm away from the
nearest wall of the house.

- Dig a pit 1m x 1m x 1m x.

- Fill the pit with big stones (coconut size) up to 30 cm, followed by medium
stones (guava size), from 30 to 60 cm, and small stones (wainut size) from 60 to
90 cm.
Note

In case the distance between the drain outlet and the soak pit is greater than the
recommended distance of 30 to 60 cm, the length of the drain pipe has to be
increased accordingly.

Note

 During heavy rains, cover the trap with a plastic sheet to stop the
rainwater from draining in.
 Choose a drain pipe (PVC, bamboo or any used rubber tube or hose) 5
mm in diameter. Cut it to a length of about 75 cm
 Make a hole 3 cm in diameter at one end of this pipe.
 Construct a brick-lined trap below the drain outlet of the house, install
a perforated plate and a drain pipe running down to the soak pit.

Construct a brick-lined trap

  The principal/functionof the trap is to keep solid deposits, rainwater, and
mud out of the soak pit. You can also use a clay pot with holes in the
bottom as a trap.
 Install the drain pipe so that the end with the 3 cm hole reaches the
centre of the pit and the perforation faces downwards.
 Cover the pit with a polythene sheet (fertilizer bags or cement bags).
Make sure that the cover stretches at least 15 cm beyond the sides of
the pit. Spread earth on this cover and pack it until the surface of the pit
is level with the ground. Make the finished surface look the same as the
surrounding area.

Maintenance

 Daily-Remove solid deposits held in the trap and flush a litre of

water through the trap to clear any blockage.

 Periodic-In time, your soak pit might become choked. Excess moisture on
top of the soak pit is - an indication of choking. When choking occurs, dig
out the soak pit and remove the stones and debris. Wash the stones and
refill them in the pit.
 For an average family, a well maintained soak pit will last for at least
five years.

SEWAGE SLUDGE TREATMENT

Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose
of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment.
 Sludge is mostly water with lesser amounts of solid material removed from
liquid sewage.
 Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment
in primary clarifiers.
 Secondary sludge separated in secondary clarifiers includes treated sewage
sludge from secondary treatment bioreactors.
 Sludge treatment is focused on reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce
disposal costs, and on reducing potential health risks of disposal options.
 Water removal is the primary means of weight and volume reduction,
while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished through heating
during thermophilic digestion, composting, or incineration.
 The choice of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge
generated, and comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal
options.
 Air-drying and composting may be attractive to rural communities, while
limited land availability may make aerobic digestion and mechanical
dewatering preferable for cities, and economies of scale may encourage
energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas.
 Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production
during anaerobic digestion or through incineration of dried sludge, but
energy yield is often insufficient to evaporate sludge water content or to
power blowers, pumps, or centrifuges required for dewatering.
 Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic
chemicals removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in
clarifier sludge.
 Reducing sludge volume may increase theconcentration of some of these
toxic chemicals in the sludge.