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Zinc in Crop Production and Interaction with Phosphorus

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Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5(9): 1503-1509, 2011
ISSN 1991-8178

Zinc in Crop Production and Interaction with Phosphorus

Sayed Roholla Mousavi

Aligoudarz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Aligoudarz, Iran

Abstract: Proper plant nutrition is an important factor for improving yield and quality of agricultural
productions. Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient for normal healthy growth in plants, animals and
humans that uptake as a divalent cation (Zn2+) by plants. Zinc is playing principal metabolically role in
plants. This micronutrient have an important role on most enzymes structure such as: dehydrogenises,
aldolase and isomerases. Also zinc is effective in energy production and crebs cycle. In most of the
Iranian soils pH is high and they are also calcareous, in this type of soils solvability of micronutrient is
less and cause decline uptake these elements and finally requirement of plants to this elements is
increasing. Crop yields and quality are reduced by zinc inadequate in soil. Zinc absorption capacity is
reduced by high phosphorus utilization and zinc in plant and soil has an antagonism state with
phosphorus (negative interaction), therefore zinc utilization is essential to obtain high yield and quality
in crops.

Key words: Zinc, phosphorus, micronutrient, antagonism

INTRODUCTION

In calcareous soils solubility of micronutrients is far less due to high pH, and this reduces ability of nutrient
uptake by plants and naturally plants requirement increases to these elements (Alloway, 2008; Lalljeeand and
Facknath, 2001; Uygur and Rimmer, 2000). Also excess use of phosphate fertilizers in soils with micronutrients
deficiencies causing imposed deficiency of micronutrients in the plants. Accordingly concentration of
micronutrient will decline in dry matter and crop yield (Salimpour et al., 2010; Khorgamy and Farnis, 2009;
Hopkins and Ellsworth, 2003). With increasing utilization of chemical fertilizer and on the other hand increasing
fertilizer prices due to their dependence on fossil fuels, water, air and soil pollution and ignorance in the use of
chemical fertilizers are problems that must be solved with appropriate methods (Alloway, 2008). Today in the
world, policy of reduce utilization of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and efficient use of inputs is considered to
reduce environmental risk and provided human health. Zinc is essential element for crop production and optimal
size of fruit, also it required in the carbonic enzyme which present in all photosynthetic tissues, and required for
chlorophyll biosynthesis (Ali et al., 2008; Graham et al., 2000). Zinc is needed modicum but critical
concentrations and if the amount available is not adequate, plants and animals will suffer from physiological
stress brought about by the dysfunction of several enzyme systems and other metabolic functions in which zinc
plays a part (Alloway, 2008). In general zinc have main role in synthesis of proteins, enzyme activating,
oxidation and revival reactions and metabolism of carbohydrates. By utilizing of fertilizers contain zinc and
other micronutrients, performance on quality of crops is increasing and with shortage of this elements due to
decline in plant photosynthesis and destroy RNA, amount of solution carbohydrates and synthesis of protein
decreased and then performance and quality of crop will be decreased (Mousavi et al., 2007). (Mousavi and
colleagues in a study (2007) reported that utilization of zinc from resource zinc sulfate increased efficiency and
quality of potato crop. Phosphorus is the important element that interferes on zinc uptake, as zinc uptake by
plants reduces by increasing phosphorus in soil (Salimpour et al., 2010; Das et al., 2005; Marschner et al., 1990;
Sharma et al., 1986; Stukenholts et al., 1996).

Zinc in soil:
Total value of zinc in soil is depends to chemical composition of raw materials in the soil. Zinc value of
earth's crust is 80 mg/kg approximately, and its value in soil is usually 10 to 300 mg/kg with an average of 50
mg/kg. Zinc is in different forms in the earth's crust, such as sulfate, silica and carbonate minerals. Also zinc is
in different forms in the soil as water-soluble, exchange, connected to organic matter and stabilized by the
secondary clay minerals (Alloway, 2008). Zinc deficiency related to soils pH and its value is very low in
calcareous soils with high pH (Alam et al., 2010; Alloway, 2008). Zinc mobility and uptake in soil is dependent
on many factors such as soil acidity, zinc total value in the soil, organic matter and soil type. The most important
factors affecting on the zinc usability can be noted as following (Chang et al., 2007; Alloway, 2008; Sillanpaa,
1990):
 Zinc total value maybe very low in highly acidic soils due to the intense soil leaching.

Corresponding Author: Sayed Roholla Mousavi, Aligoudarz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Aligoudarz, Iran
E-mail: rr_mousavi@yahoo.com
Tell: +98-664-223-4731
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 Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 5(9): 1503-1509, 2011

 Zinc usability decreases by increasing soil pH, because the minerals solubility reduced and zinc uptake
increases by soil colloidal particles such as clay minerals, iron and aluminum oxides, organic matter and
calcium carbonate.
 Zinc usability decreases by decreasing temperature and light intensity due to limited root development.
 Zinc usability by plants decreases by high levels of phosphorus in the soil.
 Zinc uptake by plants inhibits by some metal cations such as Cu2+ and Fe2+, (due to the same carriers for
these elements in the plant roots)

The role and importance of zinc in plants:

Zinc uptake of soil solution in divalent cations form (Zn2+); in calcareous soils with high pH zinc uptake
may be a valence ion form (Alam et al., 2010; Alloway, 2008; Marschner, 1995). In the xylem routes zinc is
transmitted to divalent form or with organic acids bond. In the phloem sap zinc makes up complex with organic
acids with low molecular weight, and increases its concentration (Kochian, 1991). Zinc is in plants only in
divalent cation (Zn+2) and does not participate in oxidation and regenerative reactions. The main functions of
zinc is tendency to make up tetragonal complexes with nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, thus zinc have a catalytic,
building and activating role in the enzymes (Alloway, 2008; Vallee and Auld, 1990).

The role of zinc on enzyme activities:

Zinc is main building part of some enzymes and is needed for the plant enzymes formation; in addition,
many enzymatic reactions active by zinc (Pedler et al., 2000; Vitosh et al., 1994). Zinc plays an important role
in most of the enzymes that they can point to the following:

Alcohol dehydrogenase:
This enzyme molecule has two atoms of zinc. One of the atoms has a catalytic and other has a building role.
Alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme has a catalytic role in regeneration of acetaldehyde to ethanol. In higher plants,
ethanol is making in the root tip meristematic tissue under aerobic conditions, alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme
declined by zinc deficiency in plants, as a result root development reduced (Gokhan et al., 2003; Marschner,
1995).

Carbonic anhydrase:
This enzyme has a zinc atom that catalyzes CO2 hydration. Enzyme activity location is in chloroplasts and
cytoplasm and the enzyme activity is dependent to zinc value in the plant. The main functions of this enzyme
are: dehydration of carbon dioxide, increasing absorption of carbon dioxide per leaf area unit, increasing in
photosynthesis and biomass production. In the plants that are confronted with zinc deficiency activity of this
enzyme is stopped (Marschner, 1995; Dell and Wilson 1985; Ohki, 1976).

Superoxide dismutase zinc-copper:

In this enzymes zinc is connected to copper, it seems that zinc has catalytic and copper has building role.
Superoxide dismutase activity decreased in zinc deficiency conditions and is associated with increased free
radicals oxygen (super oxide), that it’s a toxic substance and have a harmful affect on plants tissues due to lipids
peroxidation of membrane and increasing its permeability (Marschner, 1995).
Also zinc is part of some enzymes structure, such as: Alkaline Phosphatase, phosphatides lipase,
Carboxypeptidase, RNA polymerase, Dehydrogenase and Aldolase (Pandy et al., 2002; Lin and Kao, 1990).

The role of zinc on carbohydrates metabolism:

Zinc is one of the most important elements in the carbohydrates metabolism, most enzymes that play a role
in carbohydrates metabolism are activated by zinc. In addition Carbonic anhydrase, Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate
and Aldolase enzymes are activated by zinc. These enzymes are active in the chloroplasts and cytoplasm, six-
carbon sugar molecule are separated between chloroplasts and cytoplasm by Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate and
three-carbon sugars molecule in photosynthesis are transported from cytoplasm to chloroplasts by Aldolase. The
activity of these enzymes decreased in zinc deficiency condition, in resulting carbohydrate accumulated in
plants leaves (Marschner and Cakmak, 1989; O'sullivan, 1970).

The role of zinc on protein synthesis:

Zinc is essential micronutrients for proteins production in plants; also zinc is main composition of ribosome
and is essential for their development. Amino acids accumulated in plant tissues and protein synthesis decline by
zinc deficit. One of the sites of protein synthesis is pollen tube that amount of zinc in there tip is 150
micrograms per gram of dry matter. In addition zinc will contribute on the pollination by impact on pollen tube
formation (Pandey et al., 2006; Outten et al., 2001; Marschner, 1995).

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The role of zinc on tryptophan synthesis, auxin and membrane actions:

Metabolism of plant hormones such as auxin (IAA) and tryptophan decreases in zinc deficiency condition,
as a result leaf growth stops. In fact, zinc is essential for tryptophan synthesis, which is a prerequisite for auxin
formation, therefore amount of auxin decreases by zinc deficiency (Pedler et al., 2000; Marschner, 1995;
Cakmak et al., 1989). In some conditions that plant are in zinc deficient, tryptophan may increased in the leaves
as a result in impaired of protein synthesis. Zinc is necessary element for maintain living membranes. Zinc may
be connected to membrane phospholipids or constituent groups of sulfhydryl or make up tetragonal compounds
with residues of Cysteine polypeptide chains and thus, proteins and lipids were protect against oxidation damage
(Marschner, 1995; Domingo et al., 1992; Cakmak et al., 1989; Salami and Kene 1970).

Zinc interaction with phosphorus:

Zinc is active element in biochemical processes and has a chemical and biological interaction with some
other elements. Phosphorus is the most important element which interferes on zinc uptake by plants. About the
interaction of zinc and phosphorus numerous studies have been done and all confirms this point that zinc and
phosphorus imbalance in the plant, As a result excessive accumulation of phosphorus, causing zinc imposed
deficiency. (Salimpour et al., 2010; Khorgamy and Farnis, 2009; Das et al., 2005; Stukenholts et al., 1996;
Marschner et al., 1990; Sharma et al., 1986). The main reasons for effect of high levels of phosphorus on zinc
deficiency can pointed to the following:
 Zinc transmission of plant roots to shoot reduces by high concentrations of phosphorus, so zinc
accumulated in roots or its uptake decreases by roots.
 Zinc concentration in shoots of plants decreases by effect of induced growth response (dilution effect);
means that amount of zinc uptake in plant increases by increasing plant growth but its concentration
decreases in plant tissues, in other words that element will be diluted in plant tissues.
 Metabolism defect in plant cells that is related to zinc and phosphorus imbalance, so by increasing the
phosphorus concentration, zinc tasks is impaired at specific positions in the cells (Mirvat et al., 2006;
Stukenholts et al., 1996; Sharma et al., 1986).
In absence or low concentrations of zinc, phosphorus uptake and transport increased in the shoot and its
concentration increased in the leaves, as a result can cause toxicity in the plant. This increase only occurred with
zinc deficiency and was not observed in other micronutrient deficiencies; means that zinc deficiency increases
the permeability of plasma membrane in root compared to phosphorus (Bukvić1 et al., 2003; Hu et al., 1996;
Marschner, 1995; Webb and Loneagan, 1988).

Zinc interaction with other elements:

Plant growth is rapid by excessive use of nitrogen and available zinc was diluted in plant tissues. Zinc
deficiency is lead to iron (Fe) deficiency, due to prevent of transfer of Fe from root to shoot in zinc deficiency
conditions (Rengel and Romheld, 2000; and Rengel et al., 1998). In the study determined that transfer of Fe
from the root to shoot was depends to zinc activity in the nutrient solution. Lower levels of Fe was transported
from roots to shoot in plants that grown in nutrient solutions with zinc low activity, compared with the same
plants that grown in nutrient solutions with more activity zinc (Rengel and Graham, 1995a). Sufficient amount
of zinc in the plant improve the harmful effects of boron (B) deficiency. Zinc deficiency decreases plant
growing by increasing the concentration of boron in the young leaves and tips of the branches. Application of
zinc increased boron uptake by plants in the soils with sufficient stores (Rengel et al., 1998). There is a negative
interaction between zinc cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) due to effect antagonism and the same membrane
transport protein (Moustakas et al., 2011; Abd E-Hady; 2007; Rengel and Graham, 1995b).

Zinc deficiency:
Zinc deficiency can be seen in eroded, calcareous and weathering acidic soils. Zinc deficiency is often
accompanied with iron deficiency in calcareous soils. Zinc deficiency in these soils is related to adsorption of
solution zinc in the soil by clay and limestone particles. In eroded soils, zinc deficiency is caused by organic
matter deficiency. Also zinc deficiency may be related to weather conditions, zinc deficiency increases in cold
and wet weather conditions. It may be due to the limited root growth in cool soils, or reduction activity of
microorganisms and reduction the release of zinc from organic materials (Abdou et al., 2011; Alam et al., 2010;
Terhan and Sekhon, 1977). High concentrations of bicarbonate (HCO3) prevent of zinc uptake by plants shoot
(Gokhan, 2002). Zinc deficiency symptoms appear on the young leaves of plants first; because zinc cannot be
transferred to younger tissues from older tissue (zinc isn’t a mobile element). Areas between nervure in plants
are yellow by zinc deficient (Vitosh et al., 1994). In dicot plants internode distance and leaf size will be short
and in monocot plants, corn especially, bands comes into the main nervure on both sides of leaves in zinc
deficient condition (Gokhan, 2002; Boardman and McGuire, 1990). Overall, shoot is more affected than the root
growing by zinc deficiency. When zinc deficiency developed, the yield is more affected than dry matter. This

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may is due to damage to the pollen fertility by zinc deficiency. The plants that zinc amount in their tissues is
lower than 20ppm, are encountered with zinc deficit (Marschner, 1995; Vitosh et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 1991).

Zinc toxicity:
When zinc amount is excessive, causes toxicity in plants. Leaf and root growth and development decreased
by zinc toxicity. Production of NADPH in plant chloroplasts are decreases with increasing zinc concentration. In
addition, production of free radicals will increases in plants. Activity of RUBP carboxylase enzyme and
Photosystem II decreases by zinc toxicity. Zinc toxicity reduces ATP synthesis and chloroplasts activity and
photosynthesis will decline as a result. Also, large amounts of zinc reduces uptake of P and Fe. More than
300ppm of zinc in plant caused toxicity. (Prasd et al., 1999; Vitosh et al., 1994; Teige et al, 1990; Ruano et al.,
1988). Resistance to zinc is differences in various plants, the plants such as beans, corn, onions, sorghum, rice,
citrus fruits and grapes have most sensitivity to zinc deficiency, barley, lettuce, potatoes, soybeans, sugar beet
and tomato have moderate sensitivity to zinc deficiency and carrots, alfalfa, asparagus, radish, and forage plants
are resistance to zinc deficiency (Vitosh et al., 1994).

The role of zinc on crop yield and yield components:

According to the plant professional’s research, zinc exerts a great influence on basic plant life processes,
such as: nitrogen metabolism and uptake of nitrogen and protein quality; photosynthesis and chlorophyll
synthesis, carbon anhydrase activity; resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses and protection against oxidative
damage (Alloway, 2008; Cakmak, 2008; Potarzycki, 2009). Increasing seed concentration of Zn by soil and/or
foliar applications of zinc also brings several agronomic benefits for crop production. Applying zinc to plants
grown under potentially zinc-deficient soils is effective in reducing uptake and accumulation of phosphorus (and
thus phytate) in plants. This agronomic side effect of zinc fertilization may result in better bioavailability of zinc
in the human digestive system. In addition, seedlings from seeds containing high zinc have better ability to
withstand adverse environmental conditions. These benefits are discussed in detail below (Mirvat et al., 2006;
Cakmak, 2008). Yang and colleagues (2009) in a research reported that the combined application of boron with
molybdenum or zinc resulted in higher rapeseed yield and quality than the application of boron with
molybdenum or zinc alone, and the seed yield of the B+Mo+Zn treatment was the highest in all treatments.
They suggested that optimal micronutrient application could provide both yield and quality advantages for
rapeseed in poor soil. Flower yield, essential oil percentage, and essential oil yield in chamomile increased by
foliar application of iron and zinc compared with control. It seems that foliar application of iron and zinc can
considerably improve flower yield and essential oil content of chamomile especially in calcareous soils (Nasiri,
2010). Maralian, (2009) in another study concluded that foliar application of iron and zinc increased wheat seed
yield and its quality compared with control. Zinc concentration in roots and shoots of maize plants were
increased by zinc application both in soil and foliar. Regarding the form of application, zinc concentrations in
roots and shoots showed a similar trend. The highest zinc doses promoted the maximum zinc concentration in
plants both for soil and foliar application (Carolina et al., 2011).
The effect of zinc fertilization were conducted on growth and yield of many plants such as alfalfa, wheat,
maize, barley and potato were investigated in numerous researches and observed increasing in yield with zinc
application (Abd E-Hady, 2007; Mousavi et al., 2007; Shaheen et al., 2007; Kinaci, 2005; Bukvić1 et al., 2003).
Adequate zinc nutrition of alfalfa is essential for good seedling vigour and zinc sufficient plants have better
tolerance to water stress and excessive soil moisture content than zinc–deficient plants (Grewal and Williams,
2000; Safak, 2009). Also zinc fertilization of alfalfa increased herbage, hay, dry matter crude protein yields and
zinc concentration of alfalfa. 80 kgha1 zinc treatment provided highest yields (Grewal, 2001). Zinc treated crops
were more vigorous than others and had better growth because zinc plays key role in stabilizing RNA and DNA
structure, and involves in biosynthesis of growth promoting hormones such as indole 3acetic acid (IAA) and
Gibberellin. Additionally, zinc is an activator of many enzymes involved in photosynthesis, cell elongation and
cell division. Thus, yield, crude protein and zinc concentration of Alfalfa significantly affected by zinc
fertilization (Safak, 2009; Cakmak, 2008).
Other scientists reported that seed protein content was increased by zinc application. It has been shown that
in zinc deficiency condition, activity of RNA polymerase enzyme and protein synthesis enzyme are decreased
extremely and rate of amino acids transformation declined. So by applying zinc, seed protein content will be
increased due to increasing the activity of RNA polymerase enzyme and protein synthesis enzyme (Akhtar et
al., 2009; Rahman et al., 2008; Sangwan and Raj, 2004; Marshner 1986).
Finally zinc is required in small amounts but critical concentrations to allow several key plant physiological
pathways to function normally. These pathways have important roles in photosynthesis and sugar formation,
protein synthesis, fertility and seed production, growth regulation and defense against disease. Where zinc is
deficient, these physiological functions will be impaired and the health and productivity of the plants will be
adversely affected, resulting in lower yields (or even crop failure) and frequently in poorer quality crop products
(Alloway, 2002).

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Foliar applications of micronutrients are more suitable than the soil application, Due to the rapid
overcoming on deficient, easy to use, reduce the toxicity caused by accumulation and prevent of elements
stabilization in the soil. There is increasing evidence showing that foliar or combined soil+foliar application of
zinc fertilizers under field conditions are highly effective and very practical way to maximize uptake and
accumulation of zinc in plants . Zinc-enriched grains are also of great importance for crop productivity resulting
in better seedling vigour, denser stands and higher stress tolerance on potentially zinc-deficient soils.
Agronomic biofortification strategy appears to be essential in keeping sufficient amount of available zinc in soil
solution and maintaining adequate zinc transport to the seeds during reproductive growth stage. Finally,
agronomic biofortification is required for optimizing and ensuring the success of genetic biofortification of
cereal grains with zinc. In case of greater bioavailability of the grain zinc derived from foliar applications than
from soil, agronomic biofortification would be a very attractive and useful strategy in solving zinc deficiency-
related health problems globally and effectively (Yosefi1 et al., 2011; Abd El-Baky et al., 2010; Cakmak,
2008).

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