Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering

ISSN: 0360-2559 (Print) 1525-6111 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lpte20

A Review on Materials Derived from Polystyrene

and Different Types of Nanoparticles

Amara Nasir & Ayesha Kausar

To cite this article: Amara Nasir & Ayesha Kausar (2015) A Review on Materials Derived from
Polystyrene and Different Types of Nanoparticles, Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering,
54:17, 1819-1849, DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2015.1038838

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Published online: 08 Dec 2015.

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Polymer-Plastics Technology and Engineering, 54: 1819–1849, 2015
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0360-2559 print/1525-6111 online
DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2015.1038838

A Review on Materials Derived from Polystyrene and

Different Types of Nanoparticles

Amara Nasir and Ayesha Kausar

Nanosciences and Catalysis Division, National Center for Physics, Quaid-i-Azam University Campus,
Islamabad, Pakistan

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Nanoparticles are divided into different categories depending upon their significance in
current research. The principle types of nanoparticles are inorganic, organic, and hybrid
nanoparticles. Fabrication routes to nanoparticles play an important role to obtain the
desired features. Therefore, methods and challenges in preparation of nanoparticles have
been discussed. Taking polystyrene into consideration, materials derived from polystyrene
and nanoparticles have also been overviewed. Nanoparticle-based nanostructures have been
used in numerous technological areas, ranging from catalysis and coatings to biomedicine
and optoelectronics, depending upon the final properties. Hence, recent trends and future
outlook of nanoparticle-derived materials have been discussed at the end.

Keywords Biomedicine; Hybrid nanoparticles; Nanoparticles; Optoelectronics; Polystyrene

Address correspondence to Ayesha Kausar, Nanosciences and
Catalysis Division, National Center for Physics, Quaid-i-Azam
University, 44000, Islamabad, Pakistan. E-mail: asheesgreat@
yahoo.com
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article can be
found online on at www.tandfonline.com/lpte.
INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology is an imperative arena of several
investigations dealing with synthesis, design, and employment
of particles having sizes in the range of 1–100 nm. Remarkable
development in emerging nanotechnology has unwrapped
novel applied and fundamental frontiers, together with the
production, utilization and exploration of optoelectronic and
physicochemical properties of nanomaterials. Nanotechnology

1819
1820 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR

is promptly gaining prominence in numerous areas, for

instance cosmetics, health care, feed and food, environmental
health, optics, mechanics, biomedical sciences, electronics,
chemical industries, drug-gene delivery, space industries,
energy science, catalysis, optoelectronics, reprography, light
emitters, single electron transistors, nonlinear optical devices,
and photoelectrochemical requisitions[1]. Nanoscience has
been recognized as an innovative interdisciplinary science
and demarcated as entire information on fundamental features
of nanodimensional objects. The word “nano” is originated
from the term nanos which refers to small and is accounted
for a prefix used to indicate 10
9 or billionth unit[2]. In the
agreement of international system of units, nano is encoun-
tered to specify a decrease of 109 orders. Consequently, the
nanoscale world is normally deliberated in nanometers and it
includes systems having size exceeding from molecular
dimensions and lower than the macroscopic ranges. At such
nanometric sizes, molecules and atoms function in a different
method and arrange for a diverse range of interesting and FIG. 1. Major application areas of nanoparticles.
surprising facets. The nanounit of dimensions is broadly estab-
lished in the framework of nanoscience and nanotechnology
worthy hosting matrices in composite fabrication since they
since it delivers the prospects of material processing where
offer ease in tailoring for the purpose of bulk physical property
traditional methods might be restricted[3,4].
augmentation[15]. Polystyrene (PS) is a general-purpose, well--
The particles are demonstrated as small objects which
known frequently utilized, light weight, famous plastic with
behave as units with respect to their properties. They are
worthy dimensional stability, noble chemical resistance, easy
further categorized depending on their size or diameter. Fine
particles are sized in the range of 100–2500 nm and ultrafine processing, and less cost. It has been extensively utilized in
particles encompass a range of 1–100 nm. In correspondence, packing materials, electronics, household appliances, etc.[16]
nanoparticles (NPs) have been demonstrated as agglomerated Owing to the importance of nanosized objects, we have pre-
atoms with size range of 1100 nm[5]. The nanometer-sized sented a comprehensive discussion on different types of NPs
particles exhibit significantly altered and unique physical and as well as PS-based nanoparticle derived materials. The
chemical properties relative to the macrosized counterparts processing techniques of NPs have also been highlighted.
due to high surface to volume ratio[6,7]. However, the Moreover, the impact of utilization of NPs on traditional
utilization of NPs alone has the problem of agglomerate materials as well as the improvement in behavior of traditional
formation[8]. To overcome agglomerations and to incorporate materials on transition to nanoscale has been focused. Along
additional features, NPs are typically integrated in large with, recent trends and future outlook for nanoparticle-derived
surfaces and bulk resources[9]. The fabrication route used to hybrid materials has been overviewed.
form NPs plays an important role to optimize their properties.
The significance of nanoparticle interaction in composites
strengthens the cooperativity and interface between NPs i.e., NANOPARTICLES
dominant over macroscopic features. NPs propose several Nanoparticles are an innovative category of materials that
beneficial properties compared with traditional bulk materials. has attained much scientific deliberation because they act as
Thus, the incorporation of nanoparticle systems permit an a bridge between molecular or atomic structures and bulk
opportunity to industrialize new materials[10,11]. Consequently, materials. NPs, are typically demarcated as engineered assem-
nanotechnology is quickly developing NPs for exploitation in blies having size <100 nm, may form systems and devices with
biosensing, electronics, paints, clothing, food industry, sun- distinctive properties and can be manufactured by physical
screens, medical devices, and cosmetics[12]. At present, there and/or chemical procedures. These are smaller than human
are numerous nanoparticle-based costumer products accessible cells and can be in the form of nanocrystals, nanopowders or
in the market[13,14] (Fig. 1). Polymers are exhibiting consider- nanoclusters[17,18]. Typically, the bulk materials possess con-
able part in various application zones but they have feeble stant physical features irrespective of their sizes. Conversely,
thermal, electrical, and mechanical features. This behavior of size-dependent properties have been observed at nanoscale.
polymer is responsible for the restrictions in their practical NPs have enhanced chemical and physical properties relative
utilization, can be constructively improved by the incorpor- to the associated bulk materials due to large reactivity and
ation of an additional nanofiller phase. Polymers are accounted exposed surface area and quantum size effect. For these
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
FIG. 2. Nanoparticle obtained due to transition from macro to nanoscale.
reasons, NPs are imperative constituents for essential
investigations and diversified practical requisitions. Figure 2
shows the concept of NPs attained from macroscopic contents.
These particles have been widely used in the fields of electro-
nics, photochemical, biomedicine, and chemistry[19]. Due to
frequent development in the spectrum of NPs, they have broad
span of categories which can be further subdivided (as dis-
cussed in subsequent Section)[20]. Figure 3 is presented to
summarize different classes of NPs.
Inorganic Nanoparticles
Inorganic NPs are smaller nanoscale objects-based on
inorganic materials. All metals, nonmetals and semiconductors
FIG. 3. Classification of nanoparticles. Note: NPs, nanoparticles; CNTs, carbon nanotubes; QDs, quantum dots; SLN, solid lipid nanoparticles.
1821
contribute to the class of inorganic NPs. The production of
well-demarcated inorganic NPs has evolved gradually
and current research has made remarkable improvement.
Figure 4 represents the basic structure of inorganic NPs. Few
types and structure of inorganic NPs have been discussed here.
Metallic Nanoparticles
Metallic NPs are an important class of NPs due to their
importance in theoretical and applied fields. Noble metal and
metal-oxide NPs are categorized as metallic NPs. These parti-
cles own highly encouraging chemical and optical properties
for therapeutic and biomedical imaging due to their important
prospective in nanotechnology. Moreover, these NPs have
spawned interest in biomedicine, biotechnology, cross-linkers,
catalysis, sensors, fuel cells, flame retardant, magnetic, optical,
UV-shielding, and electronic[21,22]. In recent times, size-
dependent metal nanoparticle is the focus of research. In general,
discrete states are present in NPs instead of conduction bands
(bulk metals). The electronic states are discrete instead of being
continuous because of electron wave function confinement.
Therefore, electrons might experience quantum-confinement in
metal NPs. The average gap between successive quantum levels
is represented by d and is identified as Kubo gap:
d ¼ 4Ef =3n
where Ef is fermi energy of macroscale metal and n represents
number of valence electrons[23]. Metallic NPs such as silver
and gold, and magnetic (metal oxide) NPs have been con-
stantly utilized and functionalized to empower their use as
1822 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
FIG. 4. Structure of inorganic nanoparticles.
therapeutic and diagnostic agents. At present, these nanomater-
ials can be manufactured and amended with several chemical
groups which permit their conjugation with ligands, anti-
bodies, and drugs. Such materials have wide-ranging potential
requisitions in magnetic separation, target analyte preconcen-
tration, targeted drug transport, gene delivery, and diagnostic
imaging[24].
Noble Metal Nanoparticles
Noble metal NPs of gold and silver are the most widely pre-
meditated colloidal arrangements. These nanosized analogs
have been explored because of their unusual behavior, unlike
that of bulk material. In particular, noble metal NPs are versa-
tile agents and have unique properties, for instance increased
surface-to-volume ratio, facile synthesis, feasible functionali-
zation, tailorable surface chemistry, and optical features.
Moreover, anisotropic properties of nonspherical noble metal
NPs mark them idyllic candidates for superior catalytic,
chemical, and native field linked applications[25]. These NPs
can be functionalized with biocompatible polymers (polyethyl-
ene glycol) and numerous moieties such as peptides, anti-
bodies, or/and RNA/DNA. Besides, they can proficiently
transform radiofrequencies or light into heat[26,27]. Noble metal
NPs have emerged as powerful tools against tumor. However,
there is still requirement of further characterization and optimi-
zation to understand their entire potential[28]. Gold nanoparti-
cles (GNPs) or gold colloids have enticed increasing interest
due to the reason of their distinctive properties in multipurpose
research areas. Li et al.[29] prepared identical and low size
polydispersitive GNPs using high concentration of 2.5 mM
chloroauric acid precursor via citrate reduction process. The
GNPs were produced with concentrated gold colloidal disper-
sions and up to 90% energy saving during synthesis. Kimling
et al.[30] synthesized gold NPs via reduction process involving
ascorbic acid and citrate to investigate the constraint space of
reaction circumstances. Gold particles of 9–120 nm were
fashioned having definite size distributions. The reaction was
thermally initiated or by UV irradiation resulting in similar
final products. Silver nanoparticles or nanosilver (Ag-NPs)
have enticed growing attention because of their unique chemi-
cal, biological, and physical properties compared with the bulk
counterparts. Ag-NPs have distinguished physicochemical fea-
tures together with high thermal and electrical conductivity,
nonlinear optical comportment, chemical stability, and cata-
lytic activity[31]. Such properties mark Ag-NPs potentially
valuable in microelectronics, medical imaging, and inks.
Rodríguez-León et al.[32] has synthesized Ag-NPs from silver
nitrate solution by means of Rumex hymenosepalus extracts.
Ag-NPs were developed in one-step process without using
external energy. The diameter of NPs was between 2 and
40 nm. Two types of crystal assemblies, i.e., hexagonal and
face-centered cubic have been obtained. In another attempt,
Hussain et al.[33] prepared aggregated, monodispersed and
spherical silver nanocrystals through chemical reduction. The
formation of NPs was monitored through recording the time
regimen of absorption spectra. The size distribution and shape
of Ag-NPs were strongly dependent on pH of reaction media
and reductant reduction potential. It was claimed that the
further development in this area may offer green footpaths in
the production of Ag-NPs with controlled size and shape.
Frazer[34] proposed the utilization of Ag-NPs in HIV cure pro-
tocol. He et al.[35] prepared noble metal (Au, Ag, Pd, Pt) NPs
via in-situ in permeable cellulose strands as nanoreactors. The
resulting particles were obtained with size <10 nm. Monodis-
perse NPs have been attained with an optimized amount of
metal precursor solution. All these form facile routes for
engineering valuable noble metal NPs.
Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
In technological requisitions, metal oxides have been uti-
lized in the manufacture of sensors, microelectronic circuits,
and piezoelectric devices, coverings for the surface passivation
against corrosion, catalysts, and fuel cells. Metal-oxide parti-
cles also serve to enhance the service life, stiffness and tough-
ness of polymer-based materials. Conventionally, metal oxides
have been used as pigments for the improvement of durability
and appearance of polymer-based products. In general, they
have been deliberated as inert materials. Moreover, these mate-
rials display UV broad band absorption that is currently a con-
siderable factor in sunscreen requisitions[36]. Magnesium oxide
(MgO) is an imperative wide band-gap inorganic material.
MgO has been utilized in numerous applications such as cata-
lyst supports, catalysis, noxious waste remediation, dense fuel
oils, adsorbents, refractory materials, antireflecting and reflect-
ing coatings, ferroelectric, superconducting thin films, lithium
ion batteries, and superconductors. Therefore, Tang, and Lv[37]
presented a review on the synthesis, antibacterial mechanism,
and antibacterial activity of MgO NPs. ZnO and TiO2 have
been used in commercial products such as surface cleaning
agents, sports clothes, computer devices, solar cells, and
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
sanitizing agent for antibacterial requisitions. Kumar et al.[38]
prepared tin oxide (SnO2) and ZnO NPs by using precipitation
method for the removal of metal ion and dye from water. The
SnO2 and ZnO had specific surface area of 24.48 and
15.75 m2/g respectively. ZnO NPs revealed nearly spherical
nanocrystallites while ultrafine interconnected particles with
nanoscale dimension have been observed for SnO2. Most of
the particles were irregular in shape except few which were
of spherical nature. The average size of SnO2 and ZnO parti-
cles was 15–30 nm, respectively. These metal oxide NPs have
been declared talented sorbent to eradicate commercial dyes as
well as heavy metals from polluted water. Pucci et al.[39] pre-
pared well-organized supercrystals consisting of 3–4 nm
infrequent-earth alleviated zirconia and zirconia NPs. The as-
synthesized supercrystals have dimensions >10 µm and exhibit
distinct 3D flower-like, bipyramids, and rhombic dodeca-
hedron morphology. The homogeneity in nanocrystal size
and shape was accredited to in-situ benzoate species develop-
ment. Wang and Gao[40] synthesized pseudocubic iron oxide
NPs having narrow size distribution. The pseudocubic nano-
crystals were reported to be restricted by (012) planes, whose
surface energy was higher than former common facets like
(014) planes. The transformation of morphology was effec-
tively attained through adjustment of concentration ratio of
reagent from asymmetrical quasi-rhombic, truncated cubic,
and spherical, to pseudocubic. The di- and monometallic iron
and cobalt oxide NPs were deposited on silica substrate
through impregnation method[41]. The development of
detached iron oxide (Fe2O3) and cobalt oxide (Co3O4) NPs
has been achieved. Quantitative information presented low dis-
persal degree of Fe2O3 and Co3O4. However, it was reported
that iron–cobalt interaction was perceived in dimetallic
systems.
Non-Metallic Nanoparticles
The nonmetallic NPs are based on chemical components
that have frequent deficiencies of metallic characteristics. Sub-
stantially, such NPs have tendency to be greatly volatile
(effortlessly vaporized). Moreover, such particles are insula-
tors of heat and electricity. Chemically, they tend to share or
gain electrons with other compounds or elements during reac-
tion. Here we have reviewed ceramic NPs including titania,
zirconia, silica, alumina, silicon carbide, and selenium NPs
as subdivision of nonmetal NPs.
Ceramic Nanoparticles. Ceramic NPs are inorganic biocom-
patible systems having porous features. This category of NPs
includes alumina, zirconia, silica, and titania NPs which can
be used in cancer treatment. However, these NPs are nonbio-
degradable and can be amassed in the body causing detrimen-
tal effects. D’Amato et al.[42] reported novel consequences on
the production of silica (SiO2) and silicon carbide (SiC) NPs
for some energetic requisitions and traditional heritage protec-
tion. Monodispersed NPs of silica could be readily
1823
manufactured in research laboratory and are applied in cataly-
sis and cosmetics. Due to the presence of well-defined silanol
groups, silica NPs may undergo surface functionalization
under appropriate chemical treatment[43]. Gao et al.[44]
reported the preparation of spherical silica NPs using oil shale
ash (OSA) in hydrolysis-condensation phase with assistance of
azeotropic distillation. The resulting powder contains silica
NPs of 99.9% purity and specific surface area of 697 m2/g.
The silica NPs were found amorphous and their surface was
altered by organics. A uniform and good dispersion of silica
NPs with a mean diameter of 10 nm has been observed. The
OSA could be used for formulating silica nanoparticle. Du et
al.[45] demonstrated the utilization of hollow NPs of silica in
engineering thin film conformal nanoporous antireflection
layers on both glass and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
substrates. Hollow silica NPs have been manufactured to
spread the possible range of apparent refractive indices in an
antireflection layer, permitting the plan of both graded index
and antireflection layers at PMMA substrates. The shell thick-
ness and diameter of silica NPs were the two controllable and
independent parameters that were deployed to adjust the
refractive index of coating. Khan et al.[46] prepared spherical
dispersion of silica particles (30 nm) to use with gold NPs
(20 nm) to form multilayered structure. Chen et al.[47] prepared
hyaluronic acid anchored mesoporous silica NPs for enzyme
responsive targeted drug delivery. The silica nanoparticle con-
taining conjugates possessed numerous attractive properties
comprising chemical simplicity, good colloidal stability, noble
biocompatibility, cell-targeting capacity, and accurate cargo
release. Sampaio et al.[48] prepared colored silica NPs of
206 nm to be used in dyes for human hair. They investigated
the diffusion of colored silica NPs in hair fibers. It was found
that the silica NPs did not penetrate much into the Caucasian
virgin hair structure. However, colored silica NPs proliferated
freely into the decolorized hair fibers. Rao et al.[49] prepared
uniform-sized and monodispersed silica NPs through sol–gel
method. The silica particles have been achieved by tetraethyl
orthosilicate (TEOS) hydrolysis in ethanol. NPs between
20460 nm have been prepared. Moreover, the influence of
temperature on the size of particle was deliberated. Nandiyanto
et al.[50] prepared spherical mesoporous silica particles having
tunable outer diameter and pore size in oil/water phase
(organic templates technique). The technique implicated
simultaneous hydrolytic condensation of tetraorthosilicate for
silica and styrene polymerization. An amino acid catalyst,
octane hydrophobic-supportive reaction constituent, and
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide surfactant have been used
in the fabrication process. The concluding stage of process car-
ried out the removal of organic components through calcina-
tions, generating mesoporous silica particles. The particles
with well-regulated particle diameter (2080 nm) and pore size
(415 nm) were fashioned. The pore size has been significantly
regulated by styrene concentration whereas the external
diameter was typically organized by changing the amount of
1824 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
hydrophobic molecules. It was demonstrated that the arranged
mesoporous silica particles might be utilized proficiently in
numerous applications, including sensors, electronic devices,
environmentally sensitive pursuits, and pharmaceuticals due
to adsorption properties. Stanley and Nesara[51] prepared silica
NPs through the hydrolysis of TEOS in ethanol. The as-
attained particles disclosed an amorphous nature by XRD
results. The existence of Si–O in whole samples was con-
firmed by FTIR. UV–visible spectra showed an absorption
band at about 225 nm due to silica (liquefied in warm NaOH).
Moreno et al.[52] reported the preparation of ceramics NPs
(SiC, Si3N4, Al2O3, and AlN) through ablation with femto-
second laser pulsations of deionized water immersed solid
targets. Relative to metal NPs obtained by same method, the
mean distribution width and size were totally dependent on
laser fluence.
Selenium Nanoparticles. Selenium (Se) is a vital trace
element and is a necessary component of numerous enzymes.
The selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) having varying size and
shape could be manufactured from Se salts particularly sele-
nates and selenites using reducing agents for instance phenols,
proteins, amines, and alcohols. Husen and Siddiqi[53] analyzed
the detailed characterization and biogenic production of SeNPs
as well as transformation into m-Se, t-Se, Se-hollow spheres,
Se-nanowires, and Se-nanoballs. In another attempt,
Ramamurthy et al.[54] synthesized SeNPs having size range
of 50150 nm via straight forward biological process. The
nanocrystalline SeNPs were parted from aqueous sols through
centrifugation. It was observed that SeNPs were capable of
preventing the cell growing by dose-reliant method. Further-
more, blend of doxorubicin and SeNPs displayed improved
anticancer influence relative to individual treatments. Torres
et al.[55] demonstrated the selenite bioreduction to manufacture
bioactive SeNPs <100 nm. The purification and isolation of
NPs have been accomplished through alkaline lysis. The pur-
ified particles were stabilized through L-cysteine (4 mM).
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed
that the aggregation of spherical NPs form the extracellular
and intracellular deposits. Amorphous Se particles of the order
of 100 nm were attained before 24 h incubation, whereas the
NPs obtained after incubation were without aggregation. It
was observed that the NPs were entirely composed of
selenium. The biologically synthetized and stabilized SeNPs
with lesser amount of 100 nm had potential requisition as anti-
oxidant food additives related to human healthiness. Fesharaki
et al.[56] synthesized elemental SeNPs from selenium chloride
by Klebsiella pneumoniae strain. The resulting SeNPs were
obtained in the size range of 100550 nm having average size
of 245 nm.
Semiconductor Nanoparticles
The semiconductor NPs are those which possess an electri-
cal conductivity between insulators and conductors. These
particles form the basis of current electronics. The semicon-
ductor NPs are made from either pure elements of group
XIV or binary compounds.
Binary Semiconductor Nanoparticles. Giam et al.[57]
reported the synthesis of binary semiconductor NPs through
scanning probe block copolymer lithography (SPBCL).
SPBCL has been utilized to generate polymer properties com-
prising an anticipated quantity of Cd2þ. Subsequently, on reac-
tion in hydrogen sulfide (H2S) vapor phase, single nanoparticle
of cadmium sulfide (CdS) was fashioned in every single block
copolymer property (BCP). The CdS NPs have been revealed
both luminescent and crystalline. Prominently, the size of CdS
nanoparticle could be adjusted because their diameters were
dependent on the measurements of originally placed BCP
feature. Arao et al.[58] prepared zinc sulfide nanoparticles
(ZnSNPs) under various precursor concentrations in Laponite
XLG as a clay stabilizer to improve their photoluminescence
(PL) and to avoid the accumulation of ZnSNPs. The prepared
ZnSNPs were monocrystalline. However, ZnSNPs manufac-
tured without clay stabilizer were the amassed multicrystalline
particles. At higher precursor concentrations, the ZnS particle
diameter was increased.
Alloyed Nanoparticles. Wang et al.[59] synthesized gold
platinum (AuPt) alloyed NPs in colloidal solution through a
one-pot process centered on synchrotron X-ray irradiation with
the existence of polyethylene glycol. The alloyed NPs having
fcc assembly have been inveterate. The composition of alloyed
AuPt NPs could be altered in an uninterrupted manner by
changing the ratios of Pt and Au precursors. The designed
NPs displayed biocompatibility and colloidal stability, signifi-
cant for prospective applications. Zhang et al.[60] prepared
alloyed silver–gold (Ag–Au) NPs with tunable composition
and size, through replacement reaction between chloroauric
acid (HAuCl4) and Ag-NPs at raised temperatures. The alloyed
NPs were homogeneous and have been shaped through the fast
interdiffusion of Ag and Au atoms in consequence to the
decreased silver nanoparticle dimensions, raised temperatures
and numerous interfacial position defects caused by replace-
ment reaction. Kuladeep et al.[61] presented experimental
results of synthesizing bimetallic Au–Ag nanoalloys using
three dissimilar processes. The nanoalloys had tunable loca-
lized surface plasmon resonance frequency due to nanosecond
laser-induced warming in the existence with polyvinyl alcohol
as a capping and reducing agent. Direct dependency of the
molar ratio of Au/Ag to the absorption peak shift, occurrence
of single absorption band and deficiency of core–shell
assembly confirmed the formed NPs as uniform alloys. Yang
et al.[62] formulated alloyed gold palladium (AuPd) NPs. The
perceived alloyed AuPd NPs were spherical with a 14 nm
mean size. However, no core–shell assembly was observed
in the achieved products.
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
Quantum Dots. Quantum dots (QDs) are NPs formulated
from semiconductor materials that are usually based on III-V
and II-VI groups of element table and have fluorescent
properties. QDs must be shielded with supplementary materi-
als permitting dispersion and inhibiting leakage of noxious
heavy metals[63]. The optical and electronic properties of
QDs are hooked on their shape and size which could be
adjusted during their production. QDs of the identical material,
having dissimilar sizes, can radiate light of unlike colors.
Certain remarkable features are the fluorescence tunable emis-
sion from visible to infrared wavelengths, large coefficients of
absorption across an extensive spectral series and much higher
levels of photostability and brightness[64]. In the area of mate-
rials, QDs have been found valuable for light-emitting devices
and for optoelectronic devices. Grieve et al.[65] presented a
review to examine recent research effort on the characteriza-
tion, synthesis, and prospective applications of semiconductor
QDs. Amiri et al.[66] synthesized cadmium selenide (CdSe)
QDs of 23 nm via chemical precipitation technique. They suc-
cessfully accomplished good-quality cubic CdSe QDs. Further,
the temperature has been reported as one of the maximum
imperative factors that influence the optical behavior and par-
ticle size of arranged QDs samples. Peng et al.[67] reported the
formation of QDs by breaking the piled graphitic submicrom-
eter domains of the fibers with dissimilar size dissemination in
climbable volumes. The as-manufactured graphite quantum
dots (GQDs) (1–4 nm) showed 2D morphology. The GQDs
PL can be adjusted by varying their size through varying pro-
cess parameters. Due to luminescence stability, biocompatibil-
ity, nanosecond lifetime, high water solubility, and low
toxicity, GQDs were verified as probes designed for good con-
trast biosensing and bioimaging applications.
Organic Nanoparticles
Organic NPs are normally pronounced as solid particles
made from organic compounds (generally polymers or lipids)
and have diameters in the range of 10 nm–1 µm. In recent time,
NPs have met an intensive investigations and abundant devel-
opment because of high potential in a widespread range of
industrial zones including electronics, photonics, conducting
materials, sensors, medicines, and biotechnology[68].
Carbon Nanoparticles
Carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) are made of structures
originated by combination of carbon atoms. The NPs can be
graphitic, diamond based, carbon black, carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) or fullerenes, depending upon the encountered type
of carbon material or the morphology of carbon sheet. The
exceptional properties and structure of less-dimensional
carbon nanomaterials has ensured an important and strong
potential character in several engineering and scientific fields
for instance electronic nanodevices, diodes, field emission
displays, transistors, composite polymers, sensors, artificial
1825
muscles, hydrogen storage, mechanical reinforcements, and
capacitors[69]. Figure 5 gives a view of distribution and
structure of CNPs.
Graphitic Nanoparticles
Graphitic nanomaterials own exceptional thermal,
electrical, and mechanical properties, admirable dimensional
stability, and tremendous optical properties. They have enticed
pronounced consideration because of their auspicious potential
for widespread application range such as battery, composites,
transistor, supercapacitor, biosensor, fuel cell, and so on. Fu
et al.[70] synthesized photoluminescent (PL) CNPs having dia-
meters in the range of 1.5–6.5 nm using raw graphite deprived
of external passivation. The PL emission spectra of obtained
NPs illustrated that the solution pH and excitation wavelength
could significantly affect the PL intensity and extreme
emission wavelength of CNP solution. With the decrease of
excitation wavelength and increase in solution pH, a blue
shift in PL emission wavelength has been observed. Gaddam
et al.[71] has reported the fabrication of uniform size graphitic
CNPs using the soot attained through camphor incineration.
The soot revealed the existence of graphite in the NPs pre-
pared. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images displayed
homogeneous size CNPs of ∼50 nm. Graphite NPs have been
prepared through mechanical high energy crushing at room
temperature with artificial neural network (ANN). ANN has
been efficiently utilized to envisage the impact of milling per-
iod on particle dimension and to estimate the milling period for
the development of NPs[72]. The XRD analysis exposed an
alteration in strain behavior of different sized graphite particles
upon heat treatment. Qian et al.[73] manufactured the hollow
graphite particles having polyhedral property by the introduc-
tion of ferrocene, metallic magnesium, and oxalic acid at 580°
C, few with octahedron-resembling shape. The hollow graphite
octahedron surface was based on concentric sp2 graphite
shells. However, sp3 hybridized bonding has been perceived
on the crystal borderline, which may act as hanging bonds
and confined defects. They claimed that the synthesized graph-
ite particles might also crystallize in diamond-identical three
dimensional properties.
Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes are basically visualized as single graphite
sheets which are rolled to shape unbroken cylinder. These are
considered as the most widely utilized kind of NPs due to their
excellent strength and good electrical conductivity. CNTs are
classified as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and
multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). MWCNT comprise
of numerous SWCNT stacked in a layered manner. The func-
tionalized CNT are evolving as innovative constituents of
nanomaterials[74]. The tactic by which the graphene is enfolded
along a honeycomb
*
graphene assembly is specified through
chiral vector C which is the outcome of an (n,m) pair of
1826 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR

FIG. 5. Types of carbon nanoparticles. Note: NPs, nanoparticles; CNTs, carbon nanotubes.

* *
integers that relates to a and a 2 graphene vectors. The prin-
ciple* construction of SWCNT from a sheet of graphene along
the C chiral vector is presented in Figure 6. According to (n,m)
integers, the are two typical SWNT construction types from a
graphene sheet. The structure (n,0) is termed ‘zigzag’ and for
n ¼ m (n,n), the structure is titled ‘armchair’. The nonstandard
third kind of CNT creation which is named ‘chiral’, is categor-
ized by an equation where n > m > 0. The chirality affects
the mechanical, electrical, optical, and additional features of
CNT[75]. Ahmad et al.[76] synthesized MWCNT by catalytic
hydrocarbon gas decomposition through chemical vapor depo-
sition technique. CNT with diameter ranging from 50 to

FIG. 6. The principle of construction of CNTs using graphene sheets along chiral vector ~
C. Note: CNTs, carbon nanotubes.
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
150 nm and a smaller amount have been obtained. It was
observed that the few parameters such as catalyst composition,
acetylene flow period, and growth temperature strongly influ-
enced the production of CNT. Journet et al.[77] presented a
review article to contribute an overall overview of whole
methods of fabrication and a description of CNT growth
procedure. Sanchez-Valencia et al.[78] converted molecular
precursors to ultrashort single capped (6,6) armchair nanotube
seeds by surface-catalyzed cyclodehydrogenation at a surface
(111) of platinum, and then elongated these to create single-
chirality and basically defect-free SWCNTs having
dimensions more than few hundred in nanometres. Golnabi[79]
presented development and research related to CNT. The pro-
gress regarding CNT structural parameters and production has
been surveyed. CNT have numerous prospective requisitions
in the area of nanomaterials such as sensors, nanoelectronic
devices, structural materials, fillers, storage materials,
gas storage containers, aerospace, automobile, and energy
industries[80].
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are innovative allotrope of carbon with poly-
gonal assembly based on sixty carbon atoms. Fullerenes are
the third extensively stable form of carbon after graphite and
diamond. C60 is the most representative and abundant form
of fullerenes with 60 atoms of carbon establishing a spherical
assembly. Kroto et al.[81] discovered C60 form in 1985 and was
specified the name “buckyball” or “buckminsterfullerene”.
Later, lower (e.g., C28 and C36) and higher (C70, C76, C78,
etc.) order fullerenes were explored. Typically, these particles
are described by means of frequent attachment points whose
surfaces can also be functionalized. The classes of fullerenes
and surface modified fullerenes mark them appropriate regard-
ing their usage in electronic, optical, biomedical, and cosmetic
applications. Klod and Dunsch[82] performed comprehensive
investigations to analyze the impact of cage size on the
dynamic properties of fullerenes. In this regard, three isomers
of high fullerene cage C2v(3)-C78, D2-C80, and D2-C76 have
been investigated regarding measurement of carbon relaxation
rate due to their dependence on temperature. The relaxation at
lower temperature was reliant to the chemical transferal ani-
sotropy difference in the carbon coop. This difference was
instigated due to symmetry changes and result in electron den-
sity polarization. Likewise, the carbon mobility was affected
due to their pyramidalization. Qiu et al.[83] reported a feasible
study of creating fullerenes (C70 and C60) through carbon rods
prepared by Chinese coal which has been considered as natural
and cheapest carbon resources. A DC arc process was used
with coal-derivative carbon rods in place of electrode
resources. The carbon bars were organized by seven common
Chinese rigid coals comprising anthracite and bituminous
coals. The results showed that all types of tested Chinese coals
could be utilized to manufacture significant fullerene
1827
quantities. It was observed that the yield of fullerenes
increased with the increase in carbon content and decreased
ash load in coal. A remarkable linear association between
volatile matter constituent and C60/C70 ratios in the Chinese
coals has also been noticed. Fullerenes may be formulated into
numerous new devices and materials. They possess wide-
ranging applications in electronics, biomaterials, medicine,
and energy generation. Lin and Lu[84] presented an overview
on the nanoassemblies, and the chemical and physical physiog-
nomies of fullerene-drug derivatives and their therapeutic
applications.
Carbon Black
Chen et al.[85] prepared CNPs through ablating a water
immersed carbon target. The nanoparticle sizes were in the
range of 1020 nm. It was described that the attained NPs were
photostable and their higher concentration introduced stronger
optical restrictive effects. Yun et al.[86] synthesized carbon
black NPs by liquid plasma procedure in benzene without
and with distilled water. The NPs displayed high charging
capability of around 1,540–1,600 mAh/g dependent on the
involved liquid. Carbon black (CB) manufactured using organic
benzene had much high specific surface area than CBs obtained
from benzene along with water, donating a higher charging
capability of 1,600 mAh/g. The discharge–charge cyclic stab-
ility (computed in 2–20 cycles) of CBs created using benzene
was considerably enhanced (58% to around 70% reversible
capability) with water inclusion. Panchompoo et al.[87] prepared
carbon black NPs to modify them with palladium NPs consum-
ing a simplistic methodology. Hu et al.[88] synthesized both
carbon nanocages (CNCs) and luminescent CNPs through ablat-
ing suspension of carbon black in poly(ethylene glycol). The
development of CNCs and luminescent CNPs was dependent
on laser power density and carbon black size as depicted in
Figure 7. The luminescent CNPs could aid to improve the
optical limiting impact of CNC suspensions.
Nanodiamonds
Nanodiamonds (NDs) are unique carbon-based nanomater-
ials with exceptional properties, for instance lattice structure,
FIG. 7. Scheme of synthesis of luminescent carbon nanoparticles.
1828 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
large surface, and distinctive optical and magnetic characteris-
tics. They have been utilized in numerous requisitions and are
also recognized as detonation diamonds or ultradispersed dia-
monds. Mochalin et al.[89] reviewed the production, properties,
structure, phase transformations, and surface chemistry of
clusters and individual NDs. The rational regulation of chemi-
cal, mechanical, optical, and electronic features of NDs
through interior doping, surface doping, and functional group
incorporation have been discussed. Moreover, wide-ranging
potential applications of these little gems have been observed.
Kulakova et al.[90] reported the assembly of chemically altered
detonated ND particles obtained through chemical and physi-
cal methods. It was revealed that the size, crystal structure,
and paramagnetic features of particles endured for the duration
of chemical amendment procedures. Nondiamond sp2 carbon
was not perceived in the particle composition. The principal
experimental confirmation for the homogeneous dissemination
of nitrogen contamination in detonation-produced ND particles
has been presented. Hu et al.[91] successfully synthesized
dispersed NDs with diameter of few nanometers, consuming
carbon black in place of carbon source. The NDs were pro-
duced through a long-pulse-width laser irradiation in water
under normal pressure and room temperature. The manufac-
tured NDs could release sturdy visible light after straight for-
ward surface passivation. Such surface-passivated NDs having
stable PL had high potential requisition in medicine and bioi-
maging. Vlasov et al.[92] showed that the isolated diamond NPs
of about 1.6 nm, encompassing merely ∼400 atoms of carbon.
These atoms were proficient of covering steady PL color
centers via silicon vacancy (SiV). Remarkably, the fluores-
cence through SiVs was steady over time and only single or
few color centers were observed per nanocrystal. SiV size-
dependent emission sustained through SiV energy level quan-
tum-chemical simulation has been observed in small sized
NDs. Their work opened the mode to inspect the chemistry
and physics of cubic molecular-sized carbon collections and
promised the requisition of ultrasmall fluorescent nonperturba-
tive NPs as indicators in sensing and microscopy.
Polymeric Nanoparticles
Polymers are macromolecules consisting of an abundant
amount of iterating units arranged in chain-resembling mol-
ecular design displaying a composition, property, and structure
multiplicity[93]. In the nanoparticle form, these molecular
chains are constrained and packed because of fewer accessible
spaces and compact polymer structure. Figure 8 shows the
presence of chains inside the particle structure.
Natural and Synthetic PNPs. The man-made macromole-
cules with repeating units are synthetic irrespective to the natu-
ral ones. The usage of natural resources of polymers can
convey numerous remunerations for innovative polymeric
nanoparticle (PNPs) systems. Natural polymers have various
beneficial features for instance biocompatibility and
FIG. 8. Structure of polymeric nanoparticles.
biodegradability. Moreover, they are frequently obtainable at
less cost and on industrial scale. Wurm and Weiss[94] pre-
sented a review summarizing various methods and sources
for the manufacture of biopolymer nanoparticle structures for
numerous applications. Chitosan has been reported as natural
polymer for the manufacture of polymeric NPs. Il’ina et al.
[95]
used an investigation to establish a relation between the
physicochemical features of chitosan hydrolysates samples,
their capacity to manufacture NPs, and their surface charge
and size. Hornig et al.[96] prepared synthetic hydrophobic
PNPs of resourceful classes by nanoprecipitation. Conse-
quently, the polymer molecules selfassembled into irregularly
molded NPs or nanospheres in the course of transition from
liquefied state to solid state. Pham et al.[97] manufactured a
synthetic poly(styrene/divinyl benzene) particle series with
diameters ranging from 100 to 500 nm to analyze their porosity
using PALS. The particles were then cautiously treated chemi-
cally by the sulfonation procedure, to upsurge their porosity.
Larger size of treated particles exhibited hydration influence
and hence a porosity increase has been observed. Hoshino et
al.[98] designed PNPs capable of neutralizing and binding bio-
macromolecular pollutant. PNPs with optimized composition
were capable of neutralizing the toxin even in a complex bio-
logical milieu. It is anticipated that this strategy will be a start-
ing point for the design of synthetic alternatives to antibodies.
Conjugated PNPs. Conjugated polymeric nanoparticles
(CPNPs) are extremely versatile nanostructures that can poss-
ibly discover applications in numerous areas for instance
photonics, nanomedicine optoelectronics, bioimaging, and bio-
sensing. The simple creation of desired properties, sizes, non-
toxicity, and biocompatibility marked CPNPs exceedingly
interesting for the above-mentioned applications[99]. The
benefits of CPNPs comprise excellent photostability, high
brightness, low cytotoxicity, versatile surface alteration and
great quantum yield. CPNPs could be implemented to provide
gene and drug, and instantaneously to observe the real-time
release mechanism because of their selfluminous features.
Moreover, CPNPs could sensitize oxygen molecules to
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
engender reactive oxygen species efficient for killing adjacent
tumor cells and bacteria. Owing to the importance and worth
of these NPs, Feng et al.[100] presented a review on the fabri-
cation methods, functionalization strategies, and properties of
CPNPs, particularly debating their biological requisitions in
drug/gene transfer targeted imaging, and biomedicine along
with outlooks and challenges. Yoon et al.[101] prepared CPNPs
by phase-segregated films of polymers and phospholipids for
biomedical requisitions. Phase separation in the films of phos-
pholipids and conjugated polymers (CP) resulted in nanoas-
semblies due to the difference in physicochemical properties
between hydrophobic polymers and polar lipid heads. The
CPNPs were produced via disassembly in aqueous media by
the penetration of water into polar region of lipid heads. In
recent times, water solvable CPNPs have attained widespread
deliberation as prospective luminous imaging probes and
therapeutic devices. Hence, Tang and Feng[102] presented
greatly luminescent CPNPs for therapy and imaging purpose.
Biodegradable PNPs. Shibata et al.[103] developed biode-
gradable PNPs, poly-(D,L-lactide-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)
by a high-pressure homogenization method. The average size
of NPs was 138.3  55.4 nm and had an average surface charge
of
13.7  4.5, as measured by dynamic light scanning (DLS)
and SEM. Lissamine-rhodamine-labeled fluorescent PLGA
NPs exhibited efficient uptake in nonimmune (HeLa cells)
and immune (H9 T cells) cells as measured by confocal
microscopy. The cells treated with NPs resulted in minimal
loss of cell viability over 28 days. Subcellular fractionation
studies demonstrated that HIV-1-infected H9 monocytic cells
treated with NPs contained significantly (p < 0.05) higher
nuclear, cytoskeleton, and membrane antiretroviral drug levels
compared to cells treated with drug solutions alone. Finally,
NPs efficiently inhibited HIV-1 infection and transduction.
The work demonstrated the efficacy of novel PLGA NPs for-
mulation for the delivery of NPs to inhibit HIV-1 replication.
Lamoudi et al.[104] utilized nanoprecipitation technique to for-
mulate reproducible size biodegradable NPs ∼1 µm. The
PLGA copolymer appeared to have major influence on the
preparation of NPs. Musyanovych et al.[105] formulated biode-
gradable monodispersed NPs of various biodegradable and
biocompatible polymers for instance poly(e-caprolactone)
(PCL), poly[(D,L-lactide)-co-glycolide] (PLGA), and poly(L-
lactide) (PLLA) by the combination of miniemulsion and
emulsion/solvent evaporation techniques. Modifications in
the outcomes of numerous polymers have been established
by means of particle size distribution and size, in addition to
degradation period. At the particle size of 80–200 nm, the
surfactant had superior impact on the particle surface relative
to the particle size. Uptake kinetics revealed that the PCL
and PLLA particles were endocytosed relatively faster than
the particles of PS.
Dendrimers. Dendrimers are monodispersed globular macro-
molecules with 3D polymeric structural design prepared from
1829
man-made polymers involving a core and numerous layers
with energetic terminal groups. These coatings are shaped by
polymer repetition, referred to as generations, with the core
as zero generation and every single layer generation as 1, 2,
3, etc. Dendrimers have greater molecular mass, well-defined
composition and very much branched design. Such molecular
structures offer various nonpharmaceutical and pharmaceutical
applications[106]. Their assembly proposes numerous advan-
tages, for example controllable and monodispersed size,
changeable surface, multivalency, functionality, an accessible
interior cavity intended for drug transfer, and water
solubility[107,108]. Zhang et al.[109] reported the production of
dendrimer-resembling polymers having high branching
operativity (1 → 8). The consequences supported a globular
conformation compact model for dendrimer-resembling
yields. Furthermore, the product chain density from the star-
resembling core was higher relative to the yields from a tri-
block linear core. The results of atomic force microscopy
(AFM) showed the flattened conformations of adopted
dendritic products and formation of lateral sphere-resembling
collections at mica substrate. Lim et al.[110] reported synthetic
objective molecules with well-demarcated surface chemistry,
spherical shape, and dimensions comparable to the virus par-
ticle sizes. The principal target was established across the
ranges of pH, concentration, solvent polarity, and temperature,
in the existence of additives. TEM, AFM, DLS, and computa-
tions revealed the size of dendrimer around 30 nm.
Lipid Nanoparticles
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs) are submicron size parti-
cles in the range of 50–1000 nm manufactured by using phy-
siologically tolerated solid lipids (lipids which are solid at
body temperature and also at ambient temperature). SLNPs
syndicate all the benefits of fat emulsions, liposomes, and
polymeric NPs[111]. The structure of SLNP is given in
Figure 9a. SLNPs have been appeared as next-generation drug
transfer systems with prospective requisitions in clinical medi-
cine, cosmetics, pharmaceutical field, research, and additional
allied sciences. Garud et al.[112] presented a review focusing on
the use of SLNPs with respect to their production method-
ology, advantages, applications, and characterization. Sharma
et al.[113] presented an overview of benefits, selectivity of
FIG. 9. Structure of (a) SLN and (b) liposomes. Note: SLN, solid lipid
nanoparticles.
1830 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
constituents, and formulation methods of SLNPs. It was
concluded that the SLNPs acted as tremendously useful
carriers in numerous scientific domains. Naguib et al.[114]
developed innovative SLNPs docetaxel (DCX) composition.
Trimyristin has been designated as a core lipid constituent,
centered on the SLNPs stability and the degree of DCX release
from SLNPs. Mehnert and Mäder[115] presented an overview
on the choice of constituents, different techniques of SLNP
manufacture and their applications. They discussed the traits
of SLNPs stability and potential of their stabilization through
spray drying and lyophilization. Distinctive attention was
rewarded to the relevance between SLNP dispersion com-
plexity and drug incorporation, which was comprised of the
occurrence of alternate colloidal assemblies (micelles, mixed
micelles, liposomes, liquid crystals, drug nanosuspensions)
and physical phase of lipid (various lipid modifications and
super cooled melts). Applicable analytical approaches were
found essential for the SLNP characterization.
Liposomes
Liposomes are nanoscale particles consisting of a liquid
inside surrounded by bilayer lipid membranes. Figure 9b gives
an illustration of the structure of liposome assembly. Lipo-
somes are amphipathic molecules with nonpolar and polar
states. The amphiphilic molecules are utilized for the fabri-
cation of such NPs. In 1960s, liposomes were revealed as
globular vesicle prepared by synthetic or natural phospholi-
pids. Liposome characteristics fluctuate significantly with lipid
structure, size, surface charge, and the preparation technique.
Moreover, the selection of bilayer constituents regulates the
‘fluidity’ or ‘rigidity’ and the bilayer charge[116]. Liposomes
are classified into three categories, based on their lamellarity
(number of bilayers) and size i.e., oligolamellar or small uni-
lamellar vesicles, large unilamellar vesicles, and multilamellar
vesicles. Owing to their structural properties and composition
variability, liposomes have been found tremendously versatile
in a number of applications such as food, cosmetics, and
pharmaceutical industrial fields. Laouini et al.[117] overre-
viewed the development and background of liposomes along
with focusing the preparation approaches containing novel
and classic scalable techniques. Moreover, liposome character-
ization systems such as zeta-potential, mean size, lamellarity,
in vitro drug release, encapsulation efficiency, lipid analysis,
and vesicles stability have been reported. Hood et al.[118]
attained nanoscale monodispersed liposomes by 3D microflui-
dic hydrodynamic focusing (3D-MHF). The produced lipo-
somes had tunable size; two factor improved polydispersity,
and a four orders of magnitude manufacture rate than former
MHF approaches. Moreover, Torchilin[119] presented a review
on recent trends in liposomes as pharmaceutical transporters.
Core–Shell Hybrid Nanoparticles
The combination of different materials to form hybrid NPs
own distinctive chemical, physical, electrical, and optical
properties making them more applicable and different com-
pared with the bulk materials. NPs have been demonstrated
as favorable multipurpose platforms and can be utilized for
various therapeutic and imaging functions. Such platforms
are manufactured by various hybrids of materials. Maximum
of core/shell-based nanostructures have been established by
combining two dissimilar materials and therefore two charac-
teristics in one structure. In this manner, the nanostructures
have been described by means of features of both shell and
core (Fig. 10) depicts the assembly of core–shell nanoparticle.
Typically, core/shell particles are spherically shaped. How-
ever, there are numerous additional conceivable kinds of
core/shell nanoconstructions centered on different core shapes.
Generally, core/shell particles could have eccentric, dense or
porous cores. Hollow nanostructures could be formed on com-
plete removal of core constituent from the assembly either by
dissolving or calcination with appropriate solvent. Likewise,
there are diverse kinds of shell, for instance dense and continu-
ous shell, particulate/discontinuous shell or porous and
continuous/particulate shell[120,121].
Organic–Inorganic Nanoparticles
Organic–inorganic NPs usually consist of an organic/
inorganic shell placed in the exterior and an inorganic/organic
core in the interior of particle. Based on the core shape, com-
position, crystallinity and size, their molecules have numerous
tunable physical features, for example fluorescence (semicon-
ductor QDs), magnetic moment (iron oxides), and optical
absorption (metallic NPs). Dyab et al.[122] achieved oil-in-
water (o/w) styrene by pickering emulsification using laponite
NPs as inorganic stabilizers. The resulting emulsions exhibited
excellent stability against drop coalescence (before polymeri-
zation) and particle coagulation (afterward polymerization).
Commonly, the amount of PS composite particles was
amplified and their particle sizes were reduced with solid
nanoparticle content which was utilized in the stabilization
of emulsion. The fact was consistent to the creation of inflex-
ible layer(s) of inorganic NPs surrounding the PS particles
FIG. 10. Structure of core–shell nanoparticles.
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE 1831

FIG. 11. Schematic process for the manufacture of polymer and carbon capsules comprising Si-CNT nanocomposite. Note: CNT, carbon nanotube.

resulting in better stability. Bae and Park[123] manufactured devices. Daigle and Claverie[127] prepared hybrid core–shell
carbon capsules comprising CNT and silicon nanoparticle NPs with inorganic nanoparticle core and organic polymer
based nanocomposite via two-step polymerization technique. shell through a two-step technique. Inorganic NPs were first
Figure 11 illustrates the formation of polymer and carbon cap- disseminated in water by means of poly(acrylic acid) through
sules comprising Si-CNT composites. Nanohybrids of silicon reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer polymeriza-
NPs and carbon nanotubes (Si-CNT) have been formed by a tion. Castrillón et al.[128] synthesized iron cobalt (FeCo)-alloy
wet-kind beads mill process. An easily removable polymer graphite-covered NPs having an average particle diameter of
through a thermal handling was polymerized over the outer <8 nm by carbon-deficient CVD technique. The higher
Si-CNT nanocomposite surface. Subsequently, additional magnetic features of FeCo-alloy particles render them useful
polymer carbonized through thermal heating was integrated candidates for their consumption as magnetic additive in
on the polymer layer surface and sphere of polymer precursor magneto-polymer composite materials. The as-arranged NPs
comprising nanohybrids of Si-CNT. The removable polymer offered chemically well-ordered ferromagnetic core at ambient
vanished in the course of carbonization, forming an interior temperature. Liu et al.[129] synthesized magnetic graphite car-
free space and the carbon precursor polymer transformed to bon spheres (MGCSs) carrying well-dispersed magnetic Fe3O4
shell carbon encapsulating residual Si-CNT nanocomposites. NPs. The carbon colloidal spheres (CCSs) with evenly distrib-
Consequently, hollow carbon capsules comprising Si-CNT uted Fe(II) and numerous hydroxyl groups have been synthe-
nanocomposites were prepared. These materials have been uti- sized by hydrothermal synchronous reaction of ferrous
lized for the improvement of anode performance in lithium ion gluconate and glucose. Then, the CCSs were transformed to
battery. Elhalawany et al.[124] prepared novel anticorrosive MGCSs by the resultant thermal treatment. Moreover, the
emulsion-kind paints using nanohybrid inorganic/organic hydroxyl groups of as-organized CCSs have been used for
particles of 1:1 composition centered on nanosilica and polya- Agþ ions adsorption.
niline (PANI). Nanosilica and PANI were manufactured by
sol–gel polymerization and chemical oxidative methods, Inorganic–Inorganic Nanoparticles
respectively. The experimental consequences discovered the Zhang et al.[130] studied the geometry-reliant optical
enhancement in both anticorrosion and basic properties of features of metal core and cuprous oxide (Cu2O) shell hybrid
the blank paint of layered films. The thermoresponsive hybrid
NPs of polymer-encapsulated silica have been fabricated by
selfassembling block copolymer into micelles and later sol–
gel mechanism in the core of micelle. Base-catalyzed sol–gel
mechanism in the core resulted in polymer-encapsulated silica
core–shell hybrid NPs. The resulted hybrid monodispersed
NPs revealed tightly grafted poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)
(PNIPAM) brushes over the surface of silica core. Grafted
PNIPAM brushes exhibited two-stage thermoresponsive col-
lapse upon heating. Zhang et al.[125] in 2003 disclosed first
report on hybrid stimuli-responsive core–shell NPs by block
copolymer selfassembling approach. However, Wu et al.[126]
in 2008 reported the development of these hybrid NPs by sur-
face-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization. Figure 12
shows a schematic illustration of thermoresponsive silica
core-based PINAM-encapsulated NPs and their response on
heating and cooling. The dual phase transition behavior of
polymer brushes over the surface of inorganic nanoparticle FIG. 12. Schematic of thermoresponsive PINAM-encapsulated silica
core could be utilized to manufacture novel nanostructured nanoparticles.
1832 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
nanoscale particles by theoretical and experimental efforts.
They demonstrated that numerous significant geometrical
constraints such as shell thickness, shell porosity, core compo-
sition, and shell crystallinity of hybrid NPs could be designed
in a controllable and precise manner by wet chemistry tactics.
The constricted regulations over the geometry of particles offer
unique chances for understanding the dimensions, electronic
properties, geometry, composition, morphology, absorption
and light scattering cross-sections, and whole extinction spec-
tral line forms of hybrid NPs. Zhang et al.[131] demonstrated
the development of a robust approach with fine-control of
numerous significant geometrical parameters of hybrid NPs
such as shell thickness, core size, and spacing between the
shell and core. It was reported that the gold–cuprous oxide
(Au–Cu2O) core–shell hybrid NPs form the optical signs of
Cu2O nanoshells and the plasmonic features of AuNPs.
Further, the improvement in the plasmonic tunability due to
dielectric features of Cu2O shells (adjacent to Au cores) has
been observed. Such optical tunability attained by fine-control
over shell and core geometries was used to optimize the beha-
vior of heteronanostructure hybrid materials or/and devices for
electronic, optoelectronic, and photonic applications. Mélinon
et al.[132] presented a review on inorganic/inorganic core/shell
structures. They debated the fundamental properties of differ-
ent sort of core/shell NPs comprising a range of heterostruc-
tures. In addition, the general concepts centered on solid
state physics were deliberated for material selectivity and
identification criteria linked to the core/shell hybrid structure.
Sinha and Jana[133] developed amine-terminated silica NPs
with a size in the range of 2–50 nm for example QDs, semicon-
ductor nanocrystals, gold nanorods, and iron oxide NPs. The
resulting mesoporous particles had size of 50–800 nm and
had a primary-amine-terminated superficial and dissimilar
morphology such as rods, isolated spheres, wires, or covalently
associated aggregates. Such mesoporous particles could be
FIG. 13. Schematic diagram of the provision of Cu3N nanoparticles intimate to hollow mesoporous silica spheres.
transmuted into various purposeful NPs for specific applica-
tions like bioimaging, water purification, and drug delivery.
QD integrated mesoporous particles were considered as
multifunctional drug transport carriers with immediate use in
imaging probes. Likewise, QDs/gold nanorod integrated
mesoporous particles were used as cellular imaging probes.
Deshmukh and Schubert[134] prepared copper oxide NPs inside
the mesoporous hollow silica spheres via adsorbing/binding
[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2þ or Cu2þ ions on the carbon sphere sur-
faces (sol–gel). The production protocol for the mesoporous
Cu3N/SiO2 spheres is shown in Figure 13. The cupric oxide
(CuO) NPs at the external hollow silica sphere surface have
been attained by thermally treating hollow spheres of copper
(II) metasilicate (CuSiO3) in air. CuSiO3 sphere nitridation
with ammonia caused Cu3N/SiO2 composites, with accumu-
lated Cu3N NPs over silica hollow spheres. Mogyorósi
et al.[135] prepared clay mineral intercalated titanium dioxide
(TiO2) NPs. They prepared TiO2 NPs having diameter of
∼5 nm through sol–gel technique. The NPs prepared were
exposed to calcination and hydrothermal treatment. Using hec-
torite clay mineral platelets, montmorillonite (MMT) and TiO2
NPs, nanocomposites have been manufactured and calcinated
under several experimental conditions. The clay mineral plate-
lets and crystallized TiO2 NPs were calcinated and heterocoa-
gulated. Calcination was observed nonessential for the
manufacture of TiO2-clay mineral nanocomposites that could
be utilized as photocatalyst. Sharma and Jeevanandam[136]
reported the synthesis of iron oxide/Ag core–shell NPs, where
iron oxide spheres worked as core and Ag-NPs acted as shell.
Thermal decomposition of silver acetate at 200°C with iron
oxide spheres in diphenyl ether resulted in the creation of
iron oxide/Ag core–shell NPs. Further, the catalytic action of
iron oxide/Ag core–shell NPs was established through the
reduction of 4-nitrophenol reduction and methylene blue in
aqueous solution. Varade et al.[137] prepared nanostructured
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
Pt/Clay nanocomposites containing well-demarcated Pt NPs
via in-situ reduction. Such NPs displayed good thermal stab-
ility, high BET superficial area, and larger catalytic action
for carbon monoxide (CO) oxidation relative to Pt/SiO2 cata-
lysts. The Pt/clay structure containing Pt NPs were restrained
between the clay atomic layers and there was catalytic activity
loss at elevated temperatures. At higher temperatures (300°C),
Pt/clay organization demonstrated notable improvement in
catalytic action. Ruhland et al.[138] demonstrated the covalent
provision of modified nickel complexes on magnetic hybrid
core–shell maghemite/silica (γ-Fe2O3/SiO2) particles by two
dissimilar approaches. The first method encountered the
hydrosilylation technique between a silane and the alkene-
replaced nickel complex. In second method, the particles have
been attached to complexes through click chemistry (copper-
catalyzed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition). In this regard,
the nickel complexes have been replaced by alkyne moieties.
Salgueiriño-Maceira et al.[139] synthesized extremely photo-
stable, magnetic and fluorescent core/shell NPs by Stöber
method in combination with layer-by-layer (LbL) procedure.
Luminescent magnetic NPs were organized through controlled
tetraethoxysilane addition to Fe3O4/γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticle dis-
persion. The particles were then consistently integrated as
cores in the monodispersed silica spheres, and the luminescent
CdTe QDs and polyelectrolytes LbL assemblage over the
silica-covered magnetite/maghemite particle surfaces. The fab-
ricated spherical particles had distinctive diameter of
220  10 nm and saturation magnetization of 1.34 emu/g at
ambient temperature along with sturdy excitonic PL. Such
NPs have the benefit of contributing a forceful platform for
the incorporation of different functionalities in a single nanos-
caled particle. Ding et al.[140] synthesized monodispersed PS/
SiO2 composite particles with core–shell assembly through
in-situ emulsion polymerization over the grafted silica nano-
particle surface. Nanosized silica has been manufactured
through Stöber technique and altered with oleic acid. The oleic
acid bonds have been covalently connected with silanol groups
on the nanosized silica surface. The mean diameters of spheres
grew from 180 to 250 nm, whereas grafted silica NPs increase
from 1.0 to 1.5 g.
Organic–Organic Nanoparticles
The hybrid core–shell lipid–polymer hybrid NPs
(CSLPHNs), which syndicate the biomimetic benefits of lipo-
somes and mechanical benefits of biodegradable polymeric
NPs, have appeared as a promising and robust transfer plat-
form. Such CSLPHNs have a biodegradable polymer based
core surrounded by a phospholipids layer(s) based shell. The
hybrid design can offer advantages for example surface
functionality, manageable particle size, good drug loading,
multiple therapeutic agent entrapment, tunable drug discharge
profile, and respectable serum stability. Hence, Mandal
et al.[141] reviewed the modern research drifts on CSLPHNs
1833
such as, advantages, classification, preparation methods,
physicochemical characteristics, immunocompatibility, surface
modifications as well as applications including cancer chemo-
therapy, gene therapeutics, and vaccines. Liao et al.[142]
analyzed the supermolecular selforganized designs in singly
polymer-placed fullerene solutions and their surface design
attained from solution spraying. The core structure was
unreacted fullerenes. It was predicted that a critical molecular
weight allowed the narrow dispersal of selforganized assem-
blies in solution. Recently, polymer captured organic NPs
enticed growing deliberation in biomedical field due to their
exceptional simplicity in fabrication, optical properties and
outstanding presentation as therapeutic and imaging agents.
The polymer captured NPs comprising fluorogens or CP, with
aggregation induced emission (AIE) features in place of core,
had revealed noteworthy of good biocompatibility, tunable
brightness, superb physical and photo stability, and potential
biodegradability. Therefore, Li and Liu[143] summarized the
modern developments in the manufacture of polymer captured
AIE fluorogen and CP NPs, comprising matrix selection,
material design, preparation methods, surface functionalization
and nanoparticle fabrication for photoacoustic and fluores-
cence imaging. The strategies to tune the nanoparticle proper-
ties (e.g., fluorescence quantum yield and size) from precise
manufacturing of core based on organic materials have been
focused. The limitations and merits of such NPs and strategies
to cover the limitations have also been highlighted along with
the perspectives and challenges for polymer captured organic
NPs. Chambon et al.[144] reported the organic core–shell NPs
by sequential solvent movements. The idea was implemented
to produce acceptor–donor NPs with frequently utilized
organic semiconductors poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)
(P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM).
Beginning from a PCBM:P3HT solution in tetrahydrofuran,
the solvent displacement with dimethyl sulfoxide triggered
the creation of P3HT core whereas the subsequent displace-
ment by means of water generated PCBM shell. Effective
quenching of P3HT PL was perceived after second solvent
displacement process, which confirmed the formation of a
well-demarcated PCBM shell surrounding P3HT core.
PROCESSING OF NANOPARTICLES
The routes for the synthesis of nanomaterials are important
to attain the preferred features. The selectivity of fabrication
method is directed by a sequence of parameters, for example,
physicochemical constraints of compound, nanoparticle
diameter, chemical composition, morphology, structure, or
environmental deliberations. Inconsequence, the manufacture
strategies to achieve NPs for particular applications have been
focused. Depending on the required features of the NPs, it is
possible to choose the fine fabrication strategy to produce
NPs with the desired size range[145].
1834 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
Processing of Inorganic Nanoparticles
The interest in the fabrication of inorganic NPs has pro-
gressively grown due to the inordinate prospects for various
applications in material science and technology. There is a
copiousness of bottom–up and top–down mechanisms which
could be utilized to manufacture inorganic NPs. The techni-
ques are distributed into five categories, such as mechanical
milling/grinding, solid, vapor, and liquid phase methods, and
their combination techniques. In recent times, much consider-
ation has been devoted towards governing the size and shape
of metallic nanostructures since all the catalytic, magnetic,
optical, and electrical properties of metal NPs are affected
by their size and shape[146].
Mechanical Grinding/Milling (Top–Down)
Top–down method is the extension of conventional techni-
ques for the manufacture of large amount of nanocrystalline
and fine powders. Such methods have been already industria-
lized in several technical areas such as hydrocarbons conver-
sion, mechanical alloying, dehalogenation, drug synthesis,
and solid amorphization. The top–down procedures typically
encompass high energy wet/dry milling through milling aids,
and generally consume milling times of several hours to
several days. Here, the induced pressure may grow the interior
tensions resulting in material transition to metastable state.
Consequently, the material might radiate energy in several
methods such as plastic deformation, fracture, amorphization,
crystal defect, radical formation, and oxidation. The result is
the surface activation and sturdy reduction in size. Milling
mechanisms are described by operative conditions (standard
temperature and pressure), and probability of large-scale fabri-
cation. Likewise, ball milling necessitates and regulates the
light instrumentation apparatus for research laboratories.
Moreover, there are several preparation parameters (milling
speed, milling time, grinding media size, controlled atmos-
phere, and ball-to-powder ratio) that can be adjusted to achieve
desired features. The techniques have advantages of compara-
tively straight forward operation, suitability in the formation of
slurries in several liquid matrices and simplicity of scalability.
Advancement has been made regarding milling equipment and
grinding media quality with diameter <0.1 mm for the manu-
facture of various metal oxide NPs. However, the top–down
methodology still has complications in proper milling of all
particles. Characteristically, the drawback is the widespread
particle size distribution indicating unmilled precursors. The
extended milling times may consequence in additional milling
contaminations[147,148].
Liquid Phase Technique (Bottom–Up)
Liquid phase methods necessitate the appropriate initiation
of material reactions such as the single organometallic precur-
sor decomposition or metal ion reduction to prevent aggre-
gation and growth of particle sizes. It is the growth and
nucleation of NPs in the presence of surfactant and additional
reaction conditions comprising temperature, concentration and
reaction time that permits the control of nanoparticle shape,
size, and properties[149]. Liquid phase developments have been
extensively used in industry for manufacturing traditional
micron-scale precipitates, and have demonstrated to be inex-
pensive for various materials. These approaches offer benefits
of control in particle shapes, stoichiometry and sizes in a spe-
cific manner, along with tractability in reaction pathways. Up
to the present time, the lowest marketable NPs have been fash-
ioned by means of liquid phase methods. Maximum of the cur-
rent advances in the methods involve the enhancement of
constancy of inherently unbalanced system using numerous
vesicles, polymers, microemulsions or gels that restrain the
particle growth[150–152]. Though, the struggles to scale-up pro-
duction somewhat fall short in attaining uniform and stable
reaction atmosphere. Owing to the agglomeration possibilities
that are inherent to liquid and vapour phase approaches, mech-
anical crushing is frequently utilized at the final stage of
production.
Vapour Phase Technique (Bottom–Up)
Vapour phase methods generate NPs by fast solidification
of vapors or liquids in gaseous environment[153]. The process
can be accomplished by approaches extending from flaming
precursors to additionally intricate plasma-based or vaporiza-
tion approaches. Particle size distribution, size and agglomer-
ation are organized by the degree of vaporization and stream of
shaped particles. Subsequently the melting down temperatures
of metallic oxides are generally tremendously high, related
metals are frequently utilized as precursors which are vapor-
ized via resistance, electric arc, electron beam or laser.
Figure 14 depicts the schematic illustration of chemical vapor
production by means of two sequential hot-wall reactors used
for nanoparticle fabrication. The two sequential reaction
regions comprising of two tubes of alumina were warmed indi-
vidually through two resistance furnaces. In the first reactor,
zirconia precursor molecules were decayed and reacted with
oxygen establishing zirconium oxide NPs. The ZrO2 particles
have been utilized as spores for heterogeneous alumina growth
in chemical vapor deposition approach, in the second reactor.
The attained powders were core/shell structure with ZrO2 core
and amorphous thin shell alumina doped zirconia particles[154].
The method is beneficial for fabricating metallic oxide NPs
with increased crystallinity and high purity, due to rarer con-
taminant sources and involvement of high temperatures. How-
ever, the process undergoes predictable trade-off between
throughput and particle quality/size. Growing manufacture
rates is problematic to regulate particle growth and to avoid
agglomerations because of insufficiency of solid medium
and high temperature functions that impedes agglomerations.
Typically, the resultant NPs in marketable production have
features of geometrical shapes, wide size distributions, high
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
FIG. 14. Schematic sketch of chemical vapor production system designed for the fabrication of nanoparticles. Note: MFC, mass flow controller.
crystallinity, and confirmation of particle sintering or
agglomerations.
Solid Phase Technique: Mechanochemical Processing
(Bottom–Up)
Mechanochemical technology consumes dry milling to
induce chemical reactions at room temperature in a ball mill.
Milling of precursor powder leads to the formation of a nanos-
cale composite structure of the starting material, which reacts
during milling or upon subsequent heat treatment to precipitate
NPs within a solid matrix. By careful regulation of the volume
ratio between NPs and salt matrix phases, the precipitated NPs
can be separated from each other by the solid matrix. The NPs
can be further heat treated in the solid matrix that prevents
them from temperature-induced agglomerations. Then, the
NPs are collected simply by selective removal of the matrix
phase[155]. The technique has advantages such as relatively
simple operation and ease to create uniform reaction environ-
ment leading to uniform size and shape of NPs. This technique
allows the formation of NPs, separated by a solid matrix
during particle growth stage, leading to the generation of
agglomeration-free NPs. However, additional processes to
remove the solid-matrix and by-product phases increase the
production cost and chances of contamination. The mechano-
chemically produced NPs are nearly spherical shapes, with
very narrow size distribution and low levels of agglomerations.
However, the size and morphology along with various
resulting nanoparticle features depend on the fabrication
route. The fact is evident from the comparison of different
fabrication routes for iron oxide nanoparticle fabrication in
Table 1[156].
1835
Processing of Organic Nanoparticles
An appropriate preparation technique cannot be separated
from the actual settlement selected in purpose of various con-
straints which must be overwhelmed to develop well-regulated
organic nanomaterials. The manufacture of organic NPs is dis-
tributed into three main approaches which are emulsion poly-
merization, precipitation and drying based methods. Figure 15
summarizes the preparation schemes of organic NPs.
Emulsion Polymerization
Among all methods encountered for the manufacture of
NPs, emulsion polymerization has been focused to attain
desired nanoparticle features for certain applications. The reac-
tants included are low water soluble monomer (e.g., styrene),
water, water-solvable initiator, and surfactant. Synthesis can
be carried out without initiator and/or surfactant, however
these are not frequent. Monomers are utilized as initials for
the purpose of polymerization since organic compounds are
macromolecular. To carry polymerization, emulsionable
monomer is a necessary requirement. A subsequent stage rap-
idly engenders organic colloids, including discrete colloidally
stable phase of particles, disseminated in continuous aqueous
phase[157]. In general, based on the nature of dispersion
medium and dispersed phase, water-in-oil (w/o) inverse emul-
sion or oil-in-water (o/w) direct emulsion can be produced.
However, complex multifaceted systems like oil-in-oil (o/o)
or different kinds of multiple emulsions (w/o/o, o/w/o, w/
o/w) are also obtainable. Polymerization based approaches
include emulsion polymerization, microemulsion polymeriza-
tion, miniemulsion polymerization, radical polymerization,
and surfactant-free polymerization. Additionally, interfacial
polymerization could be referred as much valuable technique
1836 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR

TABLE 1
Comparison of different characteristic features of the iron oxide nanoparticles fabricated through different methods[156]

Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles prepared through

Vapour
Characteristics (pyrolysis)/ Gas deposition Bulk solution Microemulsion
of iron oxide aerosol method method method Sol–gel method method
Size and size About 5–60 nm About About 10–50 nm About 20–200 nm About 4–15 nm with
distribution with broad 5–50 nm with with broad size with broad size very narrow size
distribution narrow size distribution distribution distribution
distribution
Morphology Spherical Spherical Spherical (large Spherical with Cubic or spherical
aggregates) high porosity (no aggregation)
Magnetization 10–50 emu/g with 420 emu/g 20–50 emu/g with 10–40 emu/g with 430 emu/g with
values desired super- paramagnetic super-
magnetic paramagnetic behavior paramagnetic
property behavior behavior
Advantages High production Useful for Large quantities Particles of Uniform properties
rate protective can be desired shape and also size of
coatings and synthesized and length can the nanoparticles
thin film be synthesized, can be modulated
deposition useful making
hybrid
nanoparticles
Disadvantages Large aggregates Require very Uncontrolled Product usually Surfactants are
are formed high oxidation of contains difficult to
temperatures magnetite to sol–gel matrix remove, only a
maghemite, components at small quantities of
diamagnetic their surfaces iron oxide can be
contribution synthesized

for the generation of nanocapsules. Moreover, controlled/
living radical polymerization procedure may improve the
control of polymer properties compared with traditional
polymerization methods[158].
Precipitation Methods
The precipitation methods are among the most economic,
reproducible and easiest methods to create NPs and nanospheres
consuming preformed macromolecules in preference to mono-
mers. These methods are based on the deposition of organic
material from lipophilic solution due to loss in the solublization.
The components required to attain precipitation procedures
include polymer, polymer solvent, and nonsolvent of polymer.
Numerous parameters are regulated to tune the concluding
properties of NPs such as rate of injection of organic phase into
aqueous phase, agitation, nature of polymer/solvent interactions,
and organic solvent and nonsolvent phase miscibility. The con-
centration and type of surfactants also affect the precipitation
process since they assist the stabilization of NPs particularly
valuable for storage of the suspensions for long periods. Among
all, nanoprecipitation is most widely utilized method for the
manufacture of organic nanospheres because of its reproduci-
bility, rapidity, and simplicity. Other precipitation methods
include solvent evaporation, dialysis, desolation, spreading
evaporation, emulsion solvent diffusion, fast evaporation, and
salting out procedures. However, scale up, time consumption
and elimination of polymer nonsolvent phase are major
drawbacks offered by precipitation based techniques[159].
Drying Processes
Environmental consideration has encouraged research and
investigations on the progress of procedures for nanoparticle
production eluding organic solvents. In consequence, spray
drying and supercritical fluid technology suggest the opport-
unity to design NPs deprived of main disadvantages of
conventional methods. Two processes have been established
for the manufacture of NPs through supercritical fluid utiliza-
tion[160]. However, instead of a wide range of accessible fluids
(carbon dioxide, ammonia, and n-pentane), the poor polymer
solubility in supercritical liquids leftovers a major
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
FIG. 15. Methods for the fabrication of organic nanoparticles.
disadvantage of supercritical fluid technology. In addition,
spray-drying procedure has been utilized for the transform-
ation of nanoparticle suspensions into dry powders to fabricate
organic particles. The standard deviation and size of NPs
depend on parameters including the concentration and nature
of polymer, spray net size, operating conditions (feed rate, dry-
ing temperature and flow rate of drying gas), or surfactant con-
centration. An additional advantage of drying technology is the
increased particle yield in the range of 70–95%[161]. The simi-
lar techniques have been utilized for the manufacture of hybrid
NPs along with the inclusion of additional reinforcement for
grafting purpose.
Parameters Influencing Nanoparticle Synthesis
Aqueous Solution Concentration and Solvent Effect
It has been demonstrated that the particle size is dependent
on water molar ratio (w0) of surfactant. Typically, it has been
perceived that with increasing w0, increase in particle size has
1837
been observed[162]. However, Cason et al.[163] investigated that
it is possible to attain constant size of particles by increasing
reaction period. Moreover, the production of particles was also
influenced by w0. Moreover, the nature and amount of solvent
used in the fabrication of NPs has a considerable effect on the
properties as well as the stability of colloidal dispersions[164].
The nature of aqueous phase and solvent as well as their con-
centrations are important in the fabrication of NPs, particularly
in polymeric NPs.
Reagent Concentration
Particle size has been reported to be directly reliant on the
concentration of reagent. Destrée and Nagy[165] manufactured
platinum NPs consuming different potassium tetrachloroplati-
nate (K2PtCl4) concentrations. A growth in particle diameter
from 2 to 12 nm has been attained with increasing precursor
concentration. In contrast, improvement in precursor/precipi-
tating ratio usually initiates reduction in particle size[166]. It
is assumed that the particle nucleation can be favored with ris-
ing precipitating agent concentration. The particle nucleation
further increases leading to particles with lower polydispersity
and size.
Surfactant
The use of surfactant in the fabrication process influences
the polydispersity, size distribution, structure, and size of
NPs. The increase in flexibility of surfactant indicates the
polydispersed and bigger nanoparticle sizes. Additionally,
similar reaction with different surfactants results in dissimilar
sorts of distribution[167]. Moreover, the surfactant controls the
agglomeration behavior and properties of NPs[168]. The effect
can be pronounced as (i) a complete coverage with surfactant
would impede the dispersal of growing species in the sur-
rounded solution on the external of growing particle; and (ii)
a strong surfactant absorption would inhibit the growth sites
of NPs, therefore decreasing the nanoparticle’s growth rate.
High-Energy Mechanical Sources
The use of mechanical agitation or high energy mechanical
sources such as homogenizers and sonicators break down
the large solution globules into smaller ones and assist the
transformation from macro to nanoscale. Moreover, the mor-
phology, size and size distribution of NPs is affected by the
intensity and duration of applied agitation. Further, the dur-
ation of agitation influence the crystallinity of NPs to enhance
stability[169].
Electrolyte
Some studies have revealed the probable dependency of the
nanoparticle shape upon electrolyte addition[170]. Pileni[171]
has proposed adsorption of molecule or ion over the layers
of nanocrystals. The electrolyte may disturb the particle
growth in definite directions.
1838 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES
Scaling down substances to the nanometers often promotes
the physical features different from their macroscopic counter-
parts. The significance of the importance of NPs lies in the
unique and important features like higher surface area to mass
ratio relative to other materials and particles. The behavior of
materials alters by means of their size change to nanoscale.
Since the fraction of atoms present at the material surface
becomes noteworthy. In general, NPs own dramatically differ-
ent physicochemical features than fine particles with same
composition. The smaller particle size confirms the presence
of large percentage of atoms on the surface of particles. As
depicted in Figure 1, the number of atoms present on the bulk
surface is lesser compared to total number of atoms present in
the material. The percentage of atoms on the surface becomes
dominant than the amount in interior of material. Therefore,
NPs exhibit a number of special properties relative to the bulk
materials. The surface behavior, such as surface plasmon
properties and reactivity becomes quite altered from macro
materials, along with additional physical features[172].
Surface Reactivity
Nanoparticles are more reactive per unit mass to their
surroundings and have higher capability to carry and adsorb
compounds than bulk masses (Fig. 16). The surface reactivity
instigates quantum effects and makes NPs unpredictable from
the time of instantly after generation. NPs may have modified
surface subjected to adsorbing compounds and reactants,
which could be altered with varying thermodynamic con-
ditions and compounds. Hence, NPs have a functional and
large surface having ability to adsorb, bind, and carry
additional compounds including drugs, proteins, and probes.
In other words, NPs have a surface which might be chemically
FIG. 16. Description of properties of nanoparticles.
more reactive than the counterparts[173]. As an example,
numerous metals are not more reactive as chunks. But in the
form of NPs, metals like nickel, cobalt, and iron are much
reactive that they spontaneously flare up in the air and hence
considered pyrophoric[174].
Electronic Structure and Levels
The energy band gap between conduction and valence band
is significant for the behavior of solids. Most of the properties
of materials, for instance electronic transition, intrinsic con-
ductivity or optical transitions depend on the energy gap.
The change in gap may considerably modify the material’s
chemistry and physics. Typically, the change in band gap
occurs due to the transition in dimensions of a material from
macro to nanoscale. For that reason, the nanomaterial science
and technology necessitates a band gap different from bulk
band gaps. The quantum size effect envisages the intrinsic
gap widening with the development of particle size reduction.
Figure 16 shows the widening of band gap at nanoscale. The
widening of band gap is due to the reason of presence of fewer
atoms in NPs which ensure the availability of fewer energy
levels. In the point of fact, the elimination of energy levels
results in a growth in gap between conduction and valence
bands which assigns higher energy demand for excitation of
electrons[175,176]. Therefore, much smaller particles behave
as semiconductors or even like insulators.
Quantum Confinement
The nanostructures produce quantum confinement or quan-
tum size effects due to the existence of atom-like discrete
states. The effect of quantum confinement is witnessed when
the particle size is small enough to be equivalent to the elec-
tron wavelength. The word confinement refers to a confined
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
random motion of electrons to limit their motion in certain
energy levels (discreteness) and the quantum implicates the
atomic dominion of particles. With the particle size diminution
to nanoscale, the reduction in confining dimensions has been
observed[177], the physical phenomena of intrinsic quantum
confinement rises due to fluctuation in the compactness of
electronic states. This fact can be agreed by accounting the
relationship between momentum and position in confined
and free particles[178]:
DpDx ¼

h =2
For a particle in periodic potential or an unrestricted particle,
both the crystal momentum ћk and energy might be accurately
demarcated, despite of the position which is undefined. When
the particle is confined, the energy might be precisely defined;
however, the uncertainty in position declines, such that the
momentum becomes no longer well-demarcated. The Eigen
functions of energy of the particle might be regarded as super-
position of bulk states.
Surface Plasmon Properties
A solid absorption band is observed in visible range with
metallic NPs when the electromagnetic field frequency is res-
onant with coherent motion of electrons. The described fact is
designated as surface plasmon resonance absorption and is pre-
sented in Figure 16. The interaction of nanoparticle with elec-
tric field outcomes the polarization of electrons relative to
ionic nanoparticle core. The oscillation of free electron dipoles
regarding the spherical ionic core causes surface plasmon
absorption[179]. A solid absorption band is observed at the res-
onance frequency which is a source of perceived brilliant
nanoparticle color. The position and peak intensity of surface
plasmon absorption band depends on shape and size of NPs,
medium surrounding the particles, and dielectric factor of
metals[180]. Link and El-Sayed[181] reported the decrease in
bandwidth with increasing size of NPs when the NPs were
particularly less than 20 nm. Additionally, the increase in
bandwidth was reported with increasing size of NPs
>420 nm. Moreover, the absorption coefficient was reported
linearly dependent on the nanoparticle size[182].
Hardness and Rigidity
Generally, the crystallinity influences the nanoparticle
properties such as modulus, hardness, tensile, melting point,
and stiffness since it specifies the extent of order in the
material structure. Crystallinity increases due to fewer avail-
able spaces for atomic or molecular mobility and improved
intermolecular interactions. According to literature, the nanos-
tructures are well-ordered as compared to their macroscale
counterparts[183]. More crystalline structures offer more
rigidity and hardness.
1839
Phase Stability
Particle size has been anticipated to affect the structural
properties i.e., cell parameters and lattice symmetry. Metals
and oxides have a stable and robust system with well-
demarcated crystallographic structures. Howbeit, increasing
importance of stress and surface free energy with reduced
particle size must be deliberated. The modifications in thermo-
dynamic stability related to size could induce alteration in cell
parameters or/and structural changes. In extreme circum-
stances, the nanoparticle could disappear because of interac-
tion with surroundings and large amount of surface free
energy. To attaain structural or mechanical stability, a nano-
particle must have a less amount of surface free energy. In
consequence, phases with a less stability in macroscale mate-
rials could be developed in nanostructured materials[184].
Size-induced structural transformations related to variations
in cell constraints have been perceived in the NPs of cerium
(IV) oxide (CeO2)[185] and few others.
Thermodynamic Behavior
As the molecules and atoms present on the particle surface
are influential due to the nanometric particle size, the melting
points of NPs vary relative to that of bulk materials. The atoms
on the surface participate to the thermodynamic physiog-
nomies of solids, predominantly in NPs where these atoms
define the structural transitions. The conductivity, phase tran-
sition, specific heat, magnetic susceptibility, and additional
fundamental physiognomies drastically are found to change
when the particle size transit to nanometric level. Likewise,
it is noteworthy that in addition to these characteristics, other
physical features for instance the crystallite melting points,
ionization potentials, the required pressure for rearrangement
of crystalline structure, intraatomic distances and bond ener-
gies, magnetic and optical properties essentially change in
nonmonotonic manner with the decrease in particle size[186].
Glass transition is a unique thermodynamic property of poly-
mers that fluctuates upon the transition of polymeric materials
to nanoscale. Confinement of polymers alters the local seg-
mental movement i.e., polymer chain movement which influ-
ences the glass transition temperature. The glass transition
temperature in turn influences the volume, hardness, percent
elongation-to-break Young’s modulus, refractive index, and
dielectric loss of any polymer[187–189].
MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE AND
NANOPARTICLES
Structural and material parameters of nanoscale additives
(size, shape, concentration, aspect ratio) perform significant
role to determine composite properties. The interface between
matrix and particles is of importance to attain the desired fea-
tures. Moreover, the inclusion of nanofiller usually increases
the toughness and strength of polymer based materials. The
nanoparticle dispersion in the base matrix also reveals strategic
1840 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
part to improve composite properties[190]. Here we have
reviewed PS and NPs-based materials owing to there frequent
use in the fabrication of advance composite materials.
Polystyrene/Metal NPs Composites
Inorganic constituents are conventional inexpensive compo-
nents of polymer industry. They have been extensively used as
additives to progress thermal and mechanical properties. The
NPs have been introduced to reduce internal stresses and
shrinkage in the course of manufacture and to upsurge the ther-
mal stability, thermal conductivity, flame resistance, and cost
effectiveness. Zhou et al.[191] prepared monodispersed PS–
silver (PS/Ag) composite particles by combined surface
seeding and surface reaction method. The silver shells were
obtained from swelling of silver seeds by silver ion deoxi-
dation using sodium potassium tartrate. The composite particle
size was regulated by regulating the silver shell thickness or by
appropriate selection of PS shell. It was reported that increas-
ing the surface roughness of PS/Ag particles render them
important as building units for photonic metallo-dielectric
crystals. Abdelrahman et al.[192] described the production of
metal-coded PS spheres through multiple-stage dispersion
polymerization having narrow size distribution. Dissimilar
lanthanides have been included in these spheres by blending
lanthanide salts (LnCl3) and acetoacetylethyl methacrylate or
acrylic acid liquefied in ethanol. Individual spheres were
comprised of ca. 106–108 chelated ions of lanthanide based
on concoction of elements or single element. Spherical
particles comprising different metals at dissimilar concentra-
tions were manufactured. Moderately hydrolyzed poly(N-
vinylpyrrolidone) was used as a dispersal polymerization stabi-
lizer for the synthesis of particles having –COOH group on
particle surface. As an alternative, seeded emulsion polymeri-
zation was used for grafting poly(methacrylic acid) chains at
the exterior of composite particles to arrange –COOH func-
tionality on lanthanide-coded particles. For the purpose of
obtaining better functionalization, seeded emulsion polymeri-
zation was utilized to grow polymer shell on particle surface.
An epoxide-rich poly(glycidyl methacrylate) shell allowed
superficial bioconjugation of neutravidin. Figure 17 represents
these functionalized PS/lanthanide composite particles. These
particles were favorable contenders to improve multiplexed
bioassay on lanthanide-encoded particles[193]. Tin dioxide
(SnO2) coatings are frequently used in ceramics and glasses
FIG. 17. Functionalized lanthanide-encoded polystyrene particles.
to progress optical as well as mechanical properties. Hence,
Muñoz-Espí et al.[194] reported preparation of SnO2 coverings
from aqueous dispersals of organotin/polymer hybrid NPs.
Numerous liquid organotin combinations were confined in
polymeric NPs prepared via miniemulsion polymerization.
Huge quantities of bis(tributyltin) and tetrabutyltin were effec-
tively assimilated in noncross-linked and cross-linked PS NPs
that functioned as sacrificial stencils for the coatings of tin
oxide. Cross-linked PS particles comprising bis(tributyltin)
were found particularly suitable for oxide coatings.
Polystyrene/Clay Composites
Olada and Hayasia[195] synthesized PS/clay nanocompo-
sites through in-situ emulsion and bulk polymerization
approaches. Two organically altered clays (Cloisite 30B and
Cloisite 15A) and sodium montmorillonite (Na-MMT) were
used. The resulting nanocomposites exposed enhanced thermal
stability compared to neat PS. Moreover, superior transparency
of PS/clay nanocomposite films was observed compared with
neat PS film. Fan et al.[196] studied the morphology of PS/
MMT nanocomposite. Spherical monodispersed particles with
diameter of ∼200 nm were observed by dispersing PS/MMT
powder in water. The fractured surface of PS/clay nanocompo-
site sample presented much fibril relative to neat PS surface.
Subsequently, PS/clay nanocomposite was chemically
engraved and MMT flaky particles were evenly disseminated
in the matrix. The PS/clay nanocomposite film formed by melt
pressing depicted the orientation of MMT particles parallel to
the surface. Alsewailem and Aljlil[197] utilized postconsumer
plastics including disposable cutlery, cups, plates, and diary
product containers prepared from PS to engender polymer/clay
composites for use as adsorbents in heavy metal removal from
water. The composites have been formulated through molten
state mixing of 5–10 wt% of clay with PS. Composite materi-
als of clay and virgin PS were also prepared to compare the
capability for heavy metals adsorption with recycled counter-
parts. The recycled PS-based composites showed better
adsorption proficiency relative to virgin composites. Istrate
and Chen[198] treated organoclay with a communal blower
agent (BA) and melt-processed it with polymers. The exfoli-
ation degree of clay was increased through the use of BA.
Subsequently, the resulting nanocomposites showed increase
in thermal deprivation temperature, relative to the materials
without BA. Likewise, the composites offered enhancements
in strength, stiffness, toughness, and ductility. Such property
improvements were credited to the subsistence of BA in clay
interlayers during melt compounding.
Polystyrene/Carbon Composites
Kumar et al.[199] designed composites of carbon nanofiber
(CNF)/syndiotactic polystyrene (s-PS) using melt processing
technique. The resistivity of composites decreased with the
upsurge in CNF loading. Surface modification of CNF
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
revealed better properties than those of as-obtained CNF com-
posites. Liquid crystalline polymer (LCP A950) blended with
s-PS/CNFs established improved thermal and electrical
properties. The resulting fine properties were credited to
selfreinforcing tendency of LCPs due to their inflexible rod-
resembling molecular structure. Huang et al.[200] prepared
PS/carbon black (CB) composite spheres using modified CB
through CB blending with phenol antioxidant Irganox 1330
in an internal mixer. The modified CB was homogenously
adsorbed on PS microsphere surface to form raspberry-like
morphology. The noncovalent Irganox 1330 binding on the
PS microsphere surface was observed from UV–Vis analysis
whereas the PS fluorescence was entirely quenched via
Irganox 1330 binding. Aly et al.[201] depicted the influence
of incorporating various carbon nanoparticulate (CNP) con-
tents on the mechanical features of PS composites. It was
observed that at increased CNPs percentage, the hardness
was increased and therefore the friction coefficient was found
to decrease.
Polystyrene/CNTs Composites
Rabee and Hashim[202] investigated the effects of CNT on
optical and electrical features of PS. The PS/CNT composites
were prepared by casting technique. The DC electrical conduc-
tivity was increased with the increase in weight percentage of
filler. Moreover, the dielectric loss, dielectric constant, and AC
electrical conductivity were altered with varying the CNT con-
centration and applied electrical field frequency. The optical
features explored in the wavelength range of 400–1000 nm
revealed that the extinction coefficient, refractive index,
absorption coefficient, and imaginary and real portions of
dielectric constant were enhanced with the CNT loading. Choi
et al.[203] synthesized nanocomposites with PS and MWCNT
through in-situ sonochemical bulk polymerization. The ultra-
sonication was used to expose π-bonds in MWCNT, which
in turn increased PS polymerization. Ibrahim[204] fabricated
PS–carbon nanoparticle (PS/CNPs) composites by simple cast-
ing technique. According to the results, fine conductivity at
low CNPs loadings (0.08 volume ratio), IV nonlinear charac-
teristic bends above and below percolation threshold, increase
in dielectric permittivity at high filler loading, and shift of
glass transition temperature (Tg) to higher value with high fil-
ler loading were observed. Yu et al.[205] designed MWCNT/PS
conductive composites using latex technology. MWCNTs
were first disseminated in sodium dodecyl sulfate aqueous sol-
ution through sonication and then blended with various PS
latex volumes. The composites were prepared through com-
pression molding and freeze-drying techniques. At optimum
conditions, MWCNT were found homogeneously incorporated
and well-dispersed in the matrix. Moreover, the conductive
percolation threshold was at 1.5 wt% MWCNTs content in
composites. The maximum conductivity achievement of
almost 1 S/m has been reported. Sachdev et al.[206] carried
1841
out the distribution of MWCNT in PS powder by dehydrated
state spill blending which involved the crusting of PS particles
with MWCNTs. The conductivity behavior revealed that
0.05 wt% MWCNT in matrix was noble for the purpose of
percolation threshold. The shielding efficacy was found higher
relative to the solution blending method used. SEM investiga-
tions of nanocomposites exposed a mesh/web like structure of
MWCNT-based composite.
Polystyrene/Graphite Composites
The films of graphite flake carbon-black/PS composite as
flat heaters have been found as encouraging material since they
were smarter relative to traditional heating components. In this
regard, Erol and Çelik[207] presented the characterization, pro-
duction and industrial requisitions of composite graphite flake
carbon-black-incorporated PS matrix films placed over glass-
fiber interlaced fabrics to design plane heaters. Carbon-black
and graphite flake powders have been disseminated in PS gel
and placed on glass-fiber interlaced fabrics in different weight
ratios. Partially ordered and uniform films dependent on the
percolation threshold have been achieved as flat heaters. Flat
heating of about 60°C was attained using a 24 V DC supply.
Yang et al.[208] prepared PS/graphene oxide (GO) composites
through solution mixing, and characterized their properties
and morphology. The Tg of PS/GO composites was increased
with the incorporation of GO. Furthermore, the thermal stability
and storage modulus of composites were improved relative to
PS. The PS/GO and PS composite foams have been manufac-
tured using supercritical carbon dioxide. The composite-based
foams demonstrated lesser cell size and higher cell density com-
pared with PS foam. This was due to the heterogeneous
nucleation induced by GO sheets. Xuemei and Hoa[209] obtained
core–shell PS/detonation nanographite structures by Pickering
emulsion polymerization using detonated nanographite as emul-
sifier for styrene azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN)-water pickering
emulsion stabilization. The as-fabricated products had well-
demarcated uniform 100–150 µm diameter and spherical
morphology. Park et al.[210] reported the thermal and electrical
transport of reduced graphene oxide/PS composites. The
composite materials showed 0.25 vol.% percolation threshold.
The temperature-reliant electrical conductivity followed Efros–
Shklovskii changeable series hopping conduction in the range
of 30–300 K. A 90% increase in the thermal conductivity of
composites has been observed. In addition, a linear increase in
thermal conductivity was observed in the temperature range of
150–300 K. At higher concentrations, the composites showed
stronger temperature dependency of thermal conductivity.
IMPACT ON THE PROPERTIES OF DERIVES MATERIALS
Nanoparticle-based flame retardant technology has become
increasingly significant to improve the flame resistant proper-
ties of polymers. The introduction of NPs in the matrix and
their well-blending with polymer phase cause the decrease in
1842 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
reactivity of the resulting materials with oxygen, and hence
reduce the ignition properties. These additives are merged in
the matrix polymer to surge the ignition time, to progress self-
extinguishing features, to reduce the heat discharge rate and to
inhibit the creation of flammable droplets. Such nanoparticle-
derived materials are significant to certain regulatory fire secur-
ity applications[211]. In recent times, the production and requi-
sition of flame retardant polymer/layered double hydroxide
nanocomposites have been focused[212]. The polymer matrices
incorporated with finely disseminated nanofillers, undoubtedly
paved the method for forthcoming materials conjoining ther-
momechanical and physicochemical performances along with
improved flame retardance. Further, improvement in the tribol-
ogy properties of inorganic NPs (which are disseminated in oils
like polyalphaolefins and paraffin oil) has been studied in
recent decades[213]. The deposition of inorganic NPs on the
external surfaces develops the tribological behavior of base oils
demonstrating superior wear reduction and friction characteris-
tics. The NPs distributed in ionic liquids adhere and arrange
aggregates resulting in the establishment of a particulate net-
work. Such network deliberates greater viscosity to ionic liquid
and indicates an augmentation in the mechanical behavior (or
load carrying capability) of composite lubricant. However, it
was observed that at high load concentrations, the possibility
of rapid disruption of particulate network is higher. This may
lead to increase in fluidity under shearing and permits the
NPs to improve lubrication. A possible clarification for this
behavior is associated with the formation of silica nanoparticle
network. Figure 18 shows the schematic illustration of variation
in silica nanoparticle network at high loading and rapid disrup-
tion[214]. The inorganic NPs exhibit significant behavior in the
enhancement of lubrication properties of oils. Lubricants are
utilized in several technological fields such as lubrication of
energy-generating equipments, vehicles and metal-work pro-
cesses including tons of lubricant compositions[215]. Moreover,
progresses in immobile power systems, hybrid electric vehi-
cles, and movable electronic devices request robust and com-
pact electrical energy storing resolutions. The introduction of
FIG. 18. Schematic of silica nanoparticle network formation and its disrup-
tion upon loading and shearing. Note: NPs, nanoparticles.
NPs into base matrices such as polymers to formulate dielectric
nanocomposites signifies unique and promising avenue for
robust and compact electrical energy storage resolution. Such
systems are based on combination of materials having large
permittivity, high collapse strength and energy storing capa-
bility, since energy density is directly related to permittivity
and applied electric field square. Tomer et al.[216] reported
nanocomposites based on epoxy resin and organically altered
BT BaTiO3 or MMT NPs. They concluded that the high permit-
tivity additives were critical in optimizing the energy storage
proficiency of less permittivity polymers such as epoxies.
The incorporation of NPs to the matrix may also cause
improvement in its foaming properties. Such NPs could be used
for automotive seating, acoustic absorbents, and shock-absorb-
ing resources[217]. Goren et al.[218] foamed porous PMMA and
silica/PMMA nanocomposites using silica particles of different
sizes (15 and 150 nm) and different surface modification (fluor-
oalkanes modified and bare). Furthermore, conventional poly-
mers are unstable and degrade under UV irradiation. The
inclusion of NPs could alter the behavior of such polymers. It
was observed that the mechanical features could be enhanced
to 80% and UV degradation resistance might be decreased
by half[219]. Polymer-based optical fibers have been considered
to modify the refractive index of linking optical fiber which can
be achieved by the incorporation of NPs having certain value of
refractive index to a polymer[220]. Chau et al.[221] investigated
titania incorporated hybrid films with a refractive index of
2.38. The high refractive films were optically transparent in vis-
ible region. Corrosion safety of alloys and metals is generally
attained through surface coverings that must resist against
chemical attacks and mechanical damages. Moreover, cor-
rosion safety should not be spoiled by different thermal expan-
sion coefficients of metals. Nanoparticle-incorporated
composites have better abrasion and scratch resistance, because
of their developed hardness in combination with enhanced elas-
tic modulus. Hameed et al.[222] the presented few preliminary
studies on the corrosion safety performance of nanocomposites
which declares an evidence of nanoparticle impact on
the resulting corrosion safety of nanocomposites. The incorpor-
ation of NPs in suitable materials increases the sensitivity and
response time of composite materials, hence, providing nano-
particle-derived sensing materials. Kong et al.[223] established
individual SWNTs-based chemical sensors. It was observed
that electrical resistance of semiconducting SWNT altered
affectedly upon contact with molecules of gas for instance
nitrogen dioxide or ammonia gas. Hence, the inclusion of
NPs with favorable materials influences the material’s proper-
ties and results in materials with a blend of fine properties.
RECENT TRENDS AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF
NANOPARTICLE-BASED HYBRID MATERIALS
With the progress of nanostructured materials and
nanotechnology, primary research goal is to reach
 MATERIALS DERIVED FROM POLYSTYRENE
multifunctionality and advanced properties, so as to attain
novel applications and better performances. Certainly, this
has directed to the innovation of materials and progress of
novel strategies in processing and fabrication of required
nanostructures.
Zhang et al.[224] synthesized well-demarcated hybrid spheri-
cal PS/Ag materials using L-ascorbic acid as capping agent as
well as reducing agent. The Ag-NPs have been covered at the
beads of poly(styrene-co-sulfonic acid) by in situ reduction
technique. The outcomes specified that the electric charge of
polymer and reducing agent had imperative impact on the sil-
ver nanoparticle deposition. The hybrid PS/Ag materials were
implanted with the methylene blue reporter molecule and the
intensity of signal of the surface-enhanced Raman scattering
(SERS) labels could be extremely increased. Consequently,
the hybrid PS/Ag SERS labels can deliver exceptional signal
averaging designed for potential quantitative investigations,
which were utilized for SERS bioassays study and SERS sub-
strate designing. Zhang et al.[225] synthesized monodispersed
and sphere-shaped hybrid copper nanoparticle-covered poly
(styrene-co-sulfonic acid) (Cu/PS) nanomaterials. The results
exposed that the Cu/PS-3 hybrid material-based spheres of
PS and Cu NPs had the mean diameter of ca. 120 and
10 nm, respectively. Furthermore, the Cu/PS-3 hybrid
exhibited exceptional antibacterial features, for instance
comparatively less minimal inhibitory concentration against
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Zhao et al.[226]
demonstrated the production of hierarchical stimuli-responsive
assemblies of frequently obtainable NPs by the combination of
block copolymers and small molecules. Nanoparticle organiza-
tion into 1-, 2- and 3D arrangements with regulated interparti-
cle ordering and separation has been attained without chemical
alteration of either the block copolymers or NPs. Nanohybrids
responsive to light and heat were validated, where spatial dis-
semination of NPs could be altered by light or heat exposure,
or by varying the local surroundings. Wang et al.[227] reported
the assemblage of thermosensitive polymeric nanoparticles
(PNPs) over modified nanosheets of GO to generate innovative
hybrids of PNP–GO for drug transport. Thermosensitive PNPs
having a mean diameter of around 50  12 nm manufactured
by free radical polymerization method. The nanosheets of
GO were noncovalently altered by means of a bifunctional lin-
ker to deliver responsive locations for the PNPs binding.
Lastly, hybrids of GO–PNP were efficaciously manufactured
through the covalent interaction assisted assemblage of PNPs
over GO nanosheets. It is expected that the new hybrid
material based on GO and PNPs will have great potential for
in vivo applications such as to kill target cancer cells by modi-
fication with specific antibodies. It was anticipated that the
hybrid material centered on PNPs and GO can be used to
eradicate target cells of cancer by altering with precise anti-
bodies. Yu et al.[228] presented the successful implementation
of graphene/vinyl polymer nanocomposites for protection
against corrosion and improved gas barrier behavior. The as-
1843
manufactured nanocomposites exhibited superior anticorrosion
features relative to clean PS. The efficiency of corrosion pro-
tection augmented from 37.90 to 99.53% due to the introduc-
tion of 2 wt% of amended GO in PS matrix. In addition, the
mechanical properties and thermal stability was significantly
developed relative to neat PS. The storage modulus amplified
from 1808.76 to 2802.36 MPa and the thermal decomposition
temperature (Td) has been enhanced from 298 to 372°C.
Malhat and coworkers [229] reported titania nanowire and PS
nanocomposites which could be useful for packaging purpose
and principally in water filters. PS nanocomposites modified
with TiO2 nanowires (NWs) were used to eliminate organo-
chlorine pesticide (OCPs) deposits from polluted water. It
was reported that the virgin TiO2 NWs had deprived affinity
for OCPs residue removal (8.82 to 70%), while PS/TiO2-
NWs nanocomposites were influential material for eliminating
OCPs residues (61.76 to 98.64%) because of the alteration of
TiO2 NWs from hydrophilic to hydrophobic assembly.
Hybrid NPs have capability to syndicate the properties of
integrated constituents to deliver innovative materials with
unique and enhanced properties[230]. Thin surface coating on
particles have been observed to amend their properties and
functionalities, for instance, catalytic activity, chemical reac-
tivity, thermal stability, dispensability, or magnetic, electronic,
and optical properties. Such hybrid structures were principally
recognized in the late 1980s. Since then, such materials have
been well-established by scientists and their use has been pro-
longed to nearly all zones of engineering and science[120].
Hybrid NPs have been established in numerous technological
arenas from catalysis and coatings to extremely desired
applications comprising biomedicine, optoelectronics, biotech-
nology, optics, chemistry, electronics, and energy storage.
Moreover, PS has outstanding physicochemical features. As
a result, PS can be used for manufacture treads in tires. With
the addition of silicon carbide in PS, a strong bonding is
developed between PS and silicon. This bonding can assist
to withstand heat and high load. Since silicon carbide have
melting point of about 2827°C, it can carry high heat energy.
Hence the PS based materials could be utilized instead of
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) for tire tread purpose[231].
The exceptional properties and structure of carbon nano-
materials have enabled their potential part in field-emission
displays, nano electronic devices, transistors, diodes, sensors,
artificial muscles, composite polymers, mechanical reinforce-
ments, hydrogen storages, and capacitors. As an example,
the CNTs application to increase biofuel yields is considered.
CNTs have gained much deliberation since 1991 due to
remarkable optical, mechanical, and electronic features.
Nevertheless, carbon nanostructures are not restricted to
CNTs. In consequence, the usage of carbon-based NPs and
their derived materials in molecular electronics, nanoelectro-
mechanic devices, sensoring, field-emission displays,
composite materials, and energy storage are constantly
increasing[69]. Next generation solar thermal collectors require
1844 A. NASIR AND A. KAUSAR
operational fluid with higher thermal stability as well as good
heat storage capability to decrease its functional cost. Ionic
liquids (ILs) have been deliberated as potential functioning
fluids for next generation solar collectors due to appropriate
thermophysical features. At present, nanoparticle enhanced
ionic liquids (NEILs) is a category of nanofluids that could
further enhance the thermophysical behavior of ILs. NEILs
have been proved advantageous over basic ILs in heat transfer
capacity and heat storage performance. NEILs laid the basis
for upcoming investigations to evaluate them as a prospective
functional fluid for next generation solar collectors[232]. To the
end, the morphology, size, and structure control of NPs are still
capitulated to grow novel nanoparticle based functional nano-
materials in future. An improved fundamental awareness of the
mechanisms and processes regulating the synthesis of particles
should be focused. Both the preparation methods and techno-
logical facets should be simultaneously improved to produce
a range of materials for various purposes.
CONCLUSION
Nanoparticles offered the outlook of prospective materials
with exceptional structure and properties. Depending upon
the type of material and shape of NPs, they are divided into
different categories such as inorganic, organic, and hybrid
core–shell NPs. The transition from macro to nanostructures
presented distinctive features in NPs. The increased surface
area and quantum confinement of NPs increased the interac-
tion and reactivity with the surroundings as well as rigidity
and stability of the designed nanostructures. Moreover,
additional physical and chemical properties of NPs such as
thermodynamic behavior and optical properties were also
enhanced at nanoscale. The attainment of required properties
is associated with the preparation method used. In this regard,
the methods used for the fabrication of NPs have been over-
viewed. NPs and their derived materials are prospective of
inventive nanodevices for various applications. The blend of
the characteristics of NPs and matrix revealed efficient compo-
sites more promising than the macroscale constituents. Nano-
particle derived materials may lead to development in
proficiencies across a range of applications and innovations
in nanotechnology.
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