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Physics Proposal (Vidhyashram International School)

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2022-2023

PHYSICS
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

Name Mohit Prasad

Class XII A
Roll no. 18

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mohit prasad studying in class XII-
A of Bhartiya vidya bhavan has satisfactorily
completed his physics investigatory project under the
guidance of Mr. Manish Kumawat (physics teacher) during
the year 2022-2023.

……………………………………… …………………………………………

Signature of External Examiner Signature of physics teacher

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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I would take this opportunity to express my sincere

thanks and gratitude to my physics teacher Mr. Mukesh
Kumawat for his invaluable guidance, constant
encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic
attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained
my efforts at all stages of this project work. His valuable
advice and suggestions for the corrections, modifications
and improvement did enhance the perfection in
performing my job well.

INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Experiment

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I. Theory
II. Apparatus required
III. Procedure
IV. Observation
V. Conclusion
VI. Precautions
3. Reference

AIM OF THE PROJECT

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TO LIGHT AN LED LAMP USING A

THERMISTOR (temperature sensor)

THERMISTOR
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is
dependent on temperature, more so than in standard
resistors. The word is the mix of thermal and resistor.
Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiter,
temperature sensors (NTC type typically), self-resetting
overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating
elements.

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An NTC Thermistor Themistor symbol for

circiuit diagram.
d

HISTORY

The first NTC thermistor was discovered in 1833

by Michael Faraday, who reported on the semiconducting
behavior of silver sulfide.
Faraday noticed that the resistance of silversulfide
decreased dramatically as temperature increased. (This
was also the first documented observation of a
semiconducting material.)

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Because early thermistors were difficult to produce and

applications for the technology were limited, commercial
production of thermistors did not begin until the 1930s.
A commercially viable thermistor was invented
by Samuel Ruben in 1930.

THEORY

BASIC CLASSIFICATION AND WORKING OF A

THERMISTOR

Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the

relationship between resistance and temperature
is linear, then:

where
, change in resistance
, change in temperature
, first-order temperature coefficient of
resistance

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Thermistors can be classified into two types,

depending on the classification of .
If is positive, the resistance increases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called a
positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistor, or posistor.
If is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called
a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor.
ADVANTAGES OF USING A THERMISTOR

Thermistors have some benefits over other kinds of

temperature sensors such as analog output chips
(LM35/TMP36 ) or digital temperature sensor chips
(DS18B20) or thermocouples.

 First off, they are much much cheaper than all

the above! A bare 5% thermistor is only 10
cents in bulk.
 They are also much easier to waterproof since
its just a resistor.
 They work at any voltage (digital sensors
require 3 or 5V logic).

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 Compared to a thermocouple, they don't

require an amplifier to read the minute
voltages - you can use any microcontroller to
read a thermistor.
 They can also be incredibly accurate for the
price. For example, the 10K 1% thermistor in the
shop is good for measuring with ±0.25°C
accuracy! (Assuming you have an accurate
enough analog converter)
 They are difficult to break or damage - they
are much simpler and more reliable

APPLICATIONS

PTC Thermistor

 As heater in automotive industry to provide

additional heat inside cabin with diesel engine or
to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before
engine injection.
 In temperature
compensated synthesizer voltage controlled
oscillators.[7]
 In lithium battery protection circuits.[8]
 In an electrically actuated Wax motor to provide
the heat necessary to expand the wax.

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A C831 PTC thermistor

NTC Thermistor

 As resistance thermometers in low-

temperature measurements of the order of
10 K.
 As sensors in automotive applications to
monitor things like coolant or oil
temperature inside the engine, and provide
data to the ECU and to the dashboard.
 To monitor the temperature of an incubator.

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 Thermistors are also commonly used in

modern digital thermostats and to monitor
the temperature of battery packs while
charging.
 Thermistors are often used in the hot ends of 3D
printers; they monitor the heat produced and
allow the printer's control circuitry to keep a
constant temperature for melting the plastic
filament.
 In the Food Handling and Processing
industry, especially for food storage systems
and food preparation. Maintaining the correct
temperature is critical to prevent food
borne illness.

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SOME NTC THERMISTORS

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CONDUCTION MODEL

NTC

Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc,

rod, plate, bead or cast chip
of semiconducting material such
as sintered metal oxides.
They work because raising the temperature of a
semiconductor increases the number of
active charge carriers - it promotes them into
the conduction band. The more charge carriers that
are available, the more current a material can
conduct. In certain materials like ferric oxide (Fe 2O3)
with titanium (Ti) doping an n-type semiconductor is
formed and the charge carriers are electrons.
In materials such as nickel oxide (NiO) with lithium
(Li) doping a p-type semiconductor is created
where holes are the charge carriers.[4]

PTC

Most PTC thermistors are made from doped

polycrystalline ceramic (containing barium

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titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds) which have

the property that that their resistance rises suddenly
at a certain critical temperature.
Barium titanate is ferroelectric and its dielectric
constant varies with temperature.
Below the Curie point temperature, the
high dielectric constant prevents the
formation of potential barriers between the
crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this
region the device has a small negative temperature
coefficient.
At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric
constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation
of potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the
resistance increases sharply with temperature.
Working

NTC Thermistor
In NTC thermistor, when the temperature
increases, resistance decreases. Conversely, when
temperature decreases, resistance increases. Thus
this type of thermistor is used when we want to
increase the current in the circuit as the
temperature is increased. example: fire alarm.

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PTC Themistor
In PTC thermistor when the temperature increases
above some threshold value, resistance increases
drastically.
This type of thermistor is required when we want to
stop the flow current when temperature is high.
Example: Automatic cutoff system in electric
geysers.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. A breadboard
2. A thermistor(NTC)
3. Two resistors
4. A transistor
5. An LED
6. Few connecting wires

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Procedure

The connections are made such that one

leg of the thermistor is connected to the base
of the transistor
and its other leg is connected to Vcc(positive/hig
h voltage). The emitter of the transistor
and one end of the base resistor are grounded
(negative/low voltage).

When the surface of the thermistor is exposed to

heat, the LED starts glowing. The LED turns OFF
the moment the
temperature of the thermistor falls
below the threshold value.

The circuit is designed such that the resistance

of the thermistor is inversely proportional to
the base voltage. D
OBSERVATION
The thermistor used is a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) resistor.

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The reason LED glows is that

when the thermistor is heated, its
resistance decreases due to which the base
voltage increases and point comes when the
base-‐emitter junction is forward biased.

As a result the transistor

turns on and an output current flows from its coll
ector to the emitter, making the LED glow.

CONCLUSION

1. The current flowing in the circuit is

directly proportional to the temperature of
the surrounding because we have used an
NTC thermistor in the circuit where the
resistance of thermistor is inversely
proportional to the surrounding temperature
in which the thermistor is kept.

2. Increase in base voltage results in the

glow of LED. To increase the base voltage we
need to use a variable resistor which can

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forward bias the base-emitter junction of the

transistor to initiate the flow of collector
current which makes LED glow. Thus we use
NTC thermistor to provide variable
resistance.
PRECAUTIONS

1. All the circuitry connections should be tight.

2.While heating the thermistor with a matchstick
or a lighter make sure that it is not too close to
the sensor.
3.Heating of the sensor should not take place for
a long time.

REFERENCE

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermistor

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2. Google images

3. https://in.answers.yahoo.com/

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INTRODUCTION

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EXPERIMENT

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